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Secrets Jeremy Bernstein
INFERENCE / Vol. 6, No. 1 Secrets Jeremy Bernstein Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the decided to found a rival weapons laboratory. Even if Teller United States had offered me a job, I doubt that I would have accepted.3 by Alex Wellerstein After obtaining my degree, I was offered a job that University of Chicago Press, 528 pp., $35.00. would keep me in Cambridge for at least another year. One year became two and at the end of my second year I was uclear weapons have been shrouded in secrecy accepted at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. from the very beginning. After plutonium was It was around this time that the chairman of the physics discovered at the University of California in department at Harvard, Kenneth Bainbridge, came to me NDecember 1940, researchers led by Glenn Seaborg submit- with an offer. Bainbridge had been an important figure at ted a pair of letters to the Physical Review. The details of Los Alamos during the war. Robert Oppenheimer had put their discovery were withheld from publication until after him in charge of the site in New Mexico where the Trinity the war.1 Once the project to make a nuclear weapon got test had taken place.4 Bainbridge told me that the labora- underway, secrecy became a very serious matter indeed. tory was offering summer jobs to young PhDs and asked The story of these efforts and how they evolved after the if I was interested. I was very interested. Los Alamos had war is the subject of Alex Wellerstein’s Restricted Data: an almost mystical significance for me due to its history The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States. -
Current & Future Uranium Enrichment Technologies
The History of the Gas Centrifuge and Its Role in Nuclear Proliferation Houston Wood, Professor Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering University of Virginia Presented at Wilson Center Washington, D.C. January 20, 2010 Early Days • Isotopes were discovered in early 1900’s. • Centrifuge separation of isotopes first suggested by Lindemann and Aston (1919) • Chapman, Mulliken, Harkens and others tried unsuccessful experiments. • First successful experiments at UVA in 1934 by Prof. Jesse Beams with isotopes of Chlorine. • Attempts to use centrifuges in Manhattan project were unsuccessful. 20 January 2010 Houston Wood Professor Jesse W. Beams University of Virginia 1898 - 1977 20 January 2010 Houston Wood Early Days at UVA • Work on centrifuges during Manhattan project had a number of failures. • Project was terminated. • Concern over potential competition from German centrifuges led AEC to restart work at UVA in 1955 under guidance of A.R. Kulthau. 20 January 2010 Houston Wood Meanwhile in Europe • German research was being led by Konrad Beyerle in Göttingen and Wilhelm Groth at University of Bonn • Research in the Netherlands was being directed by Jacob Kistemaker. 20 January 2010 Houston Wood USSR • At the end of WWII, Soviets took many POWs from Germany. • They started effort to develop nuclear weapons. • Organization at Sinop: – Von Ardenne – Electromagnetic Separation – Thiessen – Gaseous Diffusion – Steenbeck Group – Included Centrifuge 20 January 2010 Houston Wood USSR (cont’d) • Competition between gaseous diffusion and gas centrifuge. • Reputed problems with GD enriching to weapons grade level. • Centrifuge considered for “topping off.” • Competition for long rotor vs. short rotor. • Steenbeck group transferred from Sinop to Kirov plant in Leningrad (~1951). -
USAF Counterproliferation Center CPC Outreach Journal #560
USAF COUNTERPROLIFERATION CENTER CPC OUTREACH JOURNAL Maxwell AFB, Alabama Issue No. 560, 12 March 2007 Articles & Other Documents: Air Force begins giving mandatory anthrax shots in U.S. And Iran Have Been Talking, Quietly Korea U.N. Nuclear Agency Curtails Technical Assistance To Nuclear Weapons Rarely Needed, General Says Iran Defector's Intel Trove Talks On Payments From Iran Founder Where Those Reactors And Centrifuges Came From Iran's President Wants To Tell Security Council Of Nuclear Aims THE UNTHINKABLE Can the United States be made safe from nuclear terrorism? Welcome to the CPC Outreach Journal. As part of USAF Counterproliferation Center’s mission to counter weapons of mass destruction through education and research, we’re providing our government and civilian community a source for timely counterproliferation information. This information includes articles, papers and other documents addressing issues pertinent to US military response options for dealing with nuclear, biological and chemical threats and attacks. It’s our hope this information resource will help enhance your counterproliferation issue awareness. Established in 1998, the USAF/CPC provides education and research to present and future leaders of the Air Force, as well as to members of other branches of the armed services and Department of Defense. Our purpose is to help those agencies better prepare to counter the threat from weapons of mass destruction. Please feel free to visit our web site at http://cpc.au.af.mil/ for in-depth information and specific points of contact. Please direct any questions or comments on CPC Outreach Journal to Jo Ann Eddy, CPC Outreach Editor, at (334) 953-7538 or DSN 493-7538. -
The Russian-A(Merican) Bomb: the Role of Espionage in the Soviet Atomic Bomb Project
J. Undergrad. Sci. 3: 103-108 (Summer 1996) History of Science The Russian-A(merican) Bomb: The Role of Espionage in the Soviet Atomic Bomb Project MICHAEL I. SCHWARTZ physicists and project coordinators ought to be analyzed so as to achieve an understanding of the project itself, and given the circumstances and problems of the project, just how Introduction successful those scientists could have been. Third and fi- nally, the role that espionage played will be analyzed, in- There was no “Russian” atomic bomb. There only vestigating the various pieces of information handed over was an American one, masterfully discovered by by Soviet spies and its overall usefulness and contribution Soviet spies.”1 to the bomb project. This claim echoes a new theme in Russia regarding Soviet Nuclear Physics—Pre-World War II the Soviet atomic bomb project that has arisen since the democratic revolution of the 1990s. The release of the KGB As aforementioned, Paul Josephson believes that by (Commissariat for State Security) documents regarding the the eve of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, Soviet sci- role that espionage played in the Soviet atomic bomb project entists had the technical capability to embark upon an atom- has raised new questions about one of the most remark- ics weapons program. He cites the significant contributions able and rapid scientific developments in history. Despite made by Soviet physicists to the growing international study both the advanced state of Soviet nuclear physics in the of the nucleus, including the 1932 splitting of the lithium atom years leading up to World War II and reported scientific by proton bombardment,7 Igor Kurchatov’s 1935 discovery achievements of the actual Soviet atomic bomb project, of the isomerism of artificially radioactive atoms, and the strong evidence will be provided that suggests that the So- fact that L. -
Chapter 6 the Aftermath of the Cambridge-Vienna Controversy: Radioactivity and Politics in Vienna in the 1930S
Trafficking Materials and Maria Rentetzi Gendered Experimental Practices Chapter 6 The Aftermath of the Cambridge-Vienna Controversy: Radioactivity and Politics in Vienna in the 1930s Consequences of the Cambridge-Vienna episode ranged from the entrance of other 1 research centers into the field as the study of the atomic nucleus became a promising area of scientific investigation to the development of new experimental methods. As Jeff Hughes describes, three key groups turned to the study of atomic nucleus. Gerhard Hoffman and his student Heinz Pose studied artificial disintegration at the Physics Institute of the University of Halle using a polonium source sent by Meyer.1 In Paris, Maurice de Broglie turned his well-equipped laboratory for x-ray research into a center for radioactivity studies and Madame Curie started to accumulate polonium for research on artificial disintegration. The need to replace the scintillation counters with a more reliable technique also 2 led to the extensive use of the cloud chamber in Cambridge.2 Simultaneously, the development of electric counting methods for measuring alpha particles in Rutherford's laboratory secured quantitative investigations and prompted Stetter and Schmidt from the Vienna Institute to focus on the valve amplifier technique.3 Essential for the work in both the Cambridge and the Vienna laboratories was the use of polonium as a strong source of alpha particles for those methods as an alternative to the scintillation technique. Besides serving as a place for scientific production, the laboratory was definitely 3 also a space for work where tasks were labeled as skilled and unskilled and positions were divided to those paid monthly and those supported by grant money or by research fellowships. -
Jagd Auf Die Klügsten Köpfe
1 DEUTSCHLANDFUNK Redaktion Hintergrund Kultur / Hörspiel Redaktion: Ulrike Bajohr Dossier Jagd auf die klügsten Köpfe. Intellektuelle Zwangsarbeit deutscher Wissenschaftler in der Sowjetunion. Ein Feature von Agnes Steinbauer 12:30-13:15 Sprecherin: An- und Absage/Text: Edda Fischer 13:10-13:45 Sprecher 1: Zitate, Biografien Thomas Lang Sprecher 2: An- und Absage/Zwischentitel/ ov russisch: Lars Schmidtke (HSP) Produktion: 01. /02 August 2011 ab 12:30 Studio: H 8.1 Urheberrechtlicher Hinweis Dieses Manuskript ist urheberrechtlich geschützt und darf vom Empfänger ausschließlich zu rein privaten Zwecken genutzt werden. Die Vervielfältigung, Verbreitung oder sonstige Nutzung, die über den in §§ 44a bis 63a Urheberrechtsgesetz geregelten Umfang hinausgeht, ist unzulässig. © - unkorrigiertes Exemplar - Sendung: Freitag, d. 05.August 2011, 19.15 – 2 01aFilmton russisches Fernsehen) Beginn bei ca 15“... Peenemünde.... Wernher von Braun.... nach ca 12“(10“) verblenden mit Filmton 03a 03a 0-Ton Boris Tschertok (russ./ Sprecher 2OV ) Im Oktober 1946 wurde beschlossen, über Nacht gleichzeitig alle nützlichen deutschen Mitarbeiter mit ihren Familien und allem, was sie mitnehmen wollten, in die UdSSR zu transportieren, unabhängig von ihrem Einverständnis. Filmton 01a hoch auf Stichwort: Hitler....V2 ... bolschoi zaschtschitny zel darauf: 03 0-Ton Karlsch (Wirtschaftshistoriker): 15“ So können wir sagen, dass bis zu 90 Prozent der Wissenschaftler und Ingenieure, die in die Sowjetunion kamen, nicht freiwillig dort waren, sondern sie hatten keine Chance dem sowjetischen Anliegen auszuweichen. Filmton 01a bei Detonation hoch und weg Ansage: Jagd auf die klügsten Köpfe. Intellektuelle Zwangsarbeit deutscher Wissenschaftler in der Sowjetunion. Ein Feature von Agnes Steinbauer 3 04 0-Ton Helmut Wolff 57“ Am 22.Oktober frühmorgens um vier klopfte es recht heftig an die Tür, und vor der Wohnungstür stand ein sowjetischer Offizier mit Dolmetscherin, rechts und links begleitet von zwei sowjetischen Soldaten mit MPs im Anschlag. -
Luise Holzapfel
Please take notice of: (c)Beneke. Don't quote without permission. Luise Holzapfel (14.03.1900 Höxter/Weser - 21.09.1963 Berlin) Dozentin der Chemie, sowie zur Geschichte der „klingenden“ Gele (ringing gels) und der Gelkristallisation (Juni 2005) Klaus Beneke Institut für Anorganische Chemie der Christian-Albrechts-Universität D-24098 Kiel [email protected] 2 Luise Holzapfel (14.03.1900 Höxter/Weser - 21.09.1963 Berlin) Dozentin der Chemie, sowie zur Geschichte der „klingenden“ Gele (ringing gels) und der Gelkristallisation Luise Holzapfel wurde am 14. März 1900 in Höxter an der Weser geboren. Ihr Vater Wilhelm Holzapfel (1859 - 1922) war Geheimer Oberjustizrat, einer der Großväter war Kreisrichter. Ihre Mutter Elsa (geb. Schmidt; geboren 1869) war Hausfrau. Es bedeutete für die Familie, da sie gut begütert war, keine Schwierigkeit der Tochter eine angemessene höhere Mädchenschulbildung zu finanzieren. Luise Holzapfel ging neun Jahre auf das Privatlyzeum Kirstein in Charlot- tenburg, wo sie das Reifezeugnis erhielt. Von 1916 bis 1918 besuchte sie das Groß- herzogliche Viktoriapensionat Karlsruhe in Baden. Luise Holzapfel Von 1918 bis 1919 arbeitete Luise Holzapfel im Kriegspresseamt der Obersten Heeresleitung im Archiv der Abteilung für fremde Presse und begann danach ein Musikstudium das sie 1922 beendete. Danach arbeitete sie bis 1924 in der Legationskasse des Auswärtigen Amtes. Die Jahre 1924 bis 1927 verbrachte Luise Holzapfel zu Hause im Haushalt, die Umstände sind nicht bekannt (CAUER, 1963; VOGT, 1999; VOGT, 2000). In der Zeit von 1928 bis 1934 arbeitete Luise Holzapfel in der Grundstück- und Vermögensverwaltung der Wollank´schen Familienstiftung. In dieser Zeit reifte wohl der der Gedanke Naturwissenschaften zu studieren und dazu besuchte sie nebenher das 3 Abendgymnasium. -
\.J ,. John an Mccone/ , ,I;' I Chai7;>Man ' Genei'm A, R
REDACTED COpy Conglreu of the United Statea Joint Committ&:t, on Atomic Ener,>gy Full Committee -=- ,....-'".~_. Meeting No" Time; 10:00 a.tIl> pu.,ce: Room FQ88.• the Capitol Date: Auguat 30. 1960 PURPOSE WITNESSES. AEC \.J ,. , ,I;' John An McCone/i Chai7;>man ' GeneI'M A, R. ~edecke, Gene>l>'al 1'.![anagel' Geol>' ge F. Quinn, DiX'ectOl:'. Div. 0% Plfoduetion Charle.lI L.Marllhall. Dil"?edol:', Di,'" of Clsasification D1:. :?aul McDaniel, pUector, Div, of Relleal:'ch I:lJ:'. (;. L. Rogolla, Oiv.l')f Re8eOlS.d~ Ino ¢eorge A, Kolatlld, Chief, PIWF1.ell and Mathematics Blranch; Div. of Rel!iIlall',ch , ., , I / S&ate 0!:Ral:t.m'!~ / Chul!lll Sullivan /) EXECUTIVE SESSION MEETING NO. 86-2-49 TUESDAY, AUGUST JO, 1960 Joint Committee on Atomic Energy Congress of the United States Washington, D. C. The Joint Committee on Atomic Energy met, pursuant to call, at 10:15 p.m., in the Committee Room, the Capitol, Honorable Clinton p. Anderson (Chairman) presiding. Present were: Senators Clinton p. Anderson (presiding), John O. Pastore, Albert Gore, Bourke B. Hickenlooper and Wallace Bennett; Representatives Chet Holifield, Melvin Price, James E. Van Zandt, Craig Hosmer and William Bates. Committee Consultants present: Captain Edward J. Bauser, USN, and Lt. Colonel Richard T. Lunger. Committee staff present: James T. Ramey, Executive Director, John T. Conway, David R. Toll, Carey Brewer, George T. Murphy, Jr., and Kenneth MacAlpine. Representatives of the Atomic Energy Commission: Honorable John A. McCone, Chairman, Honorable Robert E. Wilson and Hooorable Loren Olson, Commissioners, General A. R. Luedecke, General Manager, George F. -
How the Gas Centrifuge Changed the Quest for Nuclear Weapons
7KH(QGRI0DQKDWWDQ+RZWKH*DV&HQWULIXJH&KDQJHG WKH4XHVWIRU1XFOHDU:HDSRQV 56FRWW.HPS Technology and Culture, Volume 53, Number 2, April 2012, pp. 272-305 (Article) 3XEOLVKHGE\7KH-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV DOI: 10.1353/tech.2012.0046 For additional information about this article http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tech/summary/v053/53.2.kemp.html Access provided by username 'llane' (21 Feb 2015 01:49 GMT) 04_TEC53.2kemp 272–305:03_49.3dobraszczyk 568– 4/30/12 10:55 AM Page 272 The End of Manhattan How the Gas Centrifuge Changed the Quest for Nuclear Weapons R.SCOTTKEMP Introduction The first nuclear weapons were born from technologies of superindus- trial scale. The Manhattan Project exceeded the domestic automobile in- dustry in its size. The gaseous-diffusion plant that enriched uranium at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee employed at its peak some 12,000 people, enclosed forty-four acres under a single roof, and by 1945 consumed nearly three times the electricity of the highly industrialized city of Detroit.1 In the 1940s and ’50s the making of nuclear bombs was under- stood to be a massive undertaking that required vast resources and nearly unparalleled human ingenuity. The U.S. atomic enterprise encouraged a way of thinking about nuclear proliferation that was intimately tied to technol- ogy and industry. In the words of President Harry S. Truman, it seemed “doubtful if such another combination could be got together in the world.”2 The difficulty was not in the bomb per se—scientists had warned that this step would not be hard to replicate—but rather in the apparently mas- sive effort needed to produce the nuclear-explosive materials that fueled the R. -
Kerne, Kooperation Und Konkurrenz. Kernforschung In
Wissenschaft, Macht und Kultur in der modernen Geschichte Herausgegeben von Mitchell G. Ash und Carola Sachse Band 3 Silke Fengler Kerne, Kooperation und Konkurrenz Kernforschung in Österreich im internationalen Kontext (1900–1950) 2014 Böhlau Verlag Wien Köln Weimar The research was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) : P 19557-G08 Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek: Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Datensind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. Umschlagabbildung: Zusammentreffen in Hohenholte bei Münster am 18. Mai 1932 anlässlich der 37. Hauptversammlung der deutschen Bunsengesellschaft für angewandte physikalische Chemie in Münster (16. bis 19. Mai 1932). Von links nach rechts: James Chadwick, Georg von Hevesy, Hans Geiger, Lili Geiger, Lise Meitner, Ernest Rutherford, Otto Hahn, Stefan Meyer, Karl Przibram. © Österreichische Zentralbibliothek für Physik, Wien © 2014 by Böhlau Verlag Ges.m.b.H & Co. KG, Wien Köln Weimar Wiesingerstraße 1, A-1010 Wien, www.boehlau-verlag.com Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Dieses Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist unzulässig. Lektorat: Ina Heumann Korrektorat: Michael Supanz Umschlaggestaltung: Michael Haderer, Wien Satz: Michael Rauscher, Wien Druck und Bindung: Prime Rate kft., Budapest Gedruckt auf chlor- und säurefrei gebleichtem Papier Printed in Hungary ISBN 978-3-205-79512-4 Inhalt 1. Kernforschung in Österreich im Spannungsfeld von internationaler Kooperation und Konkurrenz ....................... 9 1.1 Internationalisierungsprozesse in der Radioaktivitäts- und Kernforschung : Eine Skizze ...................... 9 1.2 Begriffsklärung und Fragestellungen ................. 10 1.2.2 Ressourcenausstattung und Ressourcenverteilung ......... 12 1.2.3 Zentrum und Peripherie ..................... 14 1.3 Forschungsstand ........................... 16 1.4 Quellenlage ............................. -
Stalin and the Atomic Bomb 51
50 Stalin and the The beginning of the uranium problem Amongst physicists, and in many books on the Atomic Bomb history of atomic energy in the USSR, the code name Uran*, in Russian, chosen by Stalin in September 1942 as the specified designation of the Stalingrad counter-attack, is linked with the element uranium. They presume that Stalin, having at this time already approved the setting up of investigations into the uranium problem, found himself under the influence of the potential explosive force of the nuclear bomb. The physicists, however, are mistaken. The codename for the Stalingrad operation was Zhores A. Medvedev chosen by Stalin in honour of Uranus, the seventh planet of the solar system. The strategic battle following ‘Uranus’ – the encirclement and rout of the German armies in the region of Rostov on Don – was given the codename ‘Saturn’ by Stalin. The first mention in the Soviet press of the unusual explosive force of the atomic bomb appeared in Pravda on 13th October 1941. Publishing a report about an anti-fascist meeting of scholars in Moscow the previous day, the paper described to the astonished This article was published reader the testimony of academician Pyotr in Russia on the 120th Leonidovich Kapitsa. anniversary of Stalin’s birth ‘... Explosive materials are one of the basic on 21 December 1879. The weapons of war... But recent years have opened first Soviet atomic bomb up new possibilities – the use of atomic energy. was exploded on 29 August Theoretical calculations show that if a 1949. contemporary powerful bomb can, for example, destroy an entire quarter of a town, then an atomic bomb, even a fairly small one, if it is Zhores A. -
03 Dossier Karin Zachmannl.Indd
Peaceful atoms in agriculture and food: how the politics of the Cold War shaped agricultural research using isotopes and radiation in post war divided Germany Karin Zachmann (*) (*) orcid.org/0000-0001-5533-2211. Technische Universität München. [email protected] Dynamis Fecha de recepción: 30 de junio de 2014 [0211-9536] 2015; 35 (2): 307-331 Fecha de aceptación: 7 de abril de 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.4321/S0211-95362015000200003 SUMMARY: 1.—Introduction. 2.—Early research prior to the Cold War. 3.—Legal and material provisions: research as subject of allied power politics. 4.—West German research before 1955: resumptions of prewar efforts and new starts under allied control. 5.—The East German (re-) entry into nuclear research since 1955: Soviet assistance, new institutions and conflicting expectations. 6.—State fostered research in West Germany: launching the Atomic Research Program of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. 7.—Conclusion. ABSTRACT: During the Cold War, the super powers advanced nuclear literacy and access to nuclear resources and technology to a first-class power factor. Both national governments and international organizations developed nuclear programs in a variety of areas and promoted the development of nuclear applications in new environments. Research into the use of isoto- pes and radiation in agriculture, food production, and storage gained major importance as governments tried to promote the possibility of a peaceful use of atomic energy. This study is situated in divided Germany as the intersection of the competing socio-political systems and focuses on the period of the late 1940s and 1950s. It is argued that political interests and international power relations decisively shaped the development of «nuclear agriculture».