Necessary, Legal, and Right? the UK and the Intervention in Libya in 2011
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The Crisis in Libya
APRIL 2011 ISSUE BRIEF # 28 THE CRISIS IN LIBYA Ajish P Joy Introduction Libya, in the throes of a civil war, now represents the ugly facet of the much-hyped Arab Spring. The country, located in North Africa, shares its borders with the two leading Arab-Spring states, Egypt and Tunisia, along with Sudan, Tunisia, Chad, Niger and Algeria. It is also not too far from Europe. Italy lies to its north just across the Mediterranean. With an area of 1.8 million sq km, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa, yet its population is only about 6.4 million, one of the lowest in the continent. Libya has nearly 42 billion barrels of oil in proven reserves, the ninth largest in the world. With a reasonably good per capita income of $14000, Libya also has the highest HDI (Human Development Index) in the African continent. However, Libya’s unemployment rate is high at 30 percent, taking some sheen off its economic credentials. Libya, a Roman colony for several centuries, was conquered by the Arab forces in AD 647 during the Caliphate of Utman bin Affan. Following this, Libya was ruled by the Abbasids and the Shite Fatimids till the Ottoman Empire asserted its control in 1551. Ottoman rule lasted for nearly four centuries ending with the Ottoman defeat in the Italian-Ottoman war. Consequently, Italy assumed control of Libya under the Treaty of 1 Lausanne (1912). The Italians ruled till their defeat in the Second World War. The Libyan constitution was enacted in 1949 and two years later under Mohammed Idris (who declared himself as Libya’s first King), Libya became an independent state. -
Arab Spring and Israeli Security: the New Threats
Alternative Politics, Vol. 3, No. 3, 509-546, November 2011 509 ARAB SPRING AND ISRAELI SECURITY: THE NEW THREATS Dünya BAŞOL* ABSTRACT The aim of the article is to evaluate Israel’s security perceptions about the Arab Spring. The study argues that The Arab Spring is the reshuffling of the Middle East by re- aligned U.S.-Turkish common policies. For Israel the devil you know is more acceptable than the unknown future. Bearing in mind all the results of the surveys showing that Arabs can easily fall into radical Islam, Israel prefers not to enter such a dangerous and risky game for toppling down the old dictators and establishing new regimes. Israel could resist such a change and force U.S. to postpone or cancel their new policies if it were a decade ago, but today she is extremely isolated in international arena thanks to Bibi’s government. On the other hand, Israel struggles to counter the Turkish offenses in diplomacy, has to avoid the ―Iranian Trap‖ that is being set by Iran slowly and carefully for the past few years, and also domestically facing serious crises. All those dynamics are forcing Israel to remain silent unless it breaks the isolation that it fell, and watch carefully the games played by U.S., Turkey and Iran in the Middle East. Key words: Israeli Politics, Arab Spring, Radical Islam, Israel’s Security Perception, Iran’s Foreign Policy. ARAP BAHARI VE İSRAİL GÜVENLİĞİ: YENİ TEHDİTLER ÖZET Bu çalışmanın amacı İsrail güvenlik algısının Arap Baharına nasıl baktığını analiz etmektir. Bu çerçevede çalışma, İsrail’in güvenlik perspektifi bağlamında, Ortadoğu’da çıkan karışıklıkları bölgeye belirsizlik ve istikrarsızlık getireceği için temkinli baktığını iddia etmekte ve İsrail’in bölgedeki otoriter rejimlerin yıkılmasını, siyasal İslam tehlikesinden kendisine tehdit oluşturduğunu düşünmektedir. -
Military Operations in Libya
Military Operations in Libya Standard Note: SN/IA/5909 Last updated: 24 October 2011 Author: Claire Taylor Section International Affairs and Defence Section On 17 March 2011 the UN Security Council adopted resolution 1973 (2011), under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which authorised the use of force, including enforcement of a no-fly zone, enforcement of a UN arms embargo against Libya and to protect civilians and civilian areas targeted by the Qaddafi regime and its supporters. The weekend of 19/20 March saw French, British and US military action begin under Operation Odyssey Dawn. By the end of March command of that operation had been gradually transitioned to NATO. On 23 March NATO assumed command of operations to enforce the UN arms embargo. The transfer of command responsibility for the no-fly zone was agreed on 24 March; while the decision to transfer command and control for all military operations in Libya was taken on 27 March. NATO formally assumed command under Operation Unified Protector at 0600 hours on 31 March 2011. Military operations have been ongoing for seven months. During that time there have been criticisms of stalemate in the military campaign, allegations over burden sharing among NATO Member States, and questions over the existence of a viable exit strategy. Following the fall of Sirte and the death of Colonel Gadaffi, Libya’s transitional government declared liberation on 23 October 2011. The NATO Secretary General also confirmed in a statement that a preliminary decision had been taken to end Operation Unified Protector on 31 October 2011. However, he also went on to state that NATO would monitor the situation and retain the capacity to respond to threats to civilians if necessary. -
The Italian Approach to Libya
Études de l’Ifri "PLAYING WITH MOLECULES" The Italian Approach to Libya Aldo LIGA April 2018 Turkey/Middle East Program The Institut français des relations internationales (Ifri) is a research center and a forum for debate on major international political and economic issues. Headed by Thierry de Montbrial since its founding in 1979, Ifri is a non-governmental, non-profit organization. As an independent think tank, Ifri sets its own research agenda, publishing its findings regularly for a global audience. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, Ifri brings together political and economic decision-makers, researchers and internationally renowned experts to animate its debate and research activities. The opinions expressed in this text are the responsibility of the author alone. ISBN: 978-2-36567-861-2 © All rights reserved, Ifri, 2018 Cover: “A scratched map of Libya hanging on the walls inside a reception centre for unaccompanied and separated migrant and refugee minors in Western Sicily”. © Aldo Liga. How to quote this document: Aldo Liga, “‘Playing with Molecules’: The Italian Approach to Libya”, Études de l’Ifri, Ifri, April 2018. Ifri 27 rue de la Procession 75740 Paris Cedex 15 – FRANCE Tel.: +33 (0)1 40 61 60 00 – Fax: +33 (0)1 40 61 60 60 Email: [email protected] Website: Ifri.org Author Aldo Liga is a freelance analyst on Middle East and North Africa issues and energy. He works for a Swiss-NGO which implements assessment, monitoring & evaluation and organisational capacity-building programmes. He holds a MA in International Security from Sciences Po Paris and a BA in Political Science from the “Cesare Alfieri” School of Political Sciences of Florence. -
Operation Odyssey Dawn (Libya): Background and Issues for Congress
Operation Odyssey Dawn (Libya): Background and Issues for Congress Jeremiah Gertler, Coordinator Specialist in Military Aviation March 30, 2011 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R41725 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Operation Odyssey Dawn (Libya): Background and Issues for Congress Summary This report provides an overview of military operations in Libya under U.S. command from March 19 to March 29, 2011, and the most recent developments with respect to the transfer of command of military operations from the United States to NATO on March 30. The ongoing uprising in Libya against the government of Muammar al Qadhafi has been the subject of evolving domestic and international debate about potential international military intervention, including the proposed establishment of a no-fly zone over Libya. On March 17, 2011, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1973, establishing a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace, authorizing robust enforcement measures for the arms embargo established by Resolution 1970, and authorizing member states “to take all necessary measures … to protect civilians and civilian populated areas under threat of attack in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, including Benghazi, while excluding a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory.” In response, the United States established Operation Odyssey Dawn, the U.S. contribution to a multilateral military effort to enforce a no-fly zone and protect civilians in Libya. Military operations under Odyssey Dawn commenced on March 19, 2011. U.S. and coalition forces quickly established command of the air over Libya’s major cities, destroying portions of the Libyan air defense network and attacking pro-Qadhafi forces deemed to pose a threat to civilian populations. -
Oliver Miles 6 March 1936–10 November 2019
Libyan Studies 51 (2020), pp 6–7 © The Society for Libyan Studies doi:10.1017/lis.2020.14 Oliver Miles 6 March 1936–10 November 2019 By Hugh Miles Oliver Miles, a distinguished British diplomat and noted Arabist, died on 10 November 2019 of pancre- atic cancer. He was 83. Richard Oliver Miles was born on 6 March 1936 and educated at Ampleforth and at Merton College, Oxford, where he read classical mods followed by oriental lan- guages and got a first class degree in both. At the ageof24heenteredtheDiplomaticServiceand heservedinAbuDhabi,Amman,Mukalla,Aden and Jedda. He played a key role in ending Britain’s colonial role in what is now Yemen, and had a lifelong love of the people of the Arabian Gulf, becoming one of the Diplomatic Service’s leading experts on Arab and Middle East affairs. He also had mid-career postings to Cyprus, during General Grivas’ struggle to annex Cyprus to Greece, and to Athens, where he would return as ambassador at the end of his career. In 1980 he became head of NENAD, the Near East and North Africa Department and in 1984 he was appointed ambassador to Libya, a posting which lasted only four months before diplomatic relations were broken off following the murder of WPC Yvonne Fletcher. Miles had been to Libya during his tenure at NENAD so had some prior understanding about the country, but as ambassador he found Libya an Figure 1. Oliver Miles (Photo: Mr. Nasir Hamid). unpredictable, exciting place which seemed to offer both lots of snakes and lots of ladders. -
Operations in Libya
House of Commons Defence Committee OPERATIONS IN LIBYA Written Evidence This is a volume of submissions, relevant to the inquiry into Operations in Libya, which have been reported to the House but not yet approved for publication in final form. Any public use of, or reference to, the contents should make clear that it is not yet an approved final record of the written evidence received by the Committee. List of written evidence 1 Ministry of Defence 2 Commodore Steven Jermy RN 3 Professor M J Williams 4 CJA Cope, Political Editor, Warship World Magazine 5 Keep Our Future Afloat Campaign (KOFAC) 6 Mike Young, Decision Workshops Ltd 7 Raytheon UK 8 Patrick M Lavender 9 Admiral Sir John Woodward and colleagues OL001 Written evidence from the Ministry of Defence On 24 February the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force started evacuating British Entitled Persons from Libya, following widespread protests and fighting across the country. Over the next two weeks almost 1000 persons were evacuated from locations across the country. Shortly after the evacuation was complete, the security situation deteriorated significantly. On the evening of 19 March UK Armed Forces, along with their US and French counterparts, launched military operations in Libya with the aim of protecting the civilian population of Benghazi from an imminent attack by Colonel Gaddafi’s forces. By 31 March NATO had assumed effective command of all operations to enforce UN Security Council Resolutions (UNSCRs) 1970 and 1973 as Operation Unified Protector (OUP). Committing military forces to Libya averted an imminent humanitarian catastrophe in Benghazi and has saved countless lives since. -
This Is Malcolm Mcbain Interviewing Mr Oliver Miles at His Home In
BDOHP Biographical Details and Interview Index Richard Oliver MILES (born 6 March 1936) CMG 1984. Career (with, on right, relevant pages in interview) Entry to FO, 1960 p 2 Posting to MECAS, 1960 pp 2-3 Acting Political Officer, Abu Dhabi, 1960 pp 3-4 Posting to Bahrain, 1960-61 p 4 FCO (Oil desk), 1961-63 pp 5-7 Third Secretary, Jordan, 1963 -65 pp 7-9 Posting to Aden, 1965 -68 pp 9-17 Posting to Cyprus, 1970-73 pp 17-20 FCO (Assistant Head, Personnel Department), 1973-75 pp 20-22 Counsellor, Jedda, 1975-77 pp 22-31 Counsellor, Athens, 1977-80 pp 31-35 FCO (Head, North East and North Africa Department), 1980-83 pp 35-39 Ambassador to Libya, 1984 pp 39-43 Ambassador to United Nations, 1984 p 43 Ambassador to Luxembourg, 1985-88 pp 44-46 Under-Secretary on loan to Home Civil Service, Belfast, 1988-90 pp 46-49 FCO, Asst Under-Secretary of State (Economic), 1990–91 pp 49-53 Director General of Joint Directorate, Overseas Trade Services, FCO/DTI, 1991–93 pp 49-53 Ambassador to Greece, 1993-96 pp 53-56 Miles also discusses spies (pp 56-59), civil servants holding commercial directorships (pp 59- 60) and the open letter to the Prime Minister on Iraq signed by 52 former diplomats in 2004 (pp 60-68). 1 This is Malcolm McBain interviewing Mr Oliver Miles, on 27 August 2004. Entry to the Diplomatic Service MM I see from your entry in Who's Who that you entered the Diplomatic Service in 1960 having been educated at Ampleforth and Merton College, Oxford. -
Democracy and the Middle East
RESEARCH PAPER 06/54 Democracy and the 8 NOVEMBER 2006 Middle East: Egypt, the Palestinian territories and Saudi Arabia st At the turn of the 21 century the United States attempted to reverse its longstanding policy towards the Middle East of working with undemocratic and often autocratic governments with ‘deficits’ in the areas of elections, freedom of speech and human rights. George W Bush reiterated the new approach in his 2006 State of the Union address, when he linked the security of the US with to reform in the region. “Our offensive against terror involves more than military action. Ultimately, the only way to defeat the terrorists is to defeat their dark vision of hatred and fear by offering the hopeful alternative of political freedom and peaceful change. So the United States of America supports democratic reform across the broader Middle East. Elections are vital, but they are only the beginning. Raising up a democracy requires the rule of law, and protection of minorities, and strong, accountable institutions that last longer than a single vote… Liberty is the future of every nation in the Middle East, because liberty is the right and hope of all humanity. ” President Bush, 31 January 2006 There has been much criticism directed at this ‘democratisation’ project, summed up by former British Ambassador and Middle East consultant Oliver Miles, who wrote in August 2006, “The trouble with this childish vision is that reality doesn't match up to it. The real problems are more uncomfortable.” This Paper examines the emergence of the project and looks at the three elections singled out by President Bush – in Egypt, the Palestinian territories and Saudi Arabia. -
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The United Nation's Responsibility to Protect Civilians from Massive
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES The United Nation’s Responsibility to Protect Civilians from Massive Human Rights Violations in Light of the Intervention in the Libyan Crisis in 2011 By Nuruye Beyan November, 2012 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia The United Nation’s Responsibility to Protect Civilians from Massive Human Rights Violations in Light of the Intervention in the Libyan Crisis in 2011 By Nuruye Beyan Advisor Binyam Dawit (LL.B, LL.M, PhD) A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Masters of Law (LL.M) in Human Rights Law AJTP Vol 1, No. 2/2014 2 Declaration Nuruye Beyan, hereby declare that this research paper is original and has never been presented in any other institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, I also declare that any information used has been duly acknowledged. AJTP Vol 1, No. 2/2014 3 Acknowledgment In the first place, I would like to thank Allah, the Almighty, for giving me the patience, strength and health to do this study from its inception until it done. I am so proud to acknowledge and express my deepest gratitude to my advisor Dr. Binyam Dawit for his indispensible support and assistance, intellectual stimulation as well as invaluable and helpful comments in bringing this study into fruition. He edited the entire document timely and made very constructive comments all along. I am indebted to my family for their unreserved support and encouragement all the way through my study period. I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my friends for their helpful comments on the entire document and for providing advice and reference materials. -
Europe Between Interests, Institutions and Ideas
The London School of Economics and Political Science Europe between Interests, Institutions and Ideas: Crisis cooperation during the 2011 uprisings in Libya Inez Freiin von Weitershausen A thesis submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London 2016 1 Contents Declaration ........................................................................................................................................................ 5 Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................. 6 Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................... 7 Acronyms........................................................................................................................................................... 9 Tables and Figures ......................................................................................................................................... 11 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 13 1. Research questions and case selection .................................................................................................... 15 2. Method........................................................................................................................................................