Trained Abroad: A History of Multiculturalism in Costa Rican Vocal Music
Item Type text; Electronic Dissertation
Authors Ortiz Castro, Ivette
Publisher The University of Arizona.
Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author.
Download date 23/09/2021 10:27:44
Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/621142
TRAINED ABROAD: A HISTORY OF MULTICULTURALISM IN COSTA RICAN VOCAL MUSIC
by
Ivette Ortiz Castro
______
A Document Submitted to the Faculty of the
FRED FOX SCHOOL OF MUSIC
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
2016
2
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
GRADUATE COLLEGE
As members of the Document Committee, we certify that we have read the document prepared by Ivette Ortiz-Castro, titled Trained abroad: a history of multiculturalism in Costa Rican vocal music and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the document requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Musical Arts.
______Date: 07/18/16 Kristin Dauphinais
______Date: 07/18/16 Jay Rosenblatt
______Date: 07/18/16 William Andrew Stuckey
Final approval and acceptance of this document is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of the final copies of the document to the Graduate College.
I hereby certify that I have read this document prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the document requirement.
______Date: 07/18/16 Document Director: Kristin Dauphinais
3
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This document has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this document are allowable without special permission, provided that an accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNED: Ivette Ortiz Castro
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document is the result of a collaboration of many accounts. Though it is not possible acknowledge everyone involved in the process, I would like to express my gratitude to the following:
To my professor and advisor Kristin Dauphinais.
To the members of my advisory committee: Dr. Jay Rosenblatt, Dr. Andrew Stuckey, Professors Danny Gurwin and Jessica Maerz.
To composers and friends Eddie Mora Bermúdez and Marvin Camacho Villegas whose music is an inspiration.
To M.M Ernesto Rodríguez and Dr. Manuel Matarrita for their support.
To the Music National Archive of the University of Costa Rica.
To the University of Costa Rica for its support during my graduate studies.
To the Opera Guild of Southern Arizona for their support in my career as a singer.
Additionally:
To my friends from the First United Methodist Church in Tucson for all their support and love during four years with them.
To Meily Mendez for her guidance and friendship.
To Meredith Skeath for her kindness, her advice and her writing skills.
To Leah Williams for her friendship.
To Billy and Eleanor Davenport who gave me a reason to keep going. Love is endless.
To my dad who is a faithful participant in my life. Thank you for your words and your silence.
To my mom and sisters, because they are everything to me.
5
DEDICATION
To my girls, all for one and one for all, united we stand divided we fall.
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………………………….8
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES……………………………………………………………………………..9
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………….13
Purpose of study…………………………………………………………………………………….15
Thesis Statement……………………………………………………………………………………16
Review of Literature……………………………………………………………………………….16
CHAPTER 2: COSTA RICAN VOCAL MUSIC………………………………………………………….20
Music in the colonial period……………………………………………………………..……..20
Dirección Nacional de Bandas…………………………………………………………………21
Establishment of the National Conservatory…………………………………………….23
CHAPTER 3: JULIO FONSECA GUTIERREZ (1885-1950)……....…………………………..…25
A brief biography……………………………………………………………………………………25
Overview of musical characteristics…………………………………………………………26
Influence from Italy and Belgium……………………………………………………………..27
CHAPTER 4: DOLORES CASTEGNARO (1900-1979)………………………………....…………36
A brief biography……………………………………………………………………………………36
Influence from Italy and Mexico………………………………………………………………37
7
CHAPTER 5: THE NEW GENERATION OF COMPOSERS AND THE CASTELLA
CONSERVATORY...... …………………………………….48
CHAPTER 6: EDDIE MORA BERMUDEZ (b. 1966)……...……………………………………50
Biography………………………………………………….……………………………………….50
Influence of Russia……………………………………………………………………………...51
CHAPTER 7: MARVIN CAMACHO VILLEGAS (b. 1965)…………………………....……...... 63
Biography……………………………………………………………………………………………63
Returning to Costa Rican voice……………………………………………………………..64
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………72
APPENDIX: TRANSLATION OF POEMS…………………………………………………………….74
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………78
8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Rondo form in Gitana tu boca es un clavel………………………………………….…….43
Figure 2. Poetry translation from musical examples 24-26…………………………………..57
9
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Musical example 1. Amor ti chiedo, mm. 19-22, mix of Bolero rhythm and Italian text
...... ……………………………………………….….....28
Musical example 2. Bolero pattern……………………………………………………………………...29
Musical example 3. Fonseca, Amor ti chiedo, mm. 15-18. Contrasting short and syncopated rhythm in the piano part with the legato and long phrases in the vocal part...... ………….29
Musical example 4. Fonseca, Amor ti chiedo, vocal range…………………………………...…30
Musical example 5. Cadential material compared to Bellini songs………………...………30
Musical example 6. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 9-10. Close relation between poem and music. Translation: nothing now remains on the branches...... ….…...32
Musical example 7. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 18-25. Change in the piano accompaniment to represent the wind...... ……………………..32
Musical example 8. Bellini, Almen se non poss’io, mm.26-27. Use of high notes as big finale in Italian Art Song...... ……….33
Musical example 9. Bellini, Per pietà bell’idol mio, mm. 59-63……………..………………..33
Musical example 10. Bellini, Ma rendi pur contento, mm. 21-29…………………………….34
Musical example 11. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 6-9. Beginning of A section…………..…35
Musical example 12. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 18-21. Beginning of B section………....35
Musical example 13. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 30-33. A1 section...... ……...35
Musical example 14. Rossini, La Promessa from Serate Musicali, mm. 1-14…..…….…37
Musical example 15. Rossini, La Serenata from Serate Musicali, mm. 9-11…….…..…..38
10
Musical example 16. Bellini, Sogno d’infanzia from 15 Composizioni di Camera, mm.
36-40.………………………..………………………………………………………………………………….…...38
Musical example 17. Bellini, Vaga Luna from 15 Composizioni di Camera, mm. 17-22. …………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………....39
Musical example 18. Castegnaro, Lasciate amare, mm. 16-20………………………….……41
Musical example 19. Castegnaro, Lasciate amare, mm. 1-9...………………………………….41
Musical example 20. Castegnaro, Gitana tu boca es un clavel, mm. 1-5. Guitar-like embellishment in the use of triplets.……………………………………………………………………43
Musical example 21. Giménez, Sierras de Granada from the Zarzuela La Tempranica, mm. 1-6. Triplets as embellishment……………………….…………………………..………….....…44
Musical example 22. Moreno Tórroba, La Petenera from the Zarzuela La Marchenera, mm. 22-27…………………………………………………………………………………………………………44
Musical example 23. Nieto and Jiménez, Me llaman la primorosa from the Zarzuela
El Barbero de Sevilla, mm. 24-27…………………………………………………………………….…..45
Musical example 24. A. Vives, Canción del Ruiseñor from Zarzuela Doña Francisquita, mm. 9-12, mm. 34-36. Use of B minor for A section……………………………….……....…….46
Musical example 25. Pablo Luna, De España vengo from Zarzuela El niño judío, mm.
20-21, mm. 71-75. Use of parallel tonalities E major for A section and E minor for contrasting section………………………………………………………...………………………….….46, 47
Musical example 26. Mora, Ni aquí ni allá, mm. 1-10, tonal center E………..…………….53
11
Musical example 27. Mora, Ni aquí ni allá, mm. 184-190, evidence of peremennost ………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………55
Musical example 28. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 14-18, section A……………………………56
Musical example 29. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 75-81, section B……………………………57
Musical example 30. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 204-210, section C………….…………….57
Musical example 31. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 27-31, use of imitation…………….…....59
Musical example 32. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 19-22, aleatoric elements……....….….60
Musical example 33. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 108-112, change in meters……..….….61
Musical example 34. Stravinsky, excerpt from The Firebird (Intercession of the
Princesses). Rehearsal number 117, use of meters and chromaticism………………...... 62
Musical example 35. Camacho, Lamento de la Llorona, mm. 13-16. Melodic motive portrays her constant lament…………………………………………………..……………………...….66
Musical example 36. Camacho, Lamento de la Llorona, mm. 2-4. Repetitive patterns,
Costa Rican rhythm tambito…………………………………………………..……………………..…...…..66
Musical example 37. Camacho, Lamento de la Llorona, mm. 6-10. Different use of registers ………………………………………………………………………………………….……….….…….67
Musical example 38. Camacho, Una bruja llamada Zarate, mm. 26-30, A section.…..68
Musical example 39. Camacho, Una bruja llamada Zarate, mm. 36-40, B section…...69
Musical example 40. Camacho, El arrullo de los duendes. Phrase structure………..…..70
Musical example 41. Camacho, ¿Quién protege la Montaña?, mm. 1-6. Use of the harp in the piano at the beginning and end………………………………………………………………….71
Musical example 42. Camacho, ¿Quién protege la Montaña?, m. 27. Use of the harp in the piano at the beginning and end…………………………………………………………………..…71
12
ABSTRACT
This document examines and analyzes solo vocal music composed by several
Costa Rican composers who did not remain in Costa Rica, but rather left the country to study abroad. Unlike prior studies of Costa Rican vocal music, which have focused upon the use(s) composers made of indigenous folk elements, this study identifies foreign, non-indigenous elements that were introduced into Costa Rican vocal music by musical pioneers such as Julio Fonseca (1885-1950) and Dolores Castegnaro
(1900-1979), composers who studied at various times in Italy, Belgium, France and
Mexico. Excerpts of their music have been analyzed for this document to demonstrate specific international influences.
Another two composers were selected due to their present importance in
Costa Rican music: Eddie Mora and Marvin Camacho. In a very distinctive manner, these composers bring to the musical environment of Costa Rican diversity and exoticism in Eddie Mora’s case and a mix of contemporary with Costa Rican elements with Marvin Camacho’s music. In analyzing the music of these four composers, this research intends to present the different influences of other countries into Costa Rican music while Marvin Camacho brings back its own Costa
Rican voice.
13
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, navigator and colonizer who worked for the monarchy of Spain, discovered Costa Rica in 1502 in his fourth exploratory trip to the American continent. In the sixteenth century Costa Rica was part of the new lands conquered by the Spanish monarchy, and as a result, the official language of the country is Spanish. However, an English-Creole language is spoken along the Caribbean coast. In 1821 Costa Rica became an independent country and since then has developed a population of approximately 4.5 million people. It is located in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. It has an administrative division of seven provinces that are each directed by a mayor.
The influence of other countries on Costa Rican music can be traced back to the Spanish Colonial Period in the seventeenth century. The Spaniard colonization displaced much of the Costa Rican culture and imposed Catholicism on the natives, making it the official religion and essentially the only religion in the region. The indigenous music was neglected and replaced with the music solely related to
Church services. Spanish colonization and the influence of Catholicism essentially wiped out the identity of Costa Rican music and much of the indigenous Costa
Ricans’ cultural heritage. Maria Clara Vargas, harpsichordist and former Director of the School of Music at the University of Costa Rica, states,
14
Similar to most of the Latin America countries, the development of music in Costa Rica during the first years of its independent life was determined by the two main social institutions: government and church. Naturally, the professional level of the first national musicians was not proficient, but it fulfilled the needs of the religious and military rituals.” 1
Regarding military bands, Manuel Matarrita, pianist and Director of the School of
Music at the University of Costa Rica, says,
These emergent military bands fulfilled several social functions. They not only served military duties, but also participated in religious ceremonies (such as solemn masses) and in public performances. The bands played concerts called recreos and retretas, open to the public and usually held in the city parks. 2
In 1845 Costa Rica’s music development had a turning point when the
Dirección Nacional de Bandas (Directorate of Bands) was created. This institution started the training of musicians in Costa Rica. In the second half of the nineteenth century the economy of Costa Rica was greatly improved by the production of coffee. This economic prosperity allowed Costa Rica’s culture to flourish. Matarrita states, “Foreign opera companies, mostly European, started performing frequently in San José. Musicians from abroad were brought to the country to teach. A number of philharmonic societies were established; these societies encompassed both experienced and amateur musicians.” 3 These opera companies also influenced the selection of repertoire for band’s concerts, which included Spanish zarzuelas and
1 Maria Clara Vargas, “Practica Musical en Costa Rica, 1845-1942” (Master’s Thesis, Universidad de Costa Rica, 1999), 49. All translations are by the present author unless otherwise noted. 2 Manuel Matarrita, "An Analytical Study of Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 13, by Costa Rican Composer Carlos Enrique Vargas" (D.M.A diss., Louisiana State University, 2004), 3. 3 Ibid.,5.
15
European operettas; this is a very important factor in how vocal music from Europe started becoming familiar to general audiences in Costa Rica.
The first National School of Music was founded in 1890, and its main goal was training professional orchestra musicians. The first Director of the School of
Music, Mateo Cuevas, recommended the necessity of piano and voice lessons in addition to the established lessons for orchestra instruments. The study plans for the School of Music were modeled after French and Belgium Conservatories.4
In the early years of the twentieth century, several Costa Rican composers had the opportunity to receive higher education in music abroad. Julio Fonseca
Gutiérrez (1885-1950) and Dolores Castegnaro Catellani (1900-1979) moved to different countries in Europe, United States, and Mexico. As a result of this cultural exchange, music from these composers reflects the influence of other cultures; this influence is shown in their choice of poetry and in their music.
Costa Rica has four state universities, but only two of them have a music program, and the highest degree that these universities offer is a Masters of Music.
The Masters program began approximately ten years ago. Before 2006, the only avenue to pursue graduate studies was to do it abroad.
Purpose of Study
The intent of this study is to offer a perspective on the influence of other countries in Costa Rican vocal music. For the purpose of space, these influences are
4 Maria Clara Vargas Cullell, De las fanfarrias a las salas de concierto: Música en Costa Rica (1840-1940) (San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 2004), 181.
16 strictly related to Costa Rican composers who studied abroad and are key in the development of Costa Rican vocal music. Two generations of composers will be analyzed for influences and differences within their music. Rather than attempt a catalogue of works from these particular composers, a selection of their most representative works will be presented.
Thesis Statement
By examining the educational and cultural background of several Costa Rican composers, I will demonstrate that the international and multi-cultural musical education of Costa Rican composers has resulted in a highly eclectic and global musical environment.
Review of Literature
The history of music in Costa Rica has been researched in a wider context.
However, vocal music in Costa Rica has not been a primary interest of scholars inside or outside the country. There are two published books by Costa Rican authors about the history of music in Costa Rica that have been of great importance for this document: La Música en Costa Rica (Music in Costa Rica) by Bernal Flores and De las fanfarrias a las salas de concierto: Música en Costa Rica (1840-1940)
(From fanfares to concert halls: music in Costa Rica [1840-1940]) by Maria Clara
Vargas Cullel. These two authors have become the departure point for every researcher in Costa Rica. Bernal Flores mentions:
Costa Rica is a young American nation which has over 150 years of independent life and less than five centuries of development as a country
17
geographically and culturally delimited. A better perspective of our history will help us to know our culture better. Objectivity and sincerity will be the departure point to evaluate our culture through critical historical investigation. In this way knowledge of the past will help us shape the future.5
Bernal Flores’ book is the first attempt to provide a history of music in Costa Rica.
He provides an brief overview of Costa Rican music history from the sixteenth through the twentieth centuries. The book has two chapters about opera, operetta and Zarzuela during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and these are particularly helpful in my historical research in Costa Rican vocal music and voice training. According to Flores, “Vocal music in Costa Rica in the nineteenth century was primarily monophonic. There was a great production of songs for schools and religious music like masses, such as Ave Maria and Salve Regina, which lack harmony and counterpoint.”6
More recently, Dr. Manuel Matarrita Venegas wrote an article about the development of art song in Costa Rica. This article was published on the website of the Fine Arts Department of the University of Costa Rica. Matarrita mentions not only Julio Fonseca and Dolores Castegnaro, but also mentions composer Alejandro
Monestel in this article, one of the pioneering composers in Costa Rica. For the purpose of this study, Monestel will not be discussed; Julio Fonseca Gutierrez, who was his contemporary and a more prolific composer, will be included instead.
Julio Fonseca Gutierrez (1885- 1950) was one of the pioneering composers
5Bernal Flores. La Música en Costa Rica (San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1978), 34. 6 Ibid., 61.
18 in Costa Rica. Other members of the first generation of composers who contributed to Costa Rican vocal music include Dolores Castegnaro (1900-1979) and Julio Mata
Oreamuno (1899-1969). Spanish musicologist Otto Mayer-Sierra states that Julio
Fonseca was one of the first composers to show nationalistic tendencies. In his
Música y músicos de Latinoamerica he quotes Fonseca as follows:
I am a believer in nationalism, in order for each country to have a personal mark in its compositional school. That is why, here in my homeland, I have put all my effort into collecting and disseminating our popular and folk music, to facilitate the composers with a source of inspiration and grant to their works an original national flavor. Unfortunately, we stumble with the weakness of our indigenous folklore, and regarding the popular music of the country; the material is not completely original. Three composers, including myself, have undertaken the mission of working on this music: Alejandro Monestel with his Rapsodias Guanacastecas, Julio Mata with his operetta Toyupán, and myself in the Fantasía Sinfónica, in which I adopted the Punto Guanacasteco, the most popular motive of our music, as the principal theme and developed it in the form of a fugue at the end. 7
While some composers believed in nationalism, in a general sense, Costa Rican vocal music was not nationalistic. Julio Mata’s zarzuela 8 Toyupán is a unique example of nationalistic trends in vocal music and was not the norm.
In the early years of the twentieth century, a group of composers had the privilege of studying music abroad in different countries, such as Belgium, Italy,
France, United States, and Mexico. Each spent several years absorbing the culture of the foreign country and returned to Costa Rica to bring new ideas and raise the musical level.
7 Otto Mayer-Serra, Música y músicos de Latinoamérica (Mexico D.F.: Editorial Atlante, 1947), 248. 8 Can be defined as a Spanish genre of musical theatre characterized by a mixture of sung and spoken dialogue.
19
For this research, scores were obtained from the National Music Archive, which holds a great deal of manuscripts by Costa Rican composers. The National
Music Archive, a project directed by professor Zamira Barquero, is located at the
University of Costa Rica.9 The second contemporary generation of composers is very active in further broadening the musical culture of Costa Rica. The author’s interviews with composers Eddie Mora Bermúdez and Marvin Camacho Villegas about their work have given the author insights into their international education and the multi-culturalism of the Costa Rican art song scene. Voice professor Ernesto
Rodriguez, who has been doing research to compile and edit Costa Rican works in the National Music Archive at the University of Costa Rica, was also interviewed.
Regarding other literature on Costa Rican music, there are no published books by
Costa Rican authors on Costa Rican vocal music, and international authors who mention Costa Rica’s music mainly just enumerate works without further information.
9 Archivo Histórico Musical de la Universidad de Costa Rica, accessed February 5, 2016, http://www.archivohistoricomusical.ucr.ac.cr.
20
CHAPTER 2: COSTA RICAN VOCAL MUSIC
Music in the Colonial Period
The discovery of Costa Rica in 1502 marked the beginning of the Colonial
Period for the country. Spanish conquerors named the country Costa Rica, believing the coast was rich with gold; however, the amount of gold was not what they expected, and they had to wait two centuries to see the equivalent of gold profits from coffee production.
The natives from Costa Rica can be divided in three main groups: Chorotegas,
Huetares and Borucas.10 Despite differences in their organization as societies, these three indigenous groups shared a conspicuous characteristic: the importance of music in their society. Bernal Flores states:
Musical culture in our natives was very primitive; however, there are three elements on which I base the statement that they were a “musical culture”: 1. They had not only percussion instruments (which would reflect a very primitive musical culture) but also had wind instruments. 2. They had dance as part of their culture. 3. We still have some Costa Rican melodies from our natives that, even though they may have been slightly changed, still preserved the essential characteristics of primitive music. 11
In the same line of analysis, Professor Henri Pittier states that also, these indigenous groups had a tsukur, a cantor who worked as a professional musician and was assisted by other musicians of lower rank. These groups utilized music for war, in
10 Carlos Meléndez, “Culturas Precolombinas de Costa Rica,” La voz de la Ande (Octubre, 1971): 2.
11 Bernal Flores, La Música en Costa Rica (San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1978), 22.
21 religious ceremonies, funerals, and parties called chichadas, where they drank a liquor made from corn and danced and drank until exhaustion.12
Music flourished in Spain in the 16th century with composers such as
Cristobal Morales (1500-1553) and Tomas Luis de Victoria (1548-1611).13
However, despite our direct influence from Spain, we never felt the influence of these composers. Traveling with instruments at the time was very difficult due to distance and harsh conditions for instruments while crossing the ocean. For this reason, at the beginning of the Colonial Period, the Catholic ceremonies were a mix of melodies from the Spanish church and indigenous cultures. Church ceremonies and festivities helped to increase the musical activity in Costa Rica during the
Colonial Period. As Ricardo Blanco states, “In festivities, expenses increased more than usual as the solemnity of the event required a Mass and a procession to which special cantors and priests were hired.”14
Dirección Nacional de Bandas
One of the peculiarities of Costa Rica is its peaceful nature. In contrast to the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. Costa
Rica was part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, an administrative division of the Spanish Empire in Central America. On September 15, 1821 Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. Even though Costa Rica did not fight for
12 Ibid., 21 . 13 Ibid.,32. 14 Ricardo Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiática de Costa Rica (San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1959), 52.
22 its independence, it had an army from the Colonial Period until it was disbanded on
December 1st of 1948. This army played an essential role in developing the music of the country.
In 1845, the Spanish musician José Martínez, motivated to improve the modest proficiency that military bands exhibited, proposed to the Costa Rican government that he would work in the Costa Rican military band teaching several instruments, making arrangements, directing the ensemble, and maintaining the discipline of musicians. According to Maria Clara Vargas, the publication of the LXIII decree, during the presidency of Jose María Alfaro, established the Directorate of
Bands. At the time, the main concern of the government was to make sure the
Directorate of Bands was following the decree that stated that every battalion should have its own band.
At the time, there were four music bands, all of them associated with the provinces of the metropolitan area: San José, Alajuela, Heredia and Cartago. Despite the establishment of the Directorate of Bands, the musical proficiency of bands did not improve rapidly due to the constant change of the person in charge of each band.
It was not until 1860 that bands were finally established with enough musicians to be called bands instead of music ensembles. The San José band had a total of sixty- eight musicians, Cartago twenty-two, Alajuela seventeen and Heredia eighteen.
These military bands performed not just in parades accompanying the army, but also in political activities, and as entertainment for the community.15 When it was
15 Maria Clara Vargas Cullell, De las fanfarrias a las salas de concierto: Música en Costa Rica (1840-1940) (San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica), 33-40.
23 established, this institution acted as a School of Music and presently provides jobs in the seven provinces for professional musicians.
Establishment of the National Conservatory of Music
Military bands acted as a School of Music; however, this institution had a very specific requirement for their members/students; no women were involved with the Military Bands. This statement does not imply by any means that women were not allowed to have musical training. In this matter, Costa Rica showed its
European influence; young women of high class took piano lessons with national or international professors who were en vogue.16
There were several Schools of Music before the establishment of the National
Conservatory of Music, now called the School of Music of the University of Costa
Rica. In 1890 the government supported the creation of the National School of Music under the guidance of Mateo Fournier. The main goal of the school was to train orchestra musicians; the construction of the National Theater was soon to be started, and the necessity of having a suitable orchestra for the theater motivated the creation of the National School of Music. However, this institution ceased to function after just four years. 17
The private School of Music of Santa Cecilia founded in 1894 became a substitute for the old National School of Music. In contrast with the National School of Music, the School of Music of Santa Cecilia did not have as its main goal the training of orchestra musicians; instead, the school offered piano lessons, basic
16 Ibid., 178. 17 Ibid., 181.
24 music theory, and even had a choir with sixty amateur members form other professions. The School of Music of Santa Cecilia was open until 1956.18
In 1934, a group of musicians and intellectuals founded the Asociación de
Cultura. This association was fundamental for the musical development of the country. During the 1930s, this association organized a series of concerts and edited the Musical Magazine. In 1940, the University of Costa Rica was founded with the help of this association. A year later, with the support of Minister of Education Luis
Demetrio Tinoco, the National Conservatory of Music was created. Two years later, the conservatory became part of the University of Costa Rica. Prior to the music schools and the conservatory, the only option for musicians to pursue a formal education was to study abroad.
18 Ibid.,181-188.
25
CHAPTER 3: JULIO FONSECA GUTIERREZ (1885-1950)
A Brief Biography
Julio Fonseca was one of the most prolific Costa Rican composers, and his body of work, a total of 206 works, includes a variety of genres. His chamber music comprises works for violin and piano, a trio for piano, violin, and violoncello, and the poem El Cenáculo y el Gólgota for string quartet and piano. He also composed a vast amount of religious music: five masses, thirty-six songs, seven hymns, the cantata Los siete Dolores de la Virgen, and many more. 19
Fonseca began his musical studies in the National School of Music in San José and studied piano and harmony with Italian professor Alvise Castegnaro, father of the composer Dolores Castegnaro; he also studied with Jose Joaquín Vargas Calvo.
When he was just seventeen years old, he was awarded a scholarship from the Costa
Rican government to study abroad.20
According to Flores,21 he had to decide between the Milan Conservatory in
Italy and the Munich Conservatory in Germany; he finally decided to go to Milan
Conservatory and moved to Italy to pursue his musical studies at this high level institution. When he arrived in Milan, he realized that the age requirement of the
Conservatory made it impossible for him to attend, as he was too old. He decided to attend the Artistic Lyceum in Milan. There, he studied piano and harmony with
19 Ernesto Rodríguez and Tanya Cordero, Julio Fonseca: Antología de canciones (San José, Editorial UCR, 2015), 5-9. 20 Ibid.,5-9. 21 Bernal Flores, Julio Fonseca (San José: Ministerio de Cultura, Juventud y Deporte, 1973), 53-54.
26 professors Ricci, Ferroni, and Gaetano Coronaro,22 a composer and conductor member of the Coronaro family of musicians. However, the Artistic Lyceum was shut down a year after his arrival, and he had to contact the Costa Rican government to obtain permission to continue his studies in the Royal Conservatory of Brussels,
Belgium. Once there, he studied counterpoint with Edgar Tinel, a very successful
Belgian composer and pianist, and piano and instrumentation with Louis Van Dam.
While in Belgium, Fonseca was diagnosed with a pulmonary disease and was forced to return to Costa Rica.23
In 1910, four years after his return, he was invited to be part of the Ateneo of
Costa Rica, an exclusive group of influential people in the artistic and intellectual society of Costa Rica. In 1914 he traveled to the United States, with the support of his musician friend Alejandro Monestel, to promote and publish his music. Yet, this musical goal was not accomplished due to the beginning of World War I. Despite the turn of events, he was not discouraged and stayed in New York for a year working as a pianist and organist. This experience helped him to obtain a position as a
Kapellmeister at Iglesia de la Merced when he returned to Costa Rica. At the same time he was also appointed as a regular member of San José’s National Band. He established his life in Costa Rica, married Maria Elena Mora, and had five children. 24
22 First names of professors Ferroni and Ricci were not found in any source consulted. 23 Ernesto Rodríguez and Tanya Cordero, Julio Fonseca: Antología de canciones (San José, Editorial UCR, 2015), 5-9. 24 www.archivohistoricomusical.ucr.ac.cr.
27
Overview of Musical Characteristics
According to Bernal Flores: “Julio Fonseca could be the most important Costa
Rican composer in the romantic and impressionist style.”25 His early musical training in Belgium and Italy, as well as his experience as music director and his job as a
Kapellmeister, gave him a versatile musical language. From his total of 206 works,
70 are in the vocal genre. Among these vocal works are: the comedy for children
Caperucita Encarnada (1916); the operetta La plata no lo es todo; and the masses—
Misa Teologal in G major (1928), Corazón de María (1929), Ave María Stella (1932),
Ujarrás (1934), and Vitis et Palmites (1948). 26
Among the musical characteristics of Julio Fonseca’s vocal music are: a tonal musical language and the simplicity in the harmony; the use of the piano as purely accompaniment; and a modulation between parallel tonalities, which is common in his songs. In a fair number of his songs, there are two contrasting sections, usually in different tonalities, and syncopated rhythms in the piano.27
Influences from Italy and Belgium
Amor ti chiedo
Julio Fonseca studied in Italy only for a year; however, the impact of Italian music remains in his legacy through his song Amor ti chiedo.28 This song was composed in 1904 while the composer was attending the Artistic Lyceum of Milan.
25 Bernal Flores. La Música en Costa Rica (San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1978), 128. 26 Ernesto Rodríguez and Tanya Cordero, Julio Fonseca: Antología de canciones (San José; Editorial UCR, 2015), 32. 27Ibid., 5-33. 28 All translations and texts are included in Appendix A.
28
The author of the text is A. Marciano; however, it was not possible to find any biographical information about this poet; this song was dedicated: Alla gentile signorina Cecilia Casazza. 29
The composer used a B flat major tonality and ¾ meter.30 This song shows a very interesting mix of cultures: the rhythm is reminiscent of a variation of bolero,31 while the lyrics are in Italian (Musical example 1 and 2). The piano part contrasts with the vocal line: the piano’s rhythm is short and syncopated, while the voice is legato and the phrases are longer than piano phrases (Musical example 3).
Musical example 1. Amor ti chiedo, mm. 19-22, mix of Bolero rhythm and Italian text
29 Ibid., 9. 30 The score available for Amor ti chiedo was transposed to A flat major, the original is in B flat Major. 31 Daniel Party, "Bolero," Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed May 20th, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy4.library.arizona.edu/subscriber/article/grove/musi c/A2248419.
29
Musical example 2. Bolero pattern
Musical example 3. Fonseca, Amor ti chiedo, mm. 15-18. Contrasting short and syncopated rhythm in the piano part with the legato and long phrases in the vocal part
The quality of the melody and the composer’s use of the voice are influenced by the most noted Italian opera composers at the time, Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, and Verdi. The range is extensive and high and requires a trained singer (Musical example 4). According to Carol Kimball, “most of these songs retain operatic elements and are comparable to miniature arias, with fluid, graceful melodies and even cadenzas and embellishments.” 32 In this song there is cadential material in measure 44 that can be compared to some of Vincenzo Bellini’s songs, where the accompaniment stops and the voice is by itself (Musical example 4). According to
32 Carol Kimball, Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 2006), 426.
30
Ernesto Rodríguez, this is Fonseca’s most demanding song regarding technique and interpretation.33
Musical example 4. Fonseca, Amor ti chiedo, vocal range
Musical example 5. Cadential material compared to Bellini songs
Amor ti chiedo Excerpts from L’Allegro marinaro and Il fervido desiderio
33 Rodríguez and Cordero, Julio Fonseca: Antología de canciones (San José, Editorial UCR, 2015), 33.
31
Romanza
This song was composed in 1904. Despite the fact that Romanza and Amor ti chiedo were composed in the same year, the two songs were written in different countries. Romanza was written in Belgium when Fonseca was already in Brussels studying at the Royal Conservatory, while Amor ti chiedo was written in Milan. The poem for this piece is La dernière feuille , written by the renowned poet Pierre Jules
Théophile Gautier (1811-1872).34 This poem is part of La Comédie de la Mort published in1838. This set of poems focuses on the subject of death as a way to escape a torturous life.
The influence of French mélodie is present in this song, not just because of
Fonseca’s use of Theodore Gautier’s poem, but also in the musical characteristics of the piece. According to Margaret Olson, “composers had begun to fully embrace the trait that would define the next hundred years of French Art Song: the art of suggestion.”35 In the same line, she also states that the French artistic ideals are clarity, elegance and intense emotion.
The use of the poem allowed the composer to have a simple melody, expressive with chromatic notes that highlight the text (Musical example 6). In the B section, which begins at measure 22, the rhythm in the piano accompaniment changes; the first note of each triplet in an accented beat is absent. This represents instability as the poetry changes and becomes more turbulent (Musical example 7).
34 The Project Gutenberg, accessed May 13, 2016, http://www.projectgutenberg.org. 35 Margaret Olson, Listening to Art Song (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2015), 133, 134.
32
Musical example 6. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 9-10. Close relation between poem and music. Translation: nothing now remains on the branches
Musical example 7. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 18-25. Change in the piano accompaniment to represent the wind
The use of high notes is characteristically French; French Art Songs use high notes usually as a part of a melody that moves diatonically up, rather than a separate note that is a big ascending interval, which becomes the most important note of the phrase, as in Italian Art Song (Musical examples 8, 9, 10).
33
Musical example 8. Bellini, Almen se non poss’io, mm.26-27. Use of high notes as big finale in Italian Art Song
Musical example 9. Bellini, Per pietà bell’idol mio, mm. 59-63
34
Musical example 10. Bellini, Ma rendi pur contento, mm. 21-29.
The overall form of Romanza is ABA; the poem has three stanzas, and Fonseca divides each stanza into a section. In the A section, the piano accompaniment is calm, and the voice line remains in the lower part of the register as it speaks about the serenity of the forest. In the B section the piano accompaniment moves faster and in triplets, as the poem’s intention changes to a more dramatic state: "nothing now remains in my heart except one love which is there to sing.” The register in the voice is also higher. The final A section goes back to the serenity of the first section, changing the feeling to resignation (Musical examples 11, 12, 13). In musical example 10 the use of the rhythm in the voice, with eighth note rest and eighth note as pick up to quarter note, can be interpreted as sighs, demonstrating once more the
35
French characteristic of suggestion and the close relationship between the music and the poem.
Musical example 11. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 6-9. Beginning of A section
Musical example 12. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 18-21. Beginning of B section
Musical example 13. Fonseca, Romanza, mm. 30-33. A1 section
36
CHAPTER 4: DOLORES CASTEGNARO (1900-1979)
A Brief Biography
Dolores Castegnaro was born in Costa Rica in 1900. Her parents were Italian musicians and immigrants who arrived in Costa Rica in 1883 and made their living as music teachers. Her Italian heritage prompted her to move to Italy during her early twenties to pursue piano and vocal studies in the Giuseppe Verdi Conservatory in Milan where she composed her first work in 1926. In 1933, she moved to Paris and stayed until 1941; following her years in Paris, she spent several years composing in Costa Rica, until eventually moving to Mexico, where she spent the remainder of her life. 36
According to Manuel Matarrita, “several songs by Castegnaro were published and recorded in Paris and Mexico. The musical language of her works is absolutely tonal. Her piano writing is complex and even virtuosic at times.”37 Matarrita also highlights how Castegnaro’s style did not have an impact in Costa Rica. However, the lack of impact may be related more to the difficulties of being a woman composer in the 20th century in a small and culturally undeveloped country than to her actual musical impact. It may have also prompted her move to Mexico for the latter part of her life. Her musical catalogue includes piano works, songs, an operetta, and some religious music. All of her works demonstrate the influences of the different countries in which she lived and studied.
36 Archivo Histórico Musical de la Universidad de Costa Rica, accessed February 8, 2016, http://www.archivohistoricomusical.ucr.ac.cr. 37 Facultad de Bellas Artes, accessed February 28, 2016, http://www.bellasartes.ucr.ac.cr. Manuel Matarrita Venegas ,“El desarrollo de la canción artística en Costa Rica.”
37
Influence from Italy and Mexico
Lasciate amare
Composed in D flat major, Lasciate amare was published in Mexico in 1967. A total of ten individual songs were compiled and published under the title of Obras originales de Dolores Castegnaro. The first conspicuous element of this song is the use of an Italian text. The majority of texts used in her songs were her own.
However, there are two songs in this compilation with lyrics by unknown authors in a language other than Spanish.
Castegnaro’s use of a simple melody makes the text stand out. There is a resemblance to the Neapolitan and bel canto style of Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835). She does this through her textual emphasis in the cantabile melody and the broad lyrical phrases, combined with the romantic sonority of the arpeggiated accompaniment. The simple arpeggiated accompaniment is a common factor in Italian Art Song (Musical examples 14-17).
Musical example 14. Rossini, La Promessa from Serate Musicali, mm. 1-14
38
Musical example 15. Rossini, La Serenata from Serate Musicali, mm. 9-11
Musical example 16. Bellini, Sogno d’infanzia from 15 Composizioni di Camera, mm. 36-40
39
Musical example 17. Bellini, Vaga Luna from 15 Composizioni di Camera, mm.17-22
Castegnaro’s Lasciate amare shows the same characteristics of the previous examples from Italian Art Songs, which can be characterized by: the necessity to explore the beauty of the melody; simple texts that the music highlights; simplicity in the harmonic language; and the use of the voice to create peaks of emotions
(Musical example 18). This can be seen in contrast to the German style that utilized more complex harmonies. Spanish repertoire, in the other hand, utilizes more dance rhythms, florid melodies, and dissonances.
40
Musical example 18. Castegnaro, Lasciate amare, mm. 16-20
The first Italian element is the simplicity in the harmony. Castegnaro begins
Lasciate amare with a prelude of seven measures. Her use of cadential material in the prelude leads to the tonic of the primary key of D flat major entrance of the vocal line (Musical example 19). The structure of the song is A –A1; Castegnaro uses the same melodic material in the two phrases and changes the second phrase at the end, making it slightly different to provide a cadenza.
41
Musical example 19. Castegnaro, Lasciate amare, mm. 1-9. Prelude in the piano contains cadential material that leads to the primary key
42
Gitana tu boca es un clavel
Castegnaro spent many years living in Mexico where the music was significantly influenced by the music of Spain. During the eighteenth century, some of the Spanish nobility moved to Mexico to control their new lands. In order to maintain their households, they brought servants, as well as musicians, as part of their entourage. These musicians played traditional music from Spain and influenced Mexican music. Gitana tu boca es un clavel is an example of the Spanish-
Mexican tradition adopted by a Costa Rican composer.
As mentioned in the previous section, Spanish music utilizes dance rhythms, florid melodies, and dissonances. The use of a dance rhythm is the first element of
Spanish art song that we find in Gitana tu boca es un clavel. Castegnaro labeled this song a Seguidilla. According to Janet Halfiyard, a seguidilla “is a Castilian folk dance, possibly of Moorish origin. It is in quick triple time and alternates coplas (verses sung by the dancers) with passages played on guitar and castanets and is still performed in Andalusia.” 38 The overall form of the song will be a rondo; one of the fundamental forms in music, in which a repeated section alternates with at least two different episodes. At its simplest it can be represented as ABACA.39 The repetition of the A section would be the copla of the seguidilla (Figure 1).
38 Janet Halfyard, "Seguidilla," The Oxford Companion to Music, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed April 10, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy3.library.arizona.edu/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e60 64. 39 G. M. Tucker and Nicholas Temperley , "Rondo Form," The Oxford Companion to Music, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press, accessed June 2, 2016,
43
Song Structure
A B A C A
Mm. 4-27 28-44 45-63 64-80 81-92
Figure 1. Rondo form in Gitana tu boca es un clavel
In Musical example 20, Castegnaro provides a brief three-measure introduction in F minor. The right hand on the piano has sixteenth-note triplets; this rhythm is an example of florid rhythm that is common in Spanish art song and zarzuela (Musical examples 21-23).
Additionally, the introduction opens with a guitar-like embellishment, further emphasizing the Spanish emulation.
Musical example 20. Castegnaro, Gitana tu boca es un clavel, mm. 1-5. Guitar-like embellishment in the use of triplets
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy3.library.arizona.edu/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e57 40.
44
Musical example 21. Giménez, Sierras de Granada from the Zarzuela La Tempranica, mm. 1-6. Triplets as embellishments
Musical example 22. Moreno Tórroba, La Petenera from the Zarzuela La Marchenera, mm. 22-27
45
Musical example 23. Nieto and Jiménez, Me llaman la primorosa from the Zarzuela El Barbero de Sevilla, mm. 24-27
Castegnaro uses tonalities F minor and F major (parallel tonalities) and she moves back and forth between them according to the changes in the text; the composer uses F major when she refers to the gypsy woman’s body and F minor when she narrates an event related to the gypsy. The change of tonality in the contrasting section is also common in several zarzuela arias, which influenced the
Spanish art song; some examples are: Canción del Ruiseñor (Doña Francisquita) by A.
Vives and De España vengo (El niño judío) by Pablo Luna (Musical examples 24 and
25).
46
Musical example 24. A. Vives, Canción del Ruiseñor from Zarzuela Doña Francisquita, mm. 9-12, mm. 34-36. Use of B minor for A section
Musical example 25. Pablo Luna, De España vengo from Zarzuela El niño judío, mm. 20-21, mm. 71-75. Use of parallel tonalities E major for A section and E minor for contrasting section
47
The B section stays in F minor until the return to the A section, in which the composer provides a different musical material for a C section but remains in F major in the remaining sections. This song also shows its Spanish influence in the subject of the text; the song is set in the Spanish city of Sevilla and uses a very common subject in Spain, illicit love relationships between gypsies and Christians.
48
CHAPTER 5: NEW GENERATION OF COMPOSERS AND THE CASTELLA CONSERVATORY
The new generation of composers that was included in this document, composers Eddie Mora Bermúdez and Marvin Camacho Villegas, has a common beginning in music; both composers attended the only secondary school in the country dedicated to the fine arts, the Castella Conservatory.
The Castella Conservatory was founded in 1953 by the visionary Arnoldo
Herrera, who wanted his school to be the source of artists for Costa Rica. Herrera’s motto for the school was “Creer, crear, crecer” (to believe, to create, to grow). The school runs from eight in the morning until four in the afternoon; the schedule is organized for the students to take academic classes in the morning and artistic classes in the afternoon. In the first two years of middle school and the first two years in high school, the students are required to take a variety of artistic lessons in dance, theatre, music and visual arts, to give them the opportunity to experiment with several disciplines until they find their preference. When the students reach the junior year of high school, they specialize in one of the disciplines; as a result, their schedule will be full with classes related to the discipline they have chosen. By the time they have reached this point, all the students have been in contact with several disciplines and have developed a multi-disciplinary taste in arts. 40 Former director and alumnus Carlos López states:
Students who graduate from our school have a profile that is intended to make a difference in society in any type of profession they choose; they are
40 Chacon, Vinicio. 2013. El Conservatorio de Castella celebra 60 años de creer, crear, crecer. La Nacion, June 26, accessed June 9, 2016, http:// www.nacion.com.
49
meant to have an open mentality in a manner that they appreciate not just science and mathematics, but know that through art everything is better.41
In an interview by the author with composer Eddie Mora, he said, “One of the characteristics of the Castella Conservatory, at least when I was studying, was this eagerness for artistic activity. We were very active in social work as well. It was not a conscious decision; it was in our environment.”42
This institution influenced Mora and Camacho’s conception of art since a very early age, giving them a broader vision of the artistic world and creating a multi-disciplinary interest in their career as musicians and composers. Proof of this statement is their collaboration with the Heredia Symphony Orchestra, where Mora serves as a composer and Camacho is part of the board. Aside from their work with this orchestra, both composers are involved with multi-disciplinary projects that reflect the early influence of the Castella Conservatory.
41 Chacon, Vinicio. 2013. El Conservatorio de Castella celebra 60 años de creer, crear, crecer. La Nacion, June 26, accessed June 9, 2016, http:// www.nacion.com. 42 Eddie Mora Bermúdez, interview by author, via Skype, May 14, 2016.
50
CHAPTER 6: EDDIE MORA BERMUDEZ (b. 1966)
Biography
Composer, conductor, and violin professor Eddie Mora Bermúdez was born in San José, Costa Rica, in 1966. He is an alumnus of the Conservatorio de Castella, where he had the opportunity to interact with many artistic disciplines. He continued his studies in violin at the University of Costa Rica while playing professionally with the National Symphony Orchestra. At the age of eighteen, he traveled to Russia to continue his studies in violin at the Tchaikovsky Conservatory in Moscow, where he stayed for ten years.
As the Artistic Director of Heredia Symphony Orchestra, he made several recordings: Caminos, Retratos, Rompiendo Moldes, Tiempos, Heredia, and Voces. He is the Director in Residence of the National Symphony Orchestra, with which he recorded three CD’s, among them Music of Costa Rican Composers Volume I. This recording was nominated for a Latin Grammy in 2014 for best album in classical music. He is one of the founders of the Institute of Art Investigation and also the founder of the Music Composition Seminar, both of which are in the College of Fine
Arts at the University of Costa Rica. During two academic periods, from 2007 to
2015, Eddie Mora was the Dean of the College of Fine Arts for the University of Costa
Rica.43
He has collaborated with the Puerto Rican National Symphony Orchestra, the
Moscow Radio and Television Symphony Orchestras, the Orquesta de Cámara de
43 Personal website composer Eddie Mora Bermúdez, accessed February 8, 2016, http://www.eddiemora.com.
51
Bellas Artes, the University of Guanajuato Symphony Orchestra, and the Oaxaca
Symphony Orchestra in Mexico.
As a composer, Mora has been awarded the National Prize Aquileo J.
Echeverría, the Costa Rican Prize ACAM (Association of Composers and Musical
Authors), and the Musical Prize Ancora. He has participated in several
Contemporary Music Festivals, among them V Festival Leo Brower, Fall in Moscow
(Russia), La Habana Festival in Cuba, and other festivals in Mexico, Venezuela, and
Puerto Rico. His work has been published by the following publishers: Editorial
Periferia in Barcelona, Spain, Revista Casa de las Américas in Cuba, and Editorial from the University of Costa Rica.44
Influence of Russia
Eddie Mora lived in Russia during a very crucial period of his life, from the age of eighteen to the age of twenty-eight. During this time he absorbed Russian culture and he slowly started speaking the language. In addition to learning counterpoint and theory, he attended chamber music classes and orchestra rehearsals. During his studies at the Conservatory he also met his wife, with whom he eventually had a son. 45
Russian culture influenced Eddie Mora´s music as well as his life. He had a great admiration for composers such as Igor Stravinsky, Dmitri Shostakovich and
44 Personal website composer Eddie Mora Bermúdez, accessed February 8, 2016, http://www.eddiemora.com. 45 Eddie Mora Bermúdez, interview by author, via Skype, May 14, 2016.
52
Alfred Schnittke; these composers became major influences on his music. 46 Despite his previous interest in composition, he did not compose any music while in Russia, but rather focused on developing a strong technique in his primary instrument and absorbing the Russian musical environment.
According to Emily Jean Ahrens, one of the main characteristics found when analyzing Russian vocal music is the ambiguity in establishing a tonic; 47 in Eddie
Mora’s vocal music, there is a tonal center, but not necessarily a tonic per se, as the tonality is not used in a functional manner. In the next example the key signature is established as either C major or A minor; however, the melody stays around pitch tone “E” (Musical example 26).
46 Eddie Mora Bermúdez, interview by author, via Skype, May 14, 2016. 47 Emily Jean Ahrens, "The Composition of Russian Folk Music: An in Depth Study of the Distinctive Characteristics of Russian Folk Music as Known and Distributed in the Late 19th Century," Order No. 1505381, Texas Christian University, 2009, accessed May 19, 2016, http://ezproxy.library.arizona.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy4.library.arizona.e du/docview/918701712?accountid=8360.
53
Musical example 26. Mora, Ni aquí ni allá, mm. 1-10, tonal center E
Another characteristic of Russian music is the phenomenon known as peremennost: “ This concept is generally defined as a fluctuation between two or more diatonically related tonal centers, [peremennost] has been a central concern in
Russian music theory that deals with folk and church music, as well as folk-inspired
Russian classical music.” 48 As mentioned previously, Ni aquí ni allá, uses pitch tone
“E” as a tonal center; however, it changes to F at the end of the piece, creating a sensation of instability (Musical example 27).
48 Ellen Bakulina, “ The concept of mutability in Russian Theory,” MTO a journal of the Society for Music Theory 20, no. 3 (September 2014), http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.14.20.3/mto.14.20.3.bakulina.html (accesed June 9, 2016).
54
In memoriam
In memoriam was composed in 2008 as homage to the 70th anniversary of the birth of Costa Rican poet Jorge Debravo. By the time In memoriam was composed, thirteen years had passed since Eddie Mora returned from studying abroad in
Russia. At this point in time, Mora was already recognized as one of the leading composers in Costa Rica.
The Miravalles Wind Quintet commissioned this piece, requesting the addition of a female voice. This work was premiered in Costa Rica’s National
Theater in a concert that combined visual arts and music. Mora arranged another version of In memoriam to be performed by piano, cello, violin and voice with minor percussion. 49
The composer mixed three poems with a common subject to create a dark undertone in the ambiance for In memoriam. The composer’s interest was to work with the semantics of words to create a haunting and mesmerizing rhythm to the poetry.
49 Eddie Mora Bermúdez, interview by author, via Skype, May 14, 2016.
55
Musical example 27. Mora, Ni aquí ni allá, mm. 184-190, evidence of peremennost
56
The composer uses the three poems to divide the piece into three sections,
(ABC), while also unifying the work as one complete unit. Sections A and C are slow, and the poetry is mournful; the middle section is fast, and the poetry is lighter. The poetry is the factor that defines where the music is going (Musical examples 28-30),
(Figure 2). The A section has as tonal center pitch tone E flat, B section uses D flat and C section uses D flat and A as tonal centers. Regarding musical characteristics in his work, there is a prominent use of consonance and dissonance to highlight the subject of death in the poem.
Musical example 28. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 14-18, section A
57
Musical example 29. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 75-81, section B
Musical example 30. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 204-210, section C
58
Section A Section B Section C
Tengo los huesos Está lloviendo en los Estaba muerta, bien rudamente tristes/ My techos está lloviendo en muerta/ She was dead, bones are utterly sad. la acera/ It is raining on really dead. the roof and in the streets.
Figure 2. Poetry translation from musical examples 28-30
Use of imitations of small motifs between the instruments prolongs the momentum, while the use of sustained notes at the end of the phrases creates the illusion of time stopping (Musical example 31). The small motivic use of cells is reminiscent of an aspect of minimalism: “A term borrowed from the visual arts to describe a style of composition characterized by an intentionally simplified rhythmic, melodic and harmonic vocabulary.” 50 This characteristic was mentioned in an interview by the author with the composer, in which he affirmed the influence of European minimalism, as well as the influence of Igor Stravinsky and his use in rhythm and meters.51
50 Keith Potter, "Minimalism," in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, accessed June 12, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy4.library.arizona.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/ 40603. 51 Eddie Mora Bermúdez, interview by author, via Skype, May 14, 2016.
59
Musical example 31. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 27-31, use of imitation
One of the conspicuous aspects in this piece is the composer’s request for the singer to play percussion instruments instead of using a separate percussionist; this aspect is related to Eddie Mora’s theatrical conception of his music. In contrast with some of his music, In memoriam employs a traditional musical language.
Furthermore, the composer has a rhythmic plan instead of presenting aleatoric elements; there is, however some elements suggestive of aleatoric language, especially in the strings (Musical example 32). As mentioned before, the use of tonality is not traditional; there is a tonal center but it does not use scale degrees of traditional Major and Minor organizations. The tonality is related to sonorities and intuitively matching the quality needed for each section.
60
Musical example 32. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 19-22, aleatoric elements
In the same manner that Carol Kimball states, “Stravinsky’s music has been characterized as “intellectual,” 52 Eddie Mora’s music demands a great deal of all of the performers to give meaning to his music. The intensity of the rhythm, the chromaticism in the melody, and the constant change of meters in Mora’s music is a direct influence of the Russian School, especially Igor Stravinsky (Musical example
33 and 34 show the constant change of meter).
52 Carol Kimball, Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 2006), 468.
61
Musical example 33. Mora, In memoriam, mm. 108-112, change in meters
62
Musical example 34. Stravinsky, excerpt from The Firebird (Intercession of the Princesses). Rehearsal number 117, use of meters and chromaticism
63
CHAPTER 7: MARVIN CAMACHO VILLEGAS (b. 1965)
Biography
Marvin Camacho was born in Barva de Heredia, Costa Rica, in 1966. He studied piano and composition at the Conservatorio de Castella and the School of
Music of the University of Costa Rica. Among his teachers were Roger Wesby, Mario
Alfaguell, Luis Diego Herra, Bernal Flores, Benjamin Gutierres, and Pilar Aguilar.53
Camacho has received several prizes for his compositional work: National
Prize of Composition Aquileo Echeverría (2007), The ACAM prize (2010), and the
Aquileo Echeverría National Prize in Composition (2012). His music has been performed in several countries of the American hemispheres, Europe, and in distinguished halls such as Carnegie Hall and the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico
City. His music has been recorded by the University of Costa Rica, the Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, and the
Symphonic Orchestra of Heredia.
His sonata Dall’Inferno, Quijotada N.3 and Nocturn were selected as the obligatory piano works in the First International Competition of Contemporary
Music, “Music of the last 100 years” (Lithuania, 2014). Similarly, in 2015, the
International Piano Competition Maria Clara Vargas Cullell in Costa Rica commissioned his work De bosquejos y diabluras as the obligatory work for the advanced level competitors54.
53 Personal website of composer Marvin Camacho, accessed February 10, 2016, http://www.marvincamacho.com. 54 Ibid.
64
Marvin Camacho is currently a Full Professor at the University of Costa Rica, where he serves as the Assistant Director of the School of General Studies, the
Coordinator of the Outreach Program, and a Professor in the Pre-University
Program at the School of Music in the Atlantic Headquarters of the University of
Costa Rica. He is also president of the Heredia Symphonic Association.
Returning to Costa Rican Voice
While composers Julio Fonseca, Dolores Castegnaro, and Eddie Mora had the opportunity to study abroad and absorb other cultures, composer Marvin Camacho had his entire education in Costa Rica and explored his own musical language by immersing himself in our indigenous heritage and our culture. This composer represents the new eclectic Costa-Rican voice that has absorbed the multiculturalism and cosmopolitan nature of his predecessors.
One of the first works that features Marvin Camacho’s interest in Costa Rican heritage and culture is Memories of Sibö. This work sets to music a series of short stories inspired by legends of the Costa Rican indigenous group Bribris. In the
1980s, Camacho assisted Jorge Acevedo (Dean of the Fine Arts at the University of
Costa Rica at the time), who was making field trips to the Costa Rican region of
Talamanca, where the Bribris resided.55 The purpose of these trips was to compile the stories and melodies of the Bribri culture to preserve them. Since then Marvin
55 Fernando Chaves, "El Compositor Tico Marvin Camacho Recrea ‘Las Memorias De Sibö’," La Nacion, November 02, 2015, accessed May 11, 2016, http://www.nacion.com.
65
Camacho has been merging elements of different aspects of the Costa Rican culture into his music. 56
Canciones simples sobre espíritus, brujas y espantos costarricenses was composed in 2015 and is dedicated to the present author. It is a song cycle that is based on four popular legends of Costa Rica and Latin American culture. The composer created the lyrics, however; they are not intended to narrate the complete story, but to suggest it.
Canciones simples sobre espíritus, brujas y espantos costarricenses
1. Lamento de la Llorona
The first song of the cycle, set in the very conservative society of the 19th century, tells the story of a young woman who finds she is pregnant out of wedlock.
In desperation, she decides to hide until the baby is born and throw her newborn baby into the river. She is then cursed for eternity and forced to see her baby crying and floating in the river without the possibility of saving him. The legend says one can hear the lament of this woman when close to the river.
The song begins with a lament on an “a” vowel and the narrator (La Llorona) speaks in first person (Musical example 35). It is written in a 6/8 meter and the composer plays with the Costa Rican rhythm tambito, but uses a slower tempo
(Musical example 36). Tambito is a rhythm that is syncopated 3/4 time and originated in the province of Guanacaste. The term "tambito" is the diminutive form
56 Marvin Camacho Villegas, interview by author, San Jose, Costa Rica. December 26, 2015.
66 of "tambo.” 57 The repetitive patterns represent the ongoing torture of this woman who cannot have her baby back and is condemned to repeatedly experience her anguish for eternity.
The composer uses the higher part of the staff to depict the woman’s lament and the lower part when she is telling her story (Musical example 37).
The structure of the song is A B A; A presents two different musical motives and a contrasting section in B.
Musical example 35. Camacho, Lamento de la Llorona, mm. 13-16. Melodic motive portrays her constant lament
.
Musical example 36. Camacho, Lamento de la Llorona, mm. 2-4. Repetitive patterns, Costa Rican rhythm tambito
57 Robert J. Griffin, "The Folk Music of Costa Rica: A Teaching Perspective," Hispania 71, no. 2 (1988): 438-41.
67
Musical example 37. Camacho, Lamento de la Llorona, mm. 6-10. Different use of registers
2. Una bruja llamada Zarate
As in the first song, the structure of this song is A B A with repetition of the A section each time. Also as in the first song, Camacho uses the higher register to create movement when the narrator talks, while the contrasting section uses the lower part of the register in the voice, which is not the narrator, but the main
68 character talking, in this instance the witch Zarate, who is meditating on her own thoughts (Musical examples 38 and 39).
Zarate was a young beautiful sorceress who falls in love with a handsome man. This man rejects her and as revenge, she transformed him into a peacock. Her house is a big stone in Aserri, from where she observes the world and performs her rituals. In this music there is a constant use of the words: danza, brinca, baila,
(dance, jump, party) depicting a ritual where she enjoys, laughs, and makes fun of life. As Bernal Flores states in La música en Costa Rica, dance is a component of indigenous rituals.
Similar to the first song of the cycle, the composer uses the higher register to create the intention of moving forward and the lower registration as a meditation on the witch’s thoughts.
Musical example 38. Camacho, Una bruja llamada Zarate, mm. 26-30, A section
69
Musical example 39. Camacho, Una bruja llamada Zarate, mm. 36-40, B section
3. El arrullo de los duendes
The third song is the most abstract of the cycle. In Marvin Camacho’s hometown, Barva de Heredia, there was a popular myth about goblins (disguised as children), who used to appear to children or adults and kidnap them. An excerpt of his song says: “Jugando en mi casa, perdiéndonos alrededor de mi casa” (getting lost at home and around it). The legend says the goblins wanted to steal kids and did so by playing with them and convincing the children to go with them. This piece is a vocalise and a lullaby sung by goblins to attract kids; in the middle of the vocalise there is a spoken part that is a remembrance of how many magic creatures are with us while we are kids, but not once we grow up. Instead of sections, this song is
70 structured by phrases A B A C A B (Musical example 40). The section C is spoken and is intended to attract the audience to this mystical story.
Musical example 40. Camacho, El arrullo de los duendes. Phrase structure
4. ¿Quién protege la Montaña?
This legend is about a magical creature that protects nature; anyone who attempts to put nature at risk will have to face El dueño del monte (the owner/Master of the mountain). If a civilians want to cross over the mountain, they will have to make an offering to this creature; a piece of their own clothes have to hang at the
71 base of the mountain to show respect. In this last piece of the set, the composer opened the possibility of using the harp in the piano to introduce a sound that is precise, but creates a more magical atmosphere at the same time (Musical example
41, 42). Costa Ricans have always been proud of their natural environment; the legend of El dueño del monte is a reflection of how important nature is in our culture and the respect that is shown to nature even through legends.
Musical example 41. Camacho, ¿Quién protege la Montaña?, mm. 1-6. Use of the harp in the piano at the beginning and end
Musical example 42. Camacho, ¿Quién protege la Montaña?, m. 27. Use of the harp in the piano at the beginning and end
72
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION
Costa Rican vocal music has come a long way since the beginning of the twentieth century. With the lack of higher education, musicians were forced to get out of their comfort zone and travel to other countries to pursue a higher level in music. This phenomenon produced different schools of beliefs in music and multiculturalism that is present in Costa Rican music.
The journey of Costa Rican composers to study music covered a number of countries throughout Europe. Julio Fonseca journeyed to Italy and Belgium, returning to Costa Rica with his simple melodies, exploring different genres in his need to mimic the great European composers like Gabriel Fauré and Ernest
Chausson. Dolores Castegnaro was able to absorb the cultures of the cosmopolitan life of Milan, France and Mexico, as well courageously face a world where women composers were not accepted. Eddie Mora’s rhythmically complex and theatrical music was influenced by the Russian culture. Marvin Camacho contributed his own personal Costa Rican voice. Camacho’s use of Costa Rican rhythm tambito and legends from Costa Rica brought back the interest in Costa Rican culture.
The influence of Italy, with its simple harmonic accompaniments to highlight beautiful melodies and texts; the influence of France and its close relation between text and music in a more personal and intimate way to treat the melody; the florid rhythms and strong character from the influence of Spanish music—all of these elements have brought to Costa Rican music a very special multi-culturalism that make it unique.
73
For further investigations in Costa Rican vocal music, there are three composers (Julio Mata Oreamuno, Felix Mata, and Rocío Sanz) who were not included in this document due to the lack of foreign influence on their music; however, their contribution to Costa Rican music is very valuable. Slowly but surely, this small country in Central America has demonstrated to the world that it has a cultural heritage that is worthy of recognition. This investigation has given me the opportunity to share Costa Rican vocal music and to be a part of the process of increasing global recognition of Costa Rican vocal music.
74
APPENDIX: TRANSLATIONS OF POEMS
Amor ti chiedo
Io non sapeva che cosa fosse amore I didn’t know what love was Ei belli occhi a me lo rivelar, your sweet look revealed it to me, Mai si turbo la pace del mio core, never my heart was troubled, Glio sguardi tuoi m’han fatto. but what your eyes have done to me, M’han fatto palpitar. they have made my heart agitate.
Amor ti chiedo a me non lo negare Love, I beg you, Ma se non m’ami do not reject me, al men non mi guardare. but if you do, at least do not look at me.
Quanta dai dardi tuoi luce sfavilla? How lovely the light your eyes reflect, Dimmi che m’ami tell me you love me although I may die, e poi fammi morir. but if you do not love me, Ma se non m’ami from your eyes I want to elude the al men non mi guardare. gleam.
Amor ti chiedo a me non lo negare Love, I beg you, Ma se non m’ami do not reject me, al men non mi guardare. but if you do, at least do not look at me.
Romanza
Dans la forêt chauve et rouillee In the bare and blighted forest Il ne reste plus au Rameau nothing now remains on the branches Qu’une pauvre feuille oubliée, except a poor forgotten leaf, Rien qu’une feuille et un oiseau . nothing but a leaf and a bird.
Il ne reste plus dans mon âme Nothing now remains in my heart Qu’un seul amour pour y chanter, except one love which is there to sing. mais le vent d’automne qui brame But the howling autumn wind ne permet pas de l’écouter. prevents it from being heard.
L’oiseau s’en va, la feuille tombe The bird flies away, the leaf falls, l’amour s’éteint, car cést l’hiver. the love stops burning, for it is winter. Petit oiseau, viens sur ma tombe Oh little bird, come to my tomb Chanter quand l’arbre sera vert. to sing when the tree is green again.
75
Lasciate amare
Lasciate amare cosi teneramente Let yourself be loved tenderly lasciate amare come si amano I bimbi Let yourself be loved as you love le viole i capucines le tube rose children le nuvole leggere sopra il mar. the purple nasturtium, the pink flowers, the agile clouds over the sea.
Lascia vagare gli occhi tuoi si belli Unleash your beautiful eyes Nella purezza della calma note in the purity of the peaceful night Riposati piccina e non soffrir rest my love and do not suffer Le cose buone sono accanto a te. good things are next to you.
Gitana tu boca es un clavel
Gitana tu boca es un clavel, Your mouth is like carnations, gypsy girl, gitana tus labios son de miel, gypsy girl, your lips are like honey, gitana el fuego de tu amor, the fire of your love, gypsy girl, abraza de amor mi corazón, embrace with love my heart, me muero ante el hechizo de tu pasión. I could die from your desire spell.
En las noche sevillanas In the Sevillian nights, tu cuerpo Gitano, se estremece a los your gypsy body trembles to lamentos que canta el amor. the laments of love.
Las guitarras encondidas The hidden guitars entre flores de jazmín, among jasmine flowers, le acompañan a tus danzas accompany your dances un cantar que dice así: with a song that says:
Gitana tu boca es un clavel, Your mouth is like carnations, gypsy girl, gitana tus labios son de miel, gypsy girl, your lips are like honey, gitana el fuego de tu amor, the fire of your love, gypsy girl, abraza de amor mi corazón, embrace with love my heart, me muero ante el hechizo de tu pasión. I could die from your desire spell.
Quisiera poseer tu cuerpo de ámbar I would like to posses your pulido, polished amber-like body, tu boca de roja sangre como un clavel, your carmine lips like carnations, tus ojos que en el misterio no hay quien your mysterious eyes that have no te iguale equals, and in them I would like to y en ellos mirarme siempre hasta morir. reflect myself until I die.
76
In memoriam
Tengo los huesos rudamente tristes. I have my bones roughly sad, Ellos presienten que la muerte mía they sense that my death será una muerte pobre, sin camisa, will be a poor one, a shirtless one, muerte de hambre o de cantara vacía death of starvation of an empty pitcher.
v v
Está lloviendo en los techos en el dolor y It is raining on the roof, on the pain it en la acera, rains and on the sidewalk, Se están mojando las calles y los que se The streets are getting wet and those hayan afuera. who are outside. Oscuridad de la noche llueve en la vida In the darkness of the night, it rains on Madura the mature life. v v
Estaba muerta, bien muerta, a la orilla de She was dead, really dead, outside the la puerta. door, Y como nadie salía porque llovía y llovía, And because nobody went outside due to se quedó muerta en la acera. the rain, She stayed, death on the sidewalk.
Canciones simples sobre brujas y espantos
El lamento de la Llorona The lament of the weeping lady
Ay, ay! Lloro mi pesar, junto al río estoy. Ah,ah! I cry my sorrows beside the river. Yo lo abandoné, I abandoned him, mi pequeño bien. my little one. Yo lo abandoné, Llorona soy. I abandoned him, the weeping lady I am.
Una bruja llamada Zarate A sorceress named Zarate
Danza, brinca, baila, el hechizo va Dance, jump, party, the spell goes, ritos, trucos embrujados, rites, magical tricks, el hechizo está. the spell is.
Zarate, soy Zarate, la bruja que vive Zarate, I am Zarate, a sorceress who lives En la piedra de Aserrí. in Aserrí’s stone.
Danza, brinca, baila, el hechizo va Dance, jump, party, the spell goes, ritos, trucos embrujados, rites, magical tricks,
77 el hechizo está. the spell is.
El Arrullo de los duendes The lullaby of the goblins
Yo sé de todas las voces que pueblan mi I know of all the voices who live in my casa, house, pequeños niños jugando en mi casa, little children playing in my house, perdiéndonos alrededor de mi casa. losing ourselves around it. Gnomos, duendes, espíritus de mi Gnomes, goblins, spirits of my childhood. infancia.
¿Quien protege a la montaña? Who protects the mountain?
Señor de la montaña, Master of the mountain, en la montaña vive un espíritu protector. in the mountain lives a protector spirit. Oh, gran señor! Oh, great master! Quien cruza sus dominios, Who dares to cross his lands, al espíritu deb ever. the spirit must see
78
REFERENCES
Ahrens, Emily Jean. "The Composition of Russian Folk Music: An in Depth Study of the Distinctive Characteristics of Russian Folk Music as Known and Distributed in the Late 19th Century." Order No. 1505381, Texas Christian University, 2009. Accessed May 5, 2016. http://ezproxy.library.arizona.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ez proxy4.library.arizona.edu/docview/918701712?accountid=8360.
Bakulina, Ellen. “The Concept of Mutability in Russian Theory.” MTO, A Journal of the Society for Music Theory 20, no. 3 (September 2014). Accessed June 9, 2016. http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.14.20.3/mto.14.20.3.bakulina.html.
Barquero, Zamira, and Enrique Cordero. Canciones: Julio Mata (1899-1969). Costa Rica: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 2004.
Cervantes-Gamboa, Laura. “Costa Rica: Traditional Music.” Grove Music Online, ed. Laura Macy. Accessed April 9, 2008. http://www.grovemusic.com.
Chacon, Vinicio ."El Conservatorio de Castella celebra 60 años de creer, crear, crecer." La Nacion, June 26, 2013. Accessed June 9, 2016. http://www.nacion.com.
Chase, Gilbert. A Guide to the Music of Latin America. Washington: Pan American Union, 1962.
Chaves, Fernando. "El Compositor Tico Marvin Camacho Recrea ‘Las Memorias De Sibö’." La Nacion, November 02, 2015. Accessed May 11, 2016. http://www.nacion.com.
Eddie Mora Bermudez. http://www.eddiemora.com/
Flores, Bernal. La Música en Costa Rica. San José: Editorial Costa Rica, 1978.
Griffin, Robert J. "The Folk Music of Costa Rica: A Teaching Perspective." Hispania 71, no. 2 (1988): 438-41.
Halfyard, Janet. "Seguidilla." The Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed April 10, 2016, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy3.library.arizona.edu/subscribe r/article/opr/t114/e6064
Kimball, Carol. Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 2006, 468.
79
Marvin Camacho Villegas. http://www.marvincamacho.com/
Matarrita-Venegas, Manuel. “An Analytical Study of Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 13, by Costa Rican Composer Carlos Enrique Vargas.” DMA diss., Louisiana State University, 2004. In ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Accessed December 8, 2015. http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy1.library.arizona.edu/pqdtglobal/docvie w/305171266/D8595C27B6894B22PQ/1?accountid=8360.
______El desarrollo de la canción artística en Costa Rica, in the Decanato de Bellas Artes website. Accessed February 28, 2016. http://www.bellasartes.ucr.ac.cr.
Mayer-Serra, Otto. Música y músicos en Latinoamérica. México, D.F.: Editorial Atlante, 1947.
Meléndez, Carlos. “Culturas Precolombinas de Costa Rica.” La voz de la Ande (Octubre, 1971): 2.
Music in Latin America: An Introduction. Prentice-Hall History of Music Series, ed. H. Wiley Hitchcock. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1979.
National Musical Archive from the University of Costa Rica. http://www.archivohistoricomusical.com/
Olson, Margaret. Listening to Art Song. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2015.
Pittier, Henry. Apuntaciones etnológicas sobre los indios Bribri. San José: Imprenta Nacional, 1938.
Potter, Keith. "Minimalism." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed June 12, 2016. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy4.library.arizona.edu/subscribe r/article/grove/music/40603
Sider, Ronald R, “Contemporary Composers in Costa Rica.” Latin American Music Review/Revista de Música Latinoamericana, vol. 5, no.2 (Autumn-Winter, 1984): 263-276.
______“The Art Music of Central America: Its Development and Present State.” Ph.D. diss., University of Rochester, 1967.
Stein, Louise K. and Roger Alier, "Zarzuela." Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, Oxford University Press. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy4.library.arizona.edu/subscribe r/article/grove/music/40742.
80
Tucker, G. M. and Nicholas Temperley. “Rondo Form.” The Oxford Copanion to Music. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed June 2, 2016. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy3.library.arizona.edu/subscribe r/article/opr/t114/e5740
Vargas Cullel, María Clara. “Práctica Musical en Costa Rica, 1845-1942.” M.A. thesis, Universidad de Costa Rica, 1999.
______De las fanfarrias a las salas de concierto: Música en Costa Rica (1840-1940). Costa Rica: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 2004.