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Conclusion: Minorities in a Monoethnic and the Micropolitics of Everyday Life

The story of how the Yokohama Chinese maintained their community from the late nineteenth to the late twentieth century reveals radical trans- formations in their collective identities beneath apparent continuities. Broadly speaking, interactions in local and geopoliti cal develop- ments allowed the rise of a unifi ed sense of Chineseness, while at the same time, these Chinese also developed a strong sense of Yokohama localism. This concluding chapter examines how the Yokohama Chinese have un- derstood their relationships with , , and Yokohama in more re- cent years, as well as the implications of the Yokohama Chinese identity position. The fi rst section refl ects on the historical development of an iden- tity as Chinese Yokohama-ites. It examines how this identity position chal- lenges the exclusivity of Chineseness and Japaneseness as terminal and ethnic identifi cations, and bears signifi cance for Sino-Japanese reconcilia- tion. The second will relate these collective identities to social movements seeking to fundamentally alter the meaning of Japanese , and consider the community’s role in shaping the contours of a future Japanese society.

Yokohama Chinese Identities in Historical Perspective Chinatown’s spatial coherence has displayed a remarkable amount of conti- nuity across the twentieth century. Its dimensions and layout have not changed signifi cantly, and despite near complete destruction in 1923 and Conclusion 195

1945, its streets and alleys maintain their distinctive tilted orientation rela- tive to the surrounding city (maps 2A and 2B). At the same time, historical developments have remapped the social position of the Chinese in Yoko- hama. Until the nineteenth century, immigrants from China were affi liated primarily with their native place rather than the that ruled China. When not continually replenished by , these communities were gradually absorbed into Japanese society. The rise of modern -states worldwide changed this situation. The and of a na- scent Chinese nation-state extended their infl uence to Yokohama China- town in the late 1890s and successfully promoted a diasporic huaqiao iden- tity after the founding of the of China (roc) in 1912. In the same years, Chinese identity gained a cross-generational persis tence through ideas of shared ethnicity and the jus sanguinis laws of both China and Japan. Rising confl ict between China and Japan then mobilized Chi- nese residents in support of the politi cal causes of their Chinese . The devastating Asia-Paci fi c of 1937– 45 and its immediate aftermath under the Allied Occupation completed this process of diasporic nation building by making huaqiao identity obligatory for all Chinese in Yokohama, even as the divided the politi cal allegiances of that community. However, in the decades since, the Chinese in Yokohama have increas- ingly expressed their social and economic integration in an inclusive dis- course of local identity, as Yokohama-ites, or hamakko. In this period of peace, the need for Chinese and Japanese to demonstrate loyalty to their respective was diminished, and local became more relevant in daily life. Along the way, the socioeconomic role of Chinatown itself also changed. With increasing work opportunities in mainstream Japa- nese society, the cohesiveness of the has lost some of its pull. This shift has been more a product of economic forces than the social and legal developments like the Hitachi employment discrimination case. Since the 1970s, Japanese companies have shown more willingness to hire Chi- nese, particularly companies involved in trade with China, Taiwan, or Hong Kong.1 And with the availability of jobs outside the traditional family-owned enterprises of Chinatown, many of the older shops have closed. One of the most missed is Hakugatei—originator of the Yokohama shūmai—which

1. Hirota, Kakyō no ima, p. 239.