Fire notes ManagementVolume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998
1947
1968
WILDLANDILDLAND FIREIRE AVIATIONVIATION: PAST, PRESENTRESENT, AND FFUTURE
1994 1998
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Dan Glickman, Secretary April J. Baily U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
Mike Dombeck, Chief Robert H. “Hutch” Brown, Ph.D. Forest Service Editor
Mary Jo Lavin, Ph.D., Director Michael Dudley Fire and Aviation Management Submissions Coordinator
Donna M. Paananen Consulting Editor
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Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Notes. Fire Management notes Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998
CONTENTS On the Cover: 1947 National-Level Interagency Aviation Coordination ...... 04 C Elmer Hurd, Pat Kelly, and Skip Scott 1968
Fifty Years of Helicopter Firefighting ...... 06 WILDLANDILDLAND FFIREIRE AVIATIONVIATION:: PPASTAST,, PRESENTRESENT,, ANDAND FFUTURE Michael Dudley and Gregory S. Greenhoe 8691 The Aerial Firefighting Industry Association: 1994 History and Accomplishments ...... 08 A 1998 William R. Broadwell Counterclockwise from upper right to lower right: A Bell Model 47B landing on a helispot in 1947 on the Bryant Fire, Angeles National Forest, CA (see related Helicopter Association International: A Profile ...... 10 article by Mike Dudley and Greg Frank L. Jensen, Jr. Greenhoe). Photo: USDA Forest Service, Angeles National Forest, Arcadia, CA, 1947. A B–17 dropping retardant in August 1968 on the Fourth of July One of Our Aircraft Is Down! Mountain Fire, Wenatchee National Forest, WA. These World War II bombers Handling an Aircraft Crash on a Fire ...... 13 are no longer used as airtankers. Photo: Gary Morgan USDA Forest Service, 1968. A C–130 dropping retardant on a 1994 fire in southern California. C–130’s are part of the new generation of large airtankers Lessons Learned in Aviation Safety...... 15 used on wildland fires. Photo: Cecil Stinson, Jr., USDA Forest Service, Dennis Hulbert Shasta–Trinity National Forest, Redding, CA, 1994. A type 1 helicopter (an S–64F from the Erickson Air-Crane Co.) using Safety Alert: Watch Out for Aircraft Turbulence! ...... 20 its snorkel to fill its tank—part of the new generation of helicopters used to support Billy Bennett wildland firefighters. Photo: Courtesy of Erickson Air-Crane Co., L.L.C., Central Point, OR, ©1998. Crew Resource Management Enhances Safety ...... 22 Patrick R. Veillette The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the cover) stands for the safe and effective use of wildland fire, now and in the 21st century. Its shape represents the fire triangle (oxygen, heat, Real-Time High-Altitude Fire Mapping ...... 26 and fuel). The three outer red triangles represent the basic functions of wildland fire organiza- Dana Cole, Jeffrey Myers, and Wayne Mitchell tions (planning, operations, and aviation management) and the three critical aspects of wildland fire management (prevention, suppression, and prescription). The black interior represents land affected by fire; the Flying With the Media Over Wildfires...... 31 emerging green points symbolize the growth, restoration, and sustainability associated with Michael G. Apicello fire-adapted ecosystems. The flame represents fire itself as an ever-present force in nature. For more information on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and innovative thinking behind it, SHORT FEATURES contact Mike Apicello, National Interagency Fire Center, 208-387-5460. Guidelines for Contributors ...... 34
Twelve Standard Aviation Questions That Could Save Your Life ...... 35
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority. NATIONAL-LEVEL INTERAGENCY AVIATION COORDINATION
Elmer Hurd, Pat Kelly, and Skip Scott
ffective Federal fire management demands well-coordinated The National Fire Aviation Coordination Group E aviation support from U.S. has proven an effective forum for providing Department of the Interior (USDI) solutions without confrontation or program failure. agencies and the USDA Forest Service. Before 1993, disagree- ments arose between the USDI aircraft and pilot specifications and Even though contentious issues agencies and the Forest Service approval standards, and aviation have arisen since the group was over several contentious issues business management. Between formed, the NFACG has proven an that were ultimately resolved in meetings, the group holds effective forum for providing solu- dependently by each agency. Policy conference calls to address issues tions without confrontation or differences persisted because there that require rapid resolution. The program failure. For example, at was no satisfactory mechanism for NFACG is proactive, forming the peak of the 1994 fire season, resolving them. working groups to identify future the various agencies and/or re- coordination opportunities and to gions imposed separate flight and In December 1993, the National act on them. For example, the duty limitations on pilots to guard Fire Aviation Coordination Group Smokejumper Aircraft and Equip- against pilot fatigue, a serious con- (NFACG) was established to “coor- ment Evaluation Board will coordi- cern because that fire season was dinate aviation support for Federal nate how the agencies address exceptionally long and intense. fire management programs and issues related to aircraft and equip- Because agencies acted indepen- activities.” Coordination is vital ment for smokejumping. dently of each other in setting when addressing crucial inter- agency issues related to aviation. The NFACG consists of the direc- tor, USDI Office of Aircraft Ser- vices; the assistant director, Fire and Aviation Management, USDA Forest Service; and the aviation program manager, USDI Bureau of Land Management.
The NFACG holds meetings as needed, usually quarterly, to address issues such as standard- ization of policies and procedures,
Elmer Hurd is the director of the USDI Office of Aircraft Services, National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID; Pat Kelly is the assistant director of Fire and Aviation Management, USDA Forest A meeting of the National Fire Aviation Coordination Group, established in 1993 to Service, Washington Office, Washington, address crucial interagency issues related to aviation. Members are (from left) Skip Scott, DC; and Skip Scott is the aviation aviation program manager, USDI Bureau of Land Management; Pat Kelly, assistant program manager, USDI Bureau of Land director of Fire and Aviation Management, USDA Forest Service; and Elmer Hurd, director Management, National Interagency Fire of the USDI Office of Aircraft Services. Center, Boise, ID.
4 Fire Management Notes limitations, pilots who were com- pelled to take days off in one geo- THE AVIATION MANAGEMENT TRIANGLE graphic area were permitted to fly in another. The NFACG identified The aviation management triangle this problem and resolved it in stands for sound, professional aviation cooperation with the national fire management. The rotary and fixed- coordination community by pro- wing aircraft at the core of the triangle viding for incremental decreases in symbolize the aircraft we use in our allowable duty hours and days dur- profession. The triangular shape repre- ing periods of prolonged intense sents our commitment as aviation flight activity. managers to the three fundamental principles of aircraft use: safety, cost- In October 1997, the Federal Fire effectiveness, and selection of the right Aviation and Fire Leadership tool for the job. Aviation management is a service function; as aviation Council asked the NFACG to managers, we use aircraft to provide safe, cost-effective, and appropri- broaden its scope to include both ate aviation services. fire and nonfire aviation issues. The group is currently rewriting • The foundation of aviation management is safety. If the mission its charter to provide for overall cannot be safely accomplished, say NO! Use sound risk management coordination on aviation issues to ensure that levels of risk are acceptable. between the USDI agencies and • Strive for cost-effective aircraft use. Question requests that are not the Forest Service. Through its cost-effective; explain why they are not, and recommend a better expanding role, the NFACG alternative. promotes interagency aviation • Use the right aircraft for the job. Question requests for inappropri- coordination at the national ate aircraft; explain why they are inappropriate, and offer a better level, facilitating Federal fire solution. Do what’s right! management for the future. ■
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 5 FIFTY YEARS OF HELICOPTER FIREFIGHTING
Michael Dudley and Gregory S. Greenhoe
t is 1300 hours on August 5, Angeles National Forest (Greenhoe Fifty years later, things haven’t 1947, and you are fire boss on a 1997). On the following morning, changed much. I large wildfire on the Angeles two Bell Model 47B helicopters National Forest in southern owned by the Armstrong-Flint Over the next few days, the California. You face: Helicopter Company arrived on the helicopters were used for a wide fire from their nearby home base variety of missions, including • A rapid rate of fire spread; at Whiteman–Park Airport in Van transporting firefighters to the line • Steep and rugged topography, Nuys, CA. With a portable pump and delivering their food, drinking with temperatures exceeding drafting water from nearby Big water, and other supplies. These 107 ºF (42 ºC); Tujunga Creek to wet down the machines also proved invaluable as • Dependence on call-when- landing zone and with the hood of tools for fireline reconnaissance needed hand crews to staff a Jeep as the base of operations, and mapping. firelines; the first base heliport ever was in • High resource values at stake; full swing. Early Experimentation • The potential for line personnel Earlier experiments with heli- fatigue due to steep terrain and Within 2 hours of their arrival, copters had helped set the stage. a 4,000-foot (1,200-m) elevation pilots Knute W. Flint and Fred In 1945, the Forest Service and the difference from the point of Bowen had flown four missions. U.S. Army ran tests using the origin to the head of the fire; The opportunities for using the Sikorsky R–5A and R–5B. Ira • Terrain unsuitable for the use of helicopters were so apparent Finch, a Forest Service engineer, heavy equipment; and that Forest Supervisor William and Fred Mileav, an Army Air • The inability to support line Mendenhall reported to the Corps veteran, conducted these personnel with food and water. regional forester that “we soon tests under western weather condi- had a serious congestion of tions. In 1946, the Alaska Fire Ser- What tool could you possibly use missions, and we had to limit the vice flew a Sikorsky R–5 on a fire for transporting firefighters and use of the helicopters to the most near Fairbanks, AK; later that year, supporting them on the line? urgent traffic” (Mendenhall 1947). the Forest Service used another Today, the answer is simple: aerial resources. In 1947, however, the answer was far from simple. That year, helicopters were used for the first time to support fire suppres- sion, changing forever how we fight wildland fire. The Bryant Fire Late on that fateful August after- noon, the fire boss (now known as the incident commander) ordered two helicopters to assist in sup- pressing the Bryant Fire on the
Mike Dudley is an aviation management specialist for the USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC; and Greg Greenhoe is the forest fire manage- A Bell 47B helicopter approaching Stone Canyon helispot on the 1947 Bryant Fire, ment officer for the USDA Forest Service, Angeles National Forest, CA. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Angeles National Forest, Angeles National Forest, Arcadia, CA. Arcadia, CA, 1947.
6 Fire Management Notes In addition, he recommended designating an air operations officer for the southern California zone to facilitate helicopter use plans, training, and safety pro- grams; and establishing a liaison with other agencies that were working with helicopters to capi- talize on their findings and avoid duplicating their efforts (Menden- hall 1947).
Fifty years later, the Angeles National Forest celebrated the Ground crew loading fresh water for delivery to the firelines on the 1947 Bryant Fire, birth of wildland fire aviation on Angeles National Forest, CA. Photo: Courtesy of Lynn R. Biddison, Albuquerque, NM, the anniversary of the Bryant Fire. ©1947. On August 5, 1997, a ceremony was held in the Rose Bowl in Pasa- Sikorsky R–5 on the Red Rock Fire Lyle F. Reimann of the San Dimas dena, CA, just a few air miles from on the Angeles National Forest Experimental Forest Staff quickly the site of the Bryant Fire, to near Castiac, CA. All these early formed a helibase organization. honor the early pioneers of rotor missions were test flights for aerial Reimann used a Jeep between the aviation. Included was a demon- reconnaissance, scouting, and landing zone and fire camp, and stration of modern helicopter tech- mapping. had two crewpersons to load and nology. In addition, a small unload cargo, help service the air- monument commemorating the Not until the Bryant Fire in 1947 craft, and brief personnel on using first operational use of helicopters did full operational use of a heli- their safety belts. He also had a on a wildland fire was permanently copter occur, making the value of portable pump in the river 100 installed at the Angeles National the helicopter immediately appar- yards (90 m) away to wet down Forest, Big Tujunga Fire Station, ent. Until that moment, there was the landing zone and two carbon very near the original operating no assurance of success, because dioxide fire extinguishers in case of area. previous tests on the Sikorsky and emergency. Such were the humble Bell aircraft had occurred under beginnings of our current aviation Acknowledgment far different conditions. For ex- organization. ample, operating elevations and The authors would like to thank temperatures during the tests had In a report to the regional forester Ralph Johnson of Boise, ID, a been much lower than those on in September 1947, Forest Super- retired helicopter specialist for the the Bryant Fire. visor Mendenhall emphasized the Forest Service, for contributing value of this new resource, stress- some of the material in this article. Beginnings of Current ing the need for establishing: He was the speaker at the August Helibase Operations 1997 ceremony in Pasadena, CA, • The position of air operations commemorating the 1947 Bryant When the helicopters arrived on Fire and the first operational use of the fire at dawn on August 6, it officer with specific duties on a fire, helicopters in wildland fire- soon became evident that an air fighting. operations section was needed and • Safety standards for all users, • A training program for the air that it should report directly to the Literature Cited chief of staff (the line boss, now operations officer and ground Greenhoe, G.S. 1997. 50 years of helicopter known as the operations section crew, • Standards for helispots, firefighting. Unpublished announce- chief—the person charged with ment. Arcadia, CA: USDA Forest Service, executing the fire boss’s strategy). • Air-to-ground communications, Angeles National Forest. 2 p. and Mendenhall, W.V. 1947. Helicopter opera- • A water-dropping capability. tions. Unpublished report. Arcadia, CA: USDA Forest Service, Angeles National Forest. 13 p. ■ Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 7 THE AERIAL FIREFIGHTING INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION: HISTORY AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS
William R. Broadwell
rivately owned aircraft play a key role in today’s wildland Close collaboration between the Pfirefighting. Since 1988, the AFIA and government agencies enhances Aerial Firefighting Industry Asso- our Nation’s ability to fight wildfires using safe, ciation (AFIA) has supported com- mercial companies that operate cost-effective commercial airtankers. firefighting aircraft under contract with Federal and State wildland Government wildland firefighting firefighting effectiveness, safety, fire management agencies. agencies and the public at large maintenance standards, and air- Through the AFIA, commercial about the safety of commercial craft availability. Toward this goal, airtanker operators maintain a airtankers and the economic the AFIA has established effective vital two-way communication with benefits of using them. two-way communication links agencies responsible for wildland between airtanker operators and fire management, enhancing our The AFIA’s original members were the U.S. Department of Agricul- Nation’s wildland fire suppression all large airtanker operators. Today, ture, U.S. Department of the capabilities. its members are more diverse; they Interior, and State firefighting come from distinct aerial fire- agencies. These links have AFIA History fighting communities that use enhanced the decisionmaking pro- The activities of the AFIA are three different types of aircraft: cess by enabling timely industry financed primarily by companies large multiengine airtankers, input into major government deci- that operate large multiengine helitankers, and single-engine sions regarding policy, contracting, airtankers. These airtankers are airtankers. and airtanker performance specifi- the primary asset in the USDA cations, and by improving the air- Forest Service’s national airtanker Currently, AFIA members tanker operators’ ability to meet program; they are generally not include 13 commercial airtanker current and future aerial fire- used for purposes unrelated to com-panies that operate more fighting needs through better government wildland firefighting. than 75 multiengine airtankers, planning information. Consequently, the viability of the single-engine airtankers, and large airtanker industry depends helitankers; and 3 sustaining Another equally important func- on 1) continued Federal contract- member com-panies that support tion of the AFIA is to ensure that ing with commercial airtanker the associa-tion’s goals. This Federal and State agencies, legisla- companies to meet national aerial membership diversity provides tors, and the general public are firefighting needs and 2) contracts the AFIA with a broad perspective aware of the objectives of the in sufficient numbers to sustain a for representing the industry. airtanker industry and of its con- viable industry. Detailed information on AFIA tributions to the well-being of our members can be found on the AFIA Nation’s citizens and economy. In 1988, faced with these realities, Website at
8 Fire Management Notes AFIA Accomplishments confidence that they are meeting In several areas over the past few documented Government require- years, the interface between the ments. AFIA and Government agencies has proven beneficial to all sides Wildfire Suppression Aircraft and played a key role in shaping Transfer Act of 1996 (S. 2078). the future of the industry. This Act allows qualified bidders to purchase excess military aircraft Interagency Airtanker Board for conversion to airtankers. (IAB). As a result of an AFIA sug- Crucial to both the AFIA and the gestion, there is now a 30-day Forest Service, S. 2078 contains comment period for industry input enabling legislation for National to Government proposals to Airtanker Study recommendations change performance specifications regarding airtanker moderniza- for the tanking and gate system tion. Industry support for this bill (the computer-controlled system was needed for its passage. During P3–A Orion airtanker dropping retardant the early formulation stages of the on a wildfire. Airtankers play a vital and in the belly of an airtanker that highly visible role in wildfire suppression allows the pilot to regulate the bill, the Forest Service solicited in- support. Photo: USDA Forest Service, amount of retardant dropped). In dustry comments and incorporated Washington, DC. 1997, the industry was invited to AFIA input into comments submit- ted through agency channels. Dur- submit comments on a proposed to the industry’s ability to procure ing the congressional staffing revision to the IAB manual. At a aircraft through S. 2078, includ- process, the AFIA expressed strong subsequent IAB meeting, AFIA ing: members played an active role in support for the bill through its congressional contacts. As a result discussing the merits of each • The implementing regulations of S. 2078, the industry has a reli- proposed change. The current under S. 2078, currently able means for continuing to mod- working relationship will ensure being drafted by the U.S. Depart- ernize its airtanker fleet to meet improved tank and gate system ment of Defense; future Federal and State wildland performance while controlling • The Forest Service’s preferred firefighting requirements. costs. transition schedule for airtanker Although procuring aircraft modernization; and through the commercial market National Airtanker Study. Con- • The contracting procedures that remains an option, in the long ducted from 1995 to 1996, the will support the large initial in- term S. 2078 will reduce procure- National Airtanker Study was vestment in turbine aircraft. important in shaping the future of ment costs for airtanker operators and lower contract costs for Gov- the industry and providing guid- These issues will best be resolved ernment wildland firefighting ance for airtanker modernization. through AFIA’s continued close agencies. Industry had already begun cooperation with the Forest airtanker modernization in the late Service and other Government 1980’s, but further direction was AFIA’s Future Role agencies. Through the lines of needed on the numbers, types, and With the planned size and compo- communication that have proven capabilities required by Govern- sition of the future national large so effective in the past, we can con- ment agencies for the national airtanker program now defined by tinue to work together to enhance airtanker program fleet. Early in the National Airtanker Study, the our Nation’s ability to fight the study’s preliminary data- AFIA has turned to examining how wildfires using safe, cost-effective gathering phase, the AFIA mem- the study’s recommendations will commercial airtankers. bership was invited to comment be implemented. The study recom- on aspects of the airtanker busi- mends a future fleet of 41 large, For more information on the AFIA, ness that the study team consid- commercially operated turbine- contact Bill Broadwell, P.O. Box ered important. The resulting powered airtankers with various 523068, Springfield, VA 22152, study now allows the operators to tank capacities. Yet to be defined tel./fax 703-644-6454, e-mail: modernize their fleets with the are several related issues important [email protected]. ■
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 9 HELICOPTER ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONAL: A PROFILE
Frank L. Jensen, Jr.
illions of Americans have seen helicopters at work HAI’s mission is to advance Mfighting wildland fires, either the civil helicopter industry by promoting on television or in person. Heli- the highest levels of safety and efficiency. copters are highly effective in dropping huge quantities of water precisely where needed to help International (HAI). Worldwide, • 683 associate members, includ- firefighters on the ground suppress HAI is now the largest, most vis- ing manufacturers of airframes, fire. That’s why Government agen- ible, and most influential organiza- engines, avionics, components, cies responsible for managing tion dedicated exclusively to civil and accessories; plus repair sta- wildlands have used helicopters in helicopters. HAI is also the only tions, insurance companies, firefighting for more than 50 years nonprofit organization that is financial firms, brokers, consult- (see related article in this issue by equally active in aviation and small ants, and all others who in any Mike Dudley and Greg Greenhoe). business matters. way support the civil helicopter Government agencies use heli- industry. copters for many other purposes as HAI’s Mission and • 66 affiliate members—nonprofit well, such as ferrying personnel entities that have interests and and conducting wildlife surveys. Makeup HAI’s mission is to advance the goals in common with HAI. • 1,281 individual members. Helicopter helicopter industry. We promote the highest levels of safety and Professionals HAI is led by a board of directors Working Together efficiency by encouraging commu- nication and cooperation among elected by and from among the Helicopter professionals, almost members; enhancing professional members. The board has nine vot- without exception, are rugged skills and business acumen; col- ing members, including five com- individualists—people with a lecting, compiling, and analyzing mercial operators, three corporate strong and independent nature pertinent, useful data, and sharing operators, and one Government and the ability to survive against the resulting information; estab- operator. In addition, the board has challenging odds. It is probably lishing a favorable legislative and several ex officio members, includ- only natural for these traits to regulatory environment; and ing representatives from engine flourish in the helicopter industry, encouraging and recognizing out- and airframe manufacturers and where we work with very capable standing achievement, thereby from insurance, safety, and public but complex machines, often in an increasing public recognition of relations organizations, plus three environment that is less than ideal. the important contributions of the special advisors. HAI’s president civil helicopter to society. and corporate secretary are also But even rugged individualists ex officio members of the board. realize that they must work At this writing, HAI has 2,653 together at certain times to accom- members, including: HAI’s Activities plish goals that are too difficult to Many of HAI’s accomplishments reach individually. That’s why, in • 623 regular members—commer- result from the excellent work by 1948, helicopter professionals cial, corporate, or government HAI’s 22 committees. All commit- founded the predecessor organiza- organizations that operate heli- tee participants are volunteers who tion to Helicopter Association copters. These members operate work without compensation to advance the civil helicopter indus- Frank Jensen is the president emeritus of about 4,000 helicopters, safely Helicopter Association International, flying more than 2 million hours try. Described below are just a few Alexandria, VA. annually.
10 Fire Management Notes of our many activities on behalf of Website. The HAI Website (at • “Hot Spots,” with links to the civil helicopter industry.
Member Services. In addition to promoting HELI-EXPO, publishing ROTOR, maintaining our Website, and developing the MMIR system, HAI’s most prominent member services include:
• Publishing Operations Update, a monthly newsletter that tracks regulatory changes; Federal, regional, and user meetings; airspace actions; public hearings; Visitors learning and enjoying themselves at HAI’s HELI-EXPO ’98. Commemorating and proposed Federal rule HAI’s 50th anniversary, the convention was held in Anaheim, CA, on February 15–17, 1998. Almost 13,000 visitors attended; 475 companies exhibited and 69 helicopters were changes that affect helicopter on display. Photo: Courtesy of Bob Rabito, Lagniappe Studio, New Orleans, LA, ©1998. operations.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 11 • Producing Maintenance Update, Memorial Award for distinguished Committee and Government Con- a quarterly publication that pro- flying in mountains, was first pre- tracting Committee responded to vides a forum for mechanics and sented in 1962. Over the years, questions prepared in advance, fol- technicians to exchange infor- HAI’s Salute to Excellence Awards lowed by open discussion. The mation on regulatory issues, have increased in number and questions, responses, and discus- airworthiness directives, aircraft prestige. HAI’s leadership takes sion were all very constructive, alerts, and items of special very seriously the establishment generating a great deal of interest interest. and administration of these and enthusiasm. The clear consen- • Developing educational pro- awards. We have sought to provide sus was that the meeting suc- grams. HAI offers 18 or more suitable awards for excellence in ceeded in facilitating an open courses on a break-even basis to most helicopter activities, mindful exchange on a topic of great almost 500 helicopter profes- of the need not to authorize too importance to both the Govern- sionals, mostly during the week many awards so as to preserve ment and the private sector, and prior to our annual HELI-EXPO. their value and significance. The that future such meetings should Course offerings include: Salute to Excellence Awards are be considered. – A flight instructor refresher presented each year at a special course that meets the Federal awards banquet, with more than Fifty Years of Service Aviation Administration’s 1,000 persons in attendance—a HAI’s 50 years of accomplishments requirements for biannual very prestigious and dignified were made possible only by the recertification; ceremony. generous and sustained dedication – A helicopter operators man- of many volunteers. Every member agement course that covers Collaboration With of the board, every committee par- the business aspects of operat- Federal Agencies ticipant, and many others have sig- ing helicopters; and HAI works very closely with nificantly contributed to HAI’s – A safety managers course. Federal agencies such as the progress, often at personal • Publishing Helicopter Annual. USDA Forest Service, based on expense. This is particularly true Since its inception in 1983, this our mutual interest in using heli- for volunteers from small compa- publication has grown into a copters to suppress wildfires and nies, whose absence from their full-color, comprehensive refer- to support forest management in workplace often affects the bottom ence that includes industry sta- other ways. line. tistics and trends; descriptions and capabilities of HAI’s mem- In 1997, for example, the Forest For further information on HAI, bers; and information on heli- Service and HAI cochaired a meet- contact us by fax at 703-683-4745, copters, components, and ing in Boise, ID, on helicopter use or by e-mail on our Website at services. in wildland firefighting. More than
12 Fire Management Notes ONE OF OUR AIRCRAFT IS DOWN! HANDLING AN AIRCRAFT CRASH ON A FIRE
Gary Morgan
or a fire incident commander, an aircraft crash on an incident The first and foremost priority F enormously complicates an in an aircraft accident on a wildfire already complex situation. The first is the health and safety of the question is always whether anyone was hurt, and the next is what persons involved. action to take. By carefully pre- paring for the eventuality of an aircraft crash on a wildfire, fire • Primary aircraft and crews, have different procedures for deal- managers can reduce confusion • The alert process, ing with these matters, and these and pave the way for a timely, • Communications, and must be considered. effective response. • Preliminary actions to take following an aircraft mishap. Collateral Damage and New Fires. Preparing After the people involved in a crash for an Accident Responding have been cared for, the next issues to an Accident to address are collateral damage Right after initial notification of a After hearing that an aircraft is and any fires started by the crash. downed aircraft, confusion is the If there are fires, a team should be greatest complicating factor. The down, aviation managers should immediately activate portions of named for initial attack. Team best way to reduce confusion is to members must be informed before plan for a postmishap response in a the Aviation Plan that apply to an aircraft mishap. arriving on the scene of any haz- good, clear section of the Aviation ards associated with the type of air- Plan as part of the overall Incident craft that crashed. Hazardous Action Plan (IAP). The intent Initial Notification. Aviation man- agers should immediately contact materials could pose a problem, should be to reduce confusion and particularly if there is a fuel spill, manage the situation while con- the medical unit leader, the opera- tions section chief, and the inci- and the proper personnel should tinuing the firefighting opera- be notified for response. If the site tion—in other words, to deal with dent commander. The incident commander will in turn contact is threatened by fire, action should the mishap as an “incident within be taken to protect the area, if an incident.” the agency administrator, and law enforcement, safety, and fire infor- feasible, to limit damage and mation officers will also be noti- protect the site for the accident Like the IAP as a whole, the Avia- investigation. tion Plan is designed to save time fied. After initial actions are underway and the incident and reduce confusion under cir- Site Security. After the initial cumstances where delays can be commander is alerted, aviation managers should make the calls response crew is in place, efforts costly. In developing the Aviation must be made to preserve the site Plan, aviation managers should list recommended in their local Crash Rescue Guide. and get preliminary information aviation assets to be activated if the needed for the ensuing investiga- situation warrants. The safety por- Health and Safety. The first and tion. Law enforcement officers can tion of the Aviation Plan should be very helpful in this regard and cover: foremost priority is the health and safety of the persons involved in might be needed throughout the investigation, which could last • Person(s) in charge, the accident. Procedures should be in place for medical response and several days. Site security is a concern—curious onlookers Gary Morgan is the aviation safety evacuation of the injured. Any manager for the USDA Forest Service, fatalities will complicate handling should be kept from disturbing the Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI. and protocol. States and counties site and thereby making the inves- tigation more difficult.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 13 Accident Investigation. During • Video footage or a set of RELIMINARY preparations for an incident, a per- photographs of the site from P son should be named to handle the all directions. ACCIDENT preliminary investigation. If an • Written or tape-recorded state- INVESTIGATION incident occurs, this person will ments from witnesses. It is start setting up a formal accident important to interview witnesses CHECKLIST investigation and will take initial as soon as possible and one at a steps to help the investigation time, because if witnesses speak When an aircraft goes down on team when it arrives. to others or get much time to a fire, the person named to initiate the investigation think about what they saw, their should prepare a preliminary Evidence that might lead to discov- memories tend to change under checklist to aid the investiga- ery of the cause of the accident can outside influences. tion team when it arrives. A be lost in the first 24 hours after a • A good log of observations and good list includes: mishap. The preliminary investiga- actions taken at the site. Such a • Date and time of the mishap, tion manager can provide valuable log is helpful in documenting • Name and telephone num- assistance by preserving such evi- response actions. ber of reporting individual, dence. A preliminary investigation • Records such as aircraft mainte- • What was observed and kit and checklist are helpful (see nance documents and logbooks, where, sidebar); kits should be kept at pilot logbooks, flight manifests, • Names of the crew and passengers, aviation facilities where staff know weight and balance sheets, dis- • Extent of injuries, how to use them effectively. patching documents, radio tapes, • Aircraft “N” number and and any other documented infor- operator, To aid the investigation team, mation surrounding the flight. • Measures taken to secure additional materials should be Such records are an essential the site, gathered with the help of law source of information for inves- • Names and telephone enforcement, claims, and safety tigators and should be collected numbers of witnesses, and officers. These materials include: at the first opportunity. • Weather conditions at time of mishap.
Be Prepared! An aviation mishap can distract and confuse an unprepared fire manager. The best way to avoid confusion is to have a clear, com- prehensive plan in place before the mishap occurs. Even though every precaution must be taken to pre- vent them, accidents should be planned for in wildland firefight- ing. If an accident does occur, good preparation will lead to swift, effective response, improving performance by rescue teams and increasing the likelihood that the investigation team will find the Site of a downed helicopter on the 1996 Tower Complex Fire on the Umatilla National cause. By addressing contingencies Forest, OR. Accident investigators search for clues while keeping a watchful eye on nearby early and identifying steps for fire activity, which is not yet threatening. Although the crash site was initially outside the immediate response, fire managers fire team’s management boundary, fire conditions changed on the following day, and investigators donned Nomex shirts, posted watches, and prepared an evacuation plan will reduce distraction from the under the direction of the incident commander, whose careful preparations on this fire principal task at hand—controlling benefited the investigation team. Photo: Gary Morgan, USDA Forest Service, Eastern the wildland fire. ■ Region, Milwaukee, WI, 1996.
14 Fire Management Notes LESSONS LEARNED IN AVIATION SAFETY
Dennis Hulbert
n the 1960’s, the USDA Forest Service’s aircraft accident rate The single most prominent factor I was higher than today (fig. 1)— associated with aircraft accidents and incidents high enough to cause grave con- today is deviation from policy and cern. The fatality rate for Forest Service aviation was almost three standard operating procedures. times that of general aviation throughout the United States. From 1968 through 1973, the years, the Forest Service has mishaps alone continue to cost an 19 people died and 47 were in- continued to struggle for aviation average of two lives each year—a jured in Forest Service helicopter safety, drawing lessons from each very high figure, especially consid- accidents alone. Human error new accident and devising new ering the relatively small size of caused 60 percent of Forest Service policy to prevent its recurrence. the fire aviation community. State aviation accidents and mechanical Based on accident investigations and Federal agencies contract only failure another 30 percent, with and management reviews of avia- about 75 airtankers nationwide 10 percent attributable to environ- tion mishaps, the agency now has each year. For the crew members mental causes. an aviation safety training program who operate this small fleet, an and a comprehensive manual and average rate of two deaths per year Promoting handbook system for aviation from airtanker accidents is a se- Aviation Safety safety. rious concern. To promote aviation safety, the Despite these measures, however, Policy Deviation— Forest Service set out to change accident rates within Forest A Dangerous Tendency the aviation program. Safety Service aviation have stubbornly measures included: Today, the single most prominent resisted further reduction in factor associated with aircraft acci- recent years (fig. 1). Within all dents and incidents is deviation • Implementing a national aircraft agencies nationwide, airtanker accident and incident reporting system now known as 30 SAFECOM. • Rewriting Forest Service Manual 5700 to create an extensive avia- 25 tion oversight and management organization that is still in place 20 today. Nonfatal • Writing and implementing an Fatal aviation handbook system that 15 still guides and directs most of our aviation activities.
10 Number of accidents of Number As figure 1 shows, this series of safety measures succeeded in dras- 5 tically reducing the rate of Forest Service aviation accidents. Over 0 Dennis Hulbert is the aviation safety and 1961–65 1966–70 1971–75 1976–80 1981–85 1986–90 1991–97 training manager for the USDA Forest Years Service, Pacific Southwest Region, Mather, CA. Figure 1—Accident rates for Forest Service aircraft from 1961 to 1997.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 15 from policy and standard operating 20 years, we selected four acci- 4. Failing to follow agency- procedures by employees, manag- dents and one incident with poten- mandated carding procedure ers, and pilots. If this is the case, tial, and we reenacted each case in to verify aircraft certification. are we really learning from past the video. For each, we retell the A helicopter making a wildlife accidents? Why do we keep making surrounding events, give causal census count experienced a the same mistakes? and contributing factors, and sum- severe mechanical failure that marize lessons learned. Each case almost cost those aboard their As an aviation safety manager in highlights a different type of error: lives, resulting in disciplinary the Forest Service’s Pacific South- action for the Forest Service west Region with 25 years of expe- 1. Failing to file a flight plan employee aboard. rience in agency aviation, I’ve during a routine passenger 5. Flying in turbulent weather come to realize that the struggle flight. The plane stalled under while mopping up a lightning for aviation safety is never ending mountain flight conditions, fire. A downdraft caused a heli- and that we must constantly main- resulting in one death, one copter needlessly operating tain and update our safety pro- injury, and a demolished under dangerous conditions to gram. We must market safety, aircraft (fig. 2). crash while attempting to make together with the polices and pro- 2. Flying into icing conditions a water drop, resulting in one cedures needed to ensure it. Our during a routine passenger injury and a demolished safety message must appeal to flight. The wings iced up and aircraft. users in order to be remembered the plane stalled, resulting in and followed. four deaths and a demolished Hindsight is always best, but per- aircraft (fig. 3). haps we should be using aircraft People deviate from policy either 3. Failing to follow proper aircraft based less on convenience or avail- because they are unaware of it or performance planning, such as ability and more on fire behavior. because they choose not to follow calculating load. The helicopter The last case reenacted in “Lessons it. I don’t believe we need more crashed while making a routine Learned,” the helicopter accident policy; instead, as managers we initial-attack landing on an on the lightning fire, immediately need to educate our aviation users offsite helispot, resulting in two raises the question: Why was this on what the policy is and what the deaths, one injury, and a helicopter mopping up this non- consequences will be if they choose demolished aircraft. threatening fire in the first place? not to follow it.
Ironically, more often than not, those who fail to follow policy pay no penalty. I myself have deviated from policy more often than I care to admit, without adverse conse- quences. Those who truly suffered the consequences are the ones who had accidents. Their sacrifices must not be in vain—we must learn from them! Tools for Marketing Aviation Safety “Lessons Learned” Video. In 1997, the Forest Service’s aviation safety management produced the 32-minute video “Lessons Learned” (available through the Figure 2—Crash site of a Forest Service aircraft in the Intermountain Region in 1980. Forest Service’s regional aviation Described in the “Lessons Learned” video, this crash was due to pilot error. Photograph: safety managers). Going back USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ogden, UT, 1980.
16 Fire Management Notes away, he finally managed to slip a makeshift pin into the linkage, enabling the pilot to regain control.
This dramatic incident highlights the need to follow procedures: had the Forest Service employee done so, he would not have risked his life by boarding what turned out to be an unsafe aircraft. This incident reflects the fact that Forest Service aviation safety policies are not always well understood or closely followed outside of the agency’s fire organization, even though many Forest Service employees are required to use aircraft for Figure 3—Crash site of a contract aircraft in the Pacific Northwest Region in 1992. Described in the “Lessons Learned” video, this crash was due to wing icing. Photograph: activities unrelated to fire. Ralph Poole, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR, 1992. Chief of Party Program. Forest We fail to weigh the risk and cost under certain circumstances and if aviation officers are responsible for of using aircraft resources against sound decisionmaking based on effectively marketing fire aviation the probability of success when we fire behavior does not demand safety practices throughout the use helicopters to mop up fires their use, then let’s not use them. agency. They must reach out not where fire behavior indicates little In addition to reducing exposure just to the fire community, but to threat; when we use airtankers to and risk, we might save money. all aviation users. A good tool for drop retardant at midslope where this purpose, in addition to fire behavior shows that the fire The fourth case reenacted in the “Lessons Learned,” is the Chief of will burn to the top of the ridge no “Lessons Learned” video, a heli- Party Program developed in 1997. matter what we do; or when we use copter incident with potential, The program includes: retardant aircraft without the ben- occurred in February 1997, when a efit of having firefighters on the Forest Service employee who was • A video, ground. Such risky, ineffective conducting an elk census violated • An independent-study workbook, practices amount to fighting fire agency safety regulations by board- • Safety wallet cards featuring based on convenience rather than ing a Hiller 12 helicopter that had “The Five Steps of a Safe Flight” fire behavior. not been inspected and certified by and “Twelve Standard Aviation the Forest Service. During the Questions That Shout Watch Fire managers note that they are flight, a broken linkage rod dis- Out,” and under public pressure to use idle abled the steering mechanism, and • The “Interagency Aviation User aircraft during firefighting opera- the pilot could no longer guide the Pocket Guide” (NFES 1373). tions, even when using them is aircraft down. With the helicopter risky and ineffective under prevail- ascending at full pitch into the Available through Forest Service ing wind or other conditions. If fire clouds, a fatal outcome seemed regional aviation safety managers, managers are indeed under such inevitable. In a desperate effort to these tools can be used at all orga- pressures, then we need to reedu- restore control to the pilot, the nizational levels, at little cost to cate our public and change the Forest Service employee stepped the field and manager. culture within our agency. If we out onto the helicopter skids and are the experts in fire manage- spent 30 minutes in freezing winds “Bull Fire Entrapment” Video. ment—as I believe we are—then trying to repair the damaged rod. Another available video that let’s call it like it is: if retardant air- With his hands frozen and his crosses aviation and fire manage- craft or helicopters are ineffective gloves and a contact lens blown ment lines and demonstrates the
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 17 need to follow policy and proce- Let’s Learn From the and videos referred to in this dures is “Bull Fire Entrapment,” Past and Be Safe! article as you develop your own created in 1996. This 30-minute All Forest Service employees share aviation safety program to meet film taken from actual infrared responsibility for aviation safety your specific needs. Don’t let up on footage reenacts a helicopter crew and are expected to take timely training requirements, and please breaking all of the “10 Standard action to mitigate unsafe condi- learn the lessons from our past Firefighting Orders” and 14 of the tions. To meet this responsibility, failures! Remember: Those who fail “18 Situations That Shout Watch employees need a basic under- to learn from the past are con- Out” while deploying on a fire. standing of aviation policy and demned to repeat it. The last few minutes are quite procedures, and the ability to rec- intense—the crew barely escapes ognize unsafe conditions. As with For more information about avia- with their lives by jumping into any other safety program, we must tion safety videos, Chief of Party the helicopter as the spot they are learn from past failures to ensure Program training materials, and on is overrun with flames (fig. 4). future safety. other aviation safety programs, Along with “Lessons Learned,” this please contact a forest aviation video is a must for all fire person- I strongly encourage all fire and officer or regional aviation safety ■ nel and fire suppression pilots. aviation managers to market a safe manager. aviation program. Use the tools
Figure 4—Illustration of an actual incident when a helicopter crew narrowly escaped before a fire burned over the helispot. As described in the “Bull Fire Entrapment” video, crew members had broken numerous safety rules. Illustration: Candy Butrick, Loomis, CA, 1996.
18 Fire Management Notes AVIATION SAFETY MATERIALS AVAILABLE
The aviation safety videos and NFES #2391—“One Yankee Gulf,” NFES 2512—“Interagency Avia- publications listed below are 1993, 21 minutes, $4.00. tion Technical Assistance Direc- available through the National tory,” revised annually, 33 pages, NFES #2002—“The Professional Wildfire Coordinating Group’s $0.50. Helicopter Pilot Supporting National Fire Equipment System Wildland Fire Suppression,” NFES 1373—“Interagency Avia- (NFES). Prices are subject to vol. 1, 1993, 16 minutes, $3.00. tion User Pocket Guide,” 1998, change; those given below for 23 pages. some items are to help estimate NFES #2487—“The Professional the cost of an order. Helicopter Pilot Supporting [NFES number pending]— Wildland Fire Suppression,” “Aircraft Chief of Party Work- To order, mail or fax a written vol. 2, 1995, 19 minutes, $3.00. book” (self-study guide for use with corresponding video), 1998, request to National Interagency [NFES number pending]— 23 pages. Fire Center (NIFC), Attn: Great “Aircraft Chief of Party,” 1996, Basin Cache Supply Office, 3833 25 minutes. [NFES number pending]—“Five S. Development Avenue, Boise, Steps to Risk Management,” card. ID 83705, fax 208-387-5573/5548. [NFES number pending]—“Bull Show item(s) requested and the Fire Entrapment,” 1996, [NFES number pending]— corresponding NFES number(s); 30 minutes. “Twelve Standard Aviation Questions That Shout Watch shipping address; and billing [NFES number pending]— Out,” card. address, including requisition or “Lessons Learned,” part 1, 1998, purchase order number (or, alter- 32 minutes. nately, Visa/Mastercard informa- Annual Accidents/ tion). Please do not phone in [NFES number pending]—“Winds, Incidents Video Wires, and Weights,” 1988, your order. Allow 4 weeks for In addition to the aviation safety 15 minutes. delivery. materials available through NIFC, the 15-minute video Aviation Safety Videos Aviation Safety “Department of the Interior and NFES #2152—“Basic Air Publications Forest Service Aircraft Accidents Operations,” 1991, 37 minutes. NFES 2393—“Aircraft Identifica- and Selected Incidents With tion Guide,” 1994, 43 pages, $1.00. Potential,” revised annually, is NFES #2392—“Helicopter distributed independently Capabilities and Limitations,” NFES 2097—“Basic Aviation through each agency. Check with 1993, 12 minutes, $3.00. Safety Student Guide,” 1991, 15 pages, $0.50. your aviation safety manager for NFES #2090—“Helosafe,” 1988, availability. 13 minutes, $3.00. NFES 1399—“Five Steps to a Safe Flight,” card.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 19 SAFETY ALERT: WATCH OUT FOR AIRCRAFT TURBULENCE!
Billy Bennett
ircraft play a vital role in today’s fire control operations, Aircraft turbulence should be Acarrying out such crucial mis- one of the unwritten Watch Out Situations sions as water and fire retardant for firefighters to keep in mind drops. Yet turbulence from aircraft can sometimes contribute to on the fireline. erratic fire behavior, potentially endangering firefighters. As the National Wildfire Coordinating active fire into the safety zone of Watch Out Situations: Group notes in a training publica- the black. As the dozer operator #15 Wind increases and/or tion for firefighters, “The blasts of bladed through the fire, the dozer changes direction. air from low flying helicopters and boss followed close behind, using #16 Getting frequent spot air tankers have been known to the dozer as a heat shield. They fires across line. cause flare-ups” (NWCG 1992). managed to escape unharmed. • The incident occurred in a some- Those on the fireline should keep what narrow part of the canyon, this potential hazard in mind, Several factors contributed to this where topography might have mentally adding it to their list of near-tragic incident, including influenced fire behavior. 18 Watch Out Situations. circumstances clearly identifiable • When the helicopter pilot as Watch Out Situations: approached the slopover, he A case in point occurred on July could not make radio contact 11, 1996, on the Broad Canyon • Available fuels were very dry and with firefighters on the ground. Fire in central Utah. At about 3 extremely volatile. This caused a delay, because the p.m., a wind shift caused the fire to • A sudden wind shift had already pilot did not know specifically jump containment lines during a caused the fire to jump contain- where to make the drop. burnout operation. A Cat D–7 ment lines. dozer and dozer boss began con- structing line around the slopover, which was burning in brush and 15-foot (4.6-m) juniper. A type 2 helicopter using a bucket with a 35-foot (10.7-m) line began mak- ing drops along the fire edge. When the helicopter approached the area near the dozer, the rotor downwash caused the fire to behave erratically, encircling the immediate area around the dozer and dozer boss with fire. The only escape was to push through the
Billy Bennett is a law enforcement officer and fire management officer for the South Carolina Forestry Commission, Piedmont Region, Spartanburg, SC. In July 1996, he was the Staging/Initial Attack Safety Officer for the USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management in Resources assembling for the initial attack on the Broad Canyon Fire in central Utah, July central Utah. 1996. Photo: Billy Bennett, South Carolina Forestry Commission, Spartanburg, SC, 1996.
20 Fire Management Notes Watch Out Situations: Fire behavior in #5 Uninformed on strategy, brush-juniper fuels on the Broad Canyon tactics, and hazards. Fire in central Utah, #6 Instructions and July 11, 1996. Fuels assignments not clear. were extremely dry and volatile. #7 No communication link Photo: Billy Bennett, with crew members/ South Carolina supervisor. Forestry Commission, • The airspeed of the helicopter as Spartanburg, SC, 1996. it approached the scene was about 46 miles per hour (74 km/hr), and altitude was less than 200 feet (61 m) above ground level. Firefighters on the ground believe that this was too low under the conditions, and the pilot now concurs. • The helicopter was large enough to cause substantial rotor down- wash (the larger the helicopter, the more rotor downwash to expect).
If any of these contributing factors had been removed, the incident likely would not have occurred. However, rotor downwash was probably the final contributing factor to the erratic fire behavior and resulting entrapment. The firefighters were operating within rective action to ensure firefighter This incident in no way suggests acceptable risk limits before the safety. Pilots will most likely not that turbulence from aircraft will helicopter arrived, having to some know how close firefighters on the always cause erratic fire behavior. extent compromised only a mini- ground are to this point of unac- However, it does suggest that air- mum number of Watch Out Situa- ceptable risk. When air operations craft turbulence should be one of tions. Not until the helicopter are in progress, pilots and fire- the unwritten Watch Out Situa- arrived did acceptable risk escalate fighters alike must remember that tions for firefighters to keep in into unacceptable risk within just a no Watch Out Situation or Stan- mind on the fireline. matter of seconds. dard Fire Order specifically ad- dresses how aircraft turbulence Literature Cited: One of the most important func- affects fire behavior. Pilots and National Wildfire Coordinating Group tions of fire managers on the firefighters should keep in mind (NWCG). 1992. Common denominators fireline is to recognize when Watch that low or moderate hazards, of fire behavior on tragedy and near-miss forest fires. NFES 2225. Out Situations and Standard Fire under certain conditions, can Boise, ID: National Interagency Fire Orders are excessively compro- quickly become high or extreme Center. 31 p. ■ mised, and to take immediate cor- hazards due to unexpected aircraft turbulence.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 21 CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ENHANCES SAFETY*
Patrick R. Veillette
hat would you do on your next flight on an airliner if The offshore helicopter community W you saw large flames com- has experienced a 54-percent decline ing out of the engine on the left in human error since adopting a strong (port) side of the aircraft and the airline captain announced that he Crew Resource Management program. had responded by shutting down the engine on the right (starboard) side of the aircraft? Would you Not only was an initial diagnostic tragic incidents on wildfires, be- inquire whether an error had been error made, but even more impor- come headline news, particularly made? tantly, those with access to critical when there is catastrophic loss of information did not communicate life. The good news is that for the This very thing happened on a it (Veillette 1995a). This accident, past two decades, the major air- British Midlands Boeing 737–400 like many others, could have been lines have painstakingly scruti- airliner in January 1989. Due to prevented. nized their own operations in an incorrect cockpit information, the effort to improve safety. It started flight crew shut down the wrong Training for Better in 1978, when a United Airlines engine after receiving an engine- Decisionmaking DC–8 crashed due to fuel starva- fire warning along with smoke in Unfortunately, the wildland fire tion while on approach to Port- the cockpit. When the captain community is not the only one to land, OR. This incident motivated announced to the passengers that suffer severely when human errors United Airlines, eventually joined he had shut down the starboard are made. Airliner crashes, like by other airlines, to invite leading engine, everyone on the port side of the aircraft saw 10-foot (3-m) flames coming from the port engine. However, no one—not even the flight attendants— brought this to the attention of the flight crew. Because the crew had shut down the wrong engine, the aircraft was in a glide mode. The engine continued to burn and ex- ploded before the aircraft could safely land, resulting in a crash landing with multiple fatalities.
Dr. Patrick R. Veillette is a smokejumper captain on a Forest Service C–23A Sherpa for the USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Missoula, MT.
*The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official Smokejumpers boarding a plane. When the siren goes off, there is little time to sit and endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. thoroughly plan crew coordination. Each person’s role must be preplanned for smooth Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material coordination within the crew. Photo: Pat Veillette, USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, presented in Fire Management Notes. Missoula, MT, 1997.
22 Fire Management Notes Comprehensive CRM Programs An effective CRM program involves more than a 2-day course. Incorpo- rating CRM means:
• Investigating how certain types of tasks and certain organiza- tional and environmental factors induce human errors; • Determining how information is transmitted so that it is readily understood (Veillette 1997a); and • Exploring the stresses on and limitations of individuals and teams, how these affect overall performance, and how we should incorporate the knowledge Cockpit view while approaching the site of a paracargo drop. Critical flight phases such as this require good crew coordination, proper planning, and timely communications. gained into our decisionmaking. Photo: Pat Veillette, USDA Forest Service, Northern Region, Missoula, MT, 1997. Most traditional CRM courses concentrate on communications; researchers from the National grams have proven their worth in situational awareness; decision- Aeronautics and Space Administra- very risky aviation environments. making; and attention, risk, stress, tion and other agencies and insti- In his 1991 study, Dr. Alan Diehl and attitude management. tutions to study their operations identified six major aviation orga- and recommend changes. nizations that have incorporated • Communications training CRM, resulting in a drop in acci- enhances our ability to dissemi- Thanks to this multiagency dent rates ranging from 28 percent nate critical information in a approach, significant modifications to 81 percent (Diehl 1991). The timely manner; and, more to training have prevented many offshore helicopter community, importantly, to bring about a human errors from causing for example, experienced a 54- change in the team’s actions. catastrophes. These modifications percent decline in human error • Situational awareness makes are collectively known as Crew after adopting a strong CRM crew members aware of the Resource Management (CRM), program in 1988 (Albert 1989). organizational and environmen- defined as “effective use of all avail- tal elements surrounding them, able resources to achieve safe and However, cursory CRM programs how these elements will change efficient operations.” The funda- that were incorporated merely to over time, and how to stop error mental goal of CRM is better satisfy Federal Aviation Adminis- chains from developing. decisionmaking. tration requirements have failed. • Training in decisionmaking In fact, since introducing a varia- develops skills in soliciting and Comprehensive CRM programs tion of a CRM program, a major scrutinizing information, formu- consider the types of tasks and the airline that had no prior CRM- lating strategies for dealing with environmental and organizational related accidents has experienced a task, choosing the optimal elements that tend to induce three fatal accidents and two major strategy with appropriate goals, human errors, seeking to mini- incidents due to faulty CRM (Besco and constantly reviewing mize the frequency and/or severity 1997). Clearly, there are differences progress toward implementing of such errors at the earliest pos- between effective CRM programs the decision to ensure that the sible stage. During the past two (ones that are comprehensive) and strategy chosen is still the most decades, comprehensive CRM pro- those that do not work. appropriate.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 23 • Attention management seeks to Applying CRM to However, applying the airline CRM understand how to avoid distrac- Wildland Firefighting training programs directly to wild- tions and to recognize the warn- Comprehensive CRM programs land fire management would be in- ing signs of error chains. have greatly reduced the incidence effective. Although many lessons • Risk management emphasizes of accidents caused by human have been learned when the CRM identifying risks in the opera- error in high-risk operations other concept was taken from the air- tional environment, assessing than wildland firefighting. Peer- lines to other cultures and indus- the probability and severity of reviewed journal research and sub- tries, simply presenting an airline’s risks, deciding which risks stantive long-term statistics show CRM course to the wildland fire deserve attention, and then that CRM has been scrutinized and community will not yield positive applying proper intervention thoroughly adopted in successful results. For one thing, a CRM strategies. aviation organizations. But does course for wildland firefighters • Stress management examines the CRM training concept have should use a mix of relevant acci- the obvious and insidious effects potential applications for the wild- dent types for review. Most impor- of physical, environmental, land fire community, and how tantly, CRM training needs to be psychological, economic, and effective is CRM in a wildland modified to fit our environment organizational stress; how these firefighting environment? and address our specific tasks in affect human performance; and the wildland fire community. how they can be managed. In 1995, Dr. Ted Putnam (formerly • Attitude management focuses on with the USDA Forest Service’s CRM is a promising application recognizing when attitudes are Missoula Technology and Develop- based on a proven concept for hazardous and explores the role ment Center) held a wildland reducing human-caused accidents that hazardous attitudes have firefighters human factors work- and enhancing safety in high-risk played in past accidents. shop (Putnam 1995). He firmly environments. Appropriately recommended exploring and adapted to meet the needs of the The latest CRM courses have adopting CRM for wildland wildland fire community, it is well encompassed some of the most firefighting. In 1996, a modified worth considering for adoption in recent research on decisionmaking form of CRM training was intro- wildland firefighting. in hazardous environments where duced to smokejumper spotters task loads are high (Jensen 1995). and helicopter managers. The For more information on CRM, These courses explore and discuss response from the smokejumper contact Dr. Patrick R. Veillette at normal pitfalls in decisionmaking, base managers was extremely posi- the Missoula Aerial Fire Depot, using practical field and simulator tive, and the concept has since Box 6, Airport Terminal, Missoula, exercises to incorporate and rein- been introduced in several I–378 MT 59801, tel. 406-329-4982. force the lessons learned (Veillette air tactical group supervisor 1995b; Veillette 1996a and 1996b; classes. CRM’s introduction into Literature Cited Veillette 1997b). Some of the latest the wildland fire community and Albert, V. 1989. Results of CRM training at courses incorporate decision- its initial acceptance indicate its petroleum helicopters. Rotor and Wing making pitfalls into realistic simu- International. 23(11): 65. potential for improving communi- Besco, R.O. The need for operational vali- lations and permit participants to cations, eliminating communica- dation of CRM training assumptions. make corresponding mistakes. tion barriers, delegating tasks and 1997. In: Jensen, R.S.; Rakovan, L., eds. Proceedings of the 9th International Students learn to recognize early assigning responsibilities, setting warning flags and to take appropri- Symposium on Aviation Psychology; priorities, detecting failures, man- 1997 April 27–May 1; Columbus, OH: ate preemptive measures in the aging risks, and facilitating many 536–540. future. other management processes cen- tral to wildland firefighting.
24 Fire Management Notes Diehl, A. 1991. Does cockpit management training reduce aircrew error? In: DEBRIEFINGS: A CREW RESOURCE Proceedings of the 22nd Seminar of ANAGEMENT OOL the International Society of Air Safety M T Investigators; 1991 November 4–7; Canberra, Australia. Vol. 24(4): 46–55. During the evolution of Crew Resource Management training, Jensen, R.S. 1995. Pilot judgment and numerous research efforts have measured crew performance and Crew Resource Management. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing surveyed flight crews to determine the effectiveness of various Company. 349p. methods. Much can be learned from these studies. Flight crews have Putnam, T., ed. 1995. Findings from the noted that the consistent use of debriefings was an excellent long- Wildland Firefighters Human Factors Workshop; 1995 June 12–16; Missoula, term learning tool for all crew members. During research funded by MT. MTDC Rep. 5100–F&AM 9551– the National Aeronautics and Space Administration at a major airline, 2855–MTDC (November 1995). the author used checklists during crew debriefs as an aid to stimulate Missoula, MT: USDA Forest Service, feedback. Here is an extract from one of the checklists: Missoula Technology and Development Center. Veillette, P.R. 1995a. Irreversible errors: Crew Coordination/Communications: British Midlands. Journal of Aviation Safety. 15(17): 1–4. • Did we address coordination under normal, abnormal, and Veillette, P.R. 1995b. Time pressure effects emergency conditions? on decision making. Journal of Aviation • Was planning highlighted and were probable problems anticipated? Safety. 15(21): 1–4. Veillette, P.R. 1996a. Links in the human • Were open communications established? error chain. Journal of Aviation Safety. • Was the timing of communications proper? 16(1): 1–4. • Was critical information communicated in a timely manner? Veillette, P.R. 1996b. Pitfalls of high technology devices. Journal of Aviation • Were decisions communicated and acknowledged? Safety. 16(24): 1–4. • Were duties assigned to ensure timely completion? Veillette, P.R. 1997a. Communications: • Were communications relevant, complete, and verified? Inquiry and advocacy. Journal of • Were inquiry, advocacy, listening, conflict resolution, and critique Aviation Safety. 17(9): 1–5. Veillette, P.R. 1997b. Avoiding high practiced? workload traps. Journal of Aviation • Was active participation in decisionmaking encouraged? ■ Safety. 17(13): 12–15. • Did communications show concern for the accomplishment of tasks? • Did communications show concern for the quality of team working relationships?
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 25 REAL-TIME HIGH-ALTITUDE FIRE MAPPING
Dana Cole, Jeffrey Myers, and Wayne Mitchell
emote-sensing technology has been used in emergency man- STARLink offers Ragement for nearly 50 years. virtually instantaneous distribution One of the earliest uses was of fire status data from remote-sensing platforms reported by Johnson and Thomas (1951), who employed a Polaroid to field users with PC’s. Land camera to acquire photo- graphic prints of a wildfire from an aircraft, then dropped the prints Now, thanks to the Internet, a The STARLink architecture has minutes later to fire camps. In sub- solution to this real-time data three major elements (fig. 1): sequent years, the quality of imag- delivery dilemma could be at hand. ery improved, as did access to During the 1996 fire season, the • An airborne element (using the multispectral data, while platforms National Aeronautics and Space ER–2 aircraft), higher in the atmosphere offered Administration’s (NASA’s) Satellite • A satellite element (the Tracking more global views. To Aircraft and Return Link (STAR- Data and Relay Satellite System Link) technology was applied for (TDRSS)), and After almost half a century, how- the first time to wildfires in Cali- • A ground station element at ever, remote sensing continues to fornia. By refining the methods Ames Research Center. be used almost exclusively for pioneered then, we might soon be planning, preparedness, and able to provide emergency manag- The airborne element consists of a relief—in other words, before and ers with access to vast amounts of scanner system (the Thematic after disasters occur. In recent near-real-time remote-sensing Mapper Simulator has proven most years, remote-sensing technology data—giving them, in essence, a effective for fire mapping) together has been used in conjunction with current bird’s eye view of an emer- with a Ku-Band transmitter and a geographic information system gency or disaster as it unfolds. 30-inch (76-cm) steerable dish (GIS) and global positioning What follows is the story of how antenna mounted in a dome on top system (GPS) technologies to map this recently declassified technol- of the aircraft. The antenna system wildfires in and around Yellow- ogy was first used for emergency locks onto and tracks the NASA stone National Park in 1988, assess management. TDRSS-West satellite, continu- property loss following the Oak- ously transmitting the scanner land Hills Fire in 1991, monitor What is STARLink? data to the ground receive station. conditions around the Chernobyl STARLink is a data relay system Because of STARLink’s high band- nuclear reactor, and inventory developed for the High Altitude width capability (more than 200 pipeline failures during the 1993 Missions Branch at NASA’s Ames megabits per second), data from Mississippi River floods. In all Research Center in Moffett Field, several sensor systems can be these cases, the operational utility CA. STARLink was installed in transmitted simultaneously. The of sensor data was limited by lack early 1996 on NASA’s ER–2 air- system also features a “return link” of real-time access to data by on- craft, a domestic version of the so that voice and data commands scene emergency managers. military’s U–2 aircraft. Imagery can be relayed back up to the air- from scanner systems onboard the craft. Dana Cole is the coordinator of special aircraft is transmitted on a real- projects for the California Department of time basis to a ground station via After the link is established, the Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF), satellite and is then disseminated satellite relays the data down to Sacramento, CA; Jeffrey Myers is the ATAC, Inc., site manager for airborne through the Internet. a ground station network. The sensor facilities at the National Aero- nautics and Space Administration Ames Research Center, Mountain View, CA; and Wayne Mitchell is the chief fire protection planner for CDF, Sacramento, CA.
26 Fire Management Notes Payload Operations Center at Ames and on the speed of their indi- August 26. Ninety-three fires Research Center then captures the vidual Internet connections. escaped initial attack and con- digital imagery on an array of com- sumed more than 366,000 acres puter disks, where it is available for STARLink’s Debut: (148,000 ha) within 3 weeks. processing and redistribution 1996 Wildfires within seconds of acquisition. The 1996 wildfire season was the By mid-August, Federal and State Then the Internet World Wide Nation’s worst since 1952. More agencies in California had ex- Webpage interface allows users to than 6 million acres (2.4 million hausted their firefighter reserves, download images from the disk ha) burned, including 666,000 making it necessary to request array to their local systems for acres (270,000 ha) in California. firefighters from across the United utilization. The entire relay pro- The situation in California was States, supplemented by U.S. Army cess, from the moment the aircraft especially critical during the last troops. Operations managers from acquires the data to the moment half of August, when a series of the California Department of imagery arrives on the field user’s lightning storms, preceded by a Forestry and Fire Protection (CDF) PC, typically takes about 5 min- week of abnormally high tempera- and other wildland firefighting utes, depending on how many tures statewide, ignited hundreds agencies needed a current, accu- people have access to the Webpage of fires between August 11 and rate assessment of the situation in
S
Figure 1—Elements of NASA’s Satellite To Aircraft and Return Link (STARLink) information system.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 27 order to set strategic priorities and Figure 2—Imagery to brief State and Federal officials. from the 1996 Fork Fire on the Mendocino Traditional intelligence-gathering National Forest in processes were not keeping up Lake County, CA. with the information demand. The This imagery was delivered instanta- need to fax maps also imposed an neously via the additional workload on already Internet to the overburdened incident managers. planning section for the incident. The CDF had previously worked with the High Altitude Missions Branch at NASA’s Ames Research Center to produce wildfire imagery (Richardson 1993). When CDF fire managers called the Ames Re- search Center to request imagery for the 1996 fires, NASA’s research- ers described the new STARLink system, and a simple business pro- cess was created to take advantage of the technology. CDF’s managers worked with field office and inci- dent base staff to establish Internet connections, while NASA planned and then conducted the flight. The first flight produced usable imag- operation, and the ability to distin- timely manner to fire managers on ery of the Fork Fire in Lake guish between dangerous fires and the ground. County, which ultimately burned those of little consequence. Hirsch more than 80,000 acres (32,000 believed that the most important Before STARLink, NASA focused ha) on the Mendocino National capability of a remote-sensing sys- on—and succeeded in—down- Forest and adjacent private lands. tem for fire mapping was to repro- link-ing spectral data via a 915- The planning section on the fire duce fireline size and location in megahertz transmitter from was able to access near-real-time relation to topography and aircraft to ground station receivers imagery (fig. 2) at the same time as vegetation. within a 300-mile (483-km) line- regional and statewide emergency of-sight radius. For fires in Califor- coordination centers. In the past 30 years, major techno- nia, this meant that data could be logical advances have been made directly downlinked to NASA’s The Technology’s toward achieving this capability. Ames Research Center. However, Potential Even though the growing wild- the data then had to be processed, land–urban interface fire problem interpreted, and transported to fire It has been more than 30 years has magnified the complexity of managers. The total lag time be- since researchers at the USDA fire mapping, advances in tween data acquisition and delivery Forest Service’s Northern Fire remote-sensing technology have to fire managers thus ranged from Laboratory recommended using made it possible to obtain 8 hours (Richardson 1993) to 1–2 airborne thermal infrared line extremely accurate fire perimeter days (Ambrosia 1990). During the scanners for detecting and map- information under any smoke or Yellowstone Fire of 1988, NASA ping fires under all atmospheric atmospheric conditions, as well transported its ground station conditions. According to Hirsch as information on fire intensity, receivers to the incident base at (1963; 1964), the ideal fire moni- location of structures, and extent West Yellowstone, MT, which re- toring remote-sensing system of damage (Cole et al. 1993). duced the time needed for inter- would allow detection of fire in its However, it has remained difficult preters to provide mapped fire early stages, effective 24-hour to communicate this data in a information to fire command
28 Fire Management Notes staff to about 4 hours after data GPS technology will allow fire- multiagency and interagency acquisition (Ambrosia 1990). fighting resources to be tracked coordination in the following and various tactical scenarios to be areas: But even a 4-hour delay severely modeled and played out. limits the tactical value of remote- • Establishing priorities for sensing data for emergency inci- Although STARLink promises to response, dent management. By adding a become a powerful new tactical • Allocating critical firefighting satellite uplink component and tool, its potential as a strategic tool resources, Internet connectivity, STARLink might be even greater. On large • Developing strategies for han- offers virtually instantaneous dis- conflagrations (such as the dling multiagency response tribution of fire status data from Yellowstone Fire of 1988) or when problems, remote-sensing platforms. Brass et numerous major fires are burning • Mobilizing disaster relief efforts al. (1996) have proposed research over a large area (as in California more rapidly and efficiently, to develop technology for geo-cor- during the August 1996 siege), • Sharing information, and recting scanned data to a map base STARLink can provide a rapid • Facilitating communications. and integrating fire modeling and global overview of the situation. prediction capabilities. For line Regardless of their location, Limitations personnel equipped with laptop decisionmakers can view and Cost and Availability of Tech- computers and GIS software, this download images from the nology. Flight time for one of could soon provide access to fire Internet almost as quickly as they NASA’s two ER–2 aircraft currently status maps within seconds of are acquired by scanners onboard costs approximately $6,000 per high-altitude scanner acquisition. the aircraft. Simultaneous access hour. For a variety of reasons, Using built-in fire models and ani- to the most current images will these aircraft are often unavailable, mation tools, line personnel will provide a common basis for mak- especially on short notice. STAR- also be able to visualize fire move- ing better informed and more Link does not have a dedicated sat- ment in areas obscured by smoke timely decisions. This will greatly ellite, so uplink availability can or topography (fig. 3). Existing improve the potential for
Figure 3—Imagery in two bands (visible on left, near infrared on right) of a wildfire near Los Angeles, CA, on August 26, 1996. This imagery was delivered instanta- neously via the Internet to fire planners before ground forces arrived on the scene.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 29 When fires are burning over a large area, using off-the-shelf components STARLink can provide a rapid global overview of that are not sensor or aircraft specific. This will allow agencies the situation, facilitating interagency response to schedule and use their own coordination. aircraft for remote-sensing data acquisition. also be limited. Even when aircraft of tonal values and spectral charac- For more information on STAR- and satellite uplink are available, teristics far exceeds current under- Link and its fire-mapping poten- end users on the ground must standing of what the data actually tial, contact Dana Cole, California have access to the Internet to depict on the ground. For example, Department of Forestry and Fire obtain real-time data. In many imagery of active-burning condi- Protection, 135 Ridgway, Santa remote areas where wildland fires tions will require field survey and Rosa, CA 95402, tel. 707-576-2913, occur, this could require wireless calibration to accurately interpret fax 707-942-1380, e-mail: modems or other technology not fire behavior implications. This [email protected]. currently available to emergency training issue should be addressed service users on a routine basis. in order to take full advantage of Literature Cited the technology. Ambrosia, V.G. 1990. High altitude aircraft Need for Geo-Correcting Data. remote sensing during the 1988 Before aerial scanner imagery can Future Directions Yellowstone National Park wildfires. be projected accurately onto a map Geocarto International. 5(3): 43–47. Data delivery time has long been Australian Emergency Management base for incorporation into a GIS recognized as the single biggest Institute. 1996. Record of the Remote context, the data must be “cor- limitation to the usefulness of Sensing Technology Workshop; 1995 rected” to account for distortions remote sensing for emergency August 2–4; Mt. Macedon, Australia: caused by aircraft instability and 4–14. management (Jones and Marlatt Brass, J.A.; Ambrosia, V.G.; Higgins, R.G. instrument viewing geometry. 1980; Australian Emergency Man- 1996. AIRDAS, development of a unique NASA is currently working to adapt agement Institute 1996). The ini- four channel scanner for disaster assess- an in-flight Geo-Correction System ment and management. In: Proceed- tial tests of NASA’s STARLink ings, ERIM Second International (GCS) developed for military pur- technology during the 1996 fire Airborne Remote Sensing Conference poses. This GCS is built around a season demonstrated that near- and Exhibition; 1995 June 24–27; San highly accurate fiber-optic gyro, a Francisco, CA: vol. 3: 781–789. real-time scanner data covering Cole, D.; Ewell, P.L.; Ferguson, S.R. 1993. differentially corrected GPS re- very large areas can be made avail- Counting the cost. Fire Chief. 37(6): ceiver, and a pair of computers able to on-scene emergency man- 41–47. running custom-made GCS soft- agers, giving them a virtual multi- Hirsch, S.N. 1963. Applications of remote ware. Until this GCS upgrade is sensing to forest fire detection and sup- spectral bird’s eye view of fires or pression. In: Proceedings of the Second complete, accurately mapped scan- other disasters as they unfold. Remote Sensing of Environment Sym- ner data will continue to require With the anticipated addition of an posium: 293–308. postflight processing time (Brass Hirsch, S.N. 1964. Forest fire detection in-flight data geo-correction capa- systems. In: Western Forest Fire et al. 1996). bility, it will be possible to incorpo- Research Council Proceedings: 3–5. rate scanner data directly into Johnson, C.E.; Thomas, L.R. 1951. The Need for Specialized Skills. Inter- Polaroid camera in fire control. Fire existing GIS and GPS systems. The Control Notes. 12(2): 24–25. pretation of remotely sensed data, result will be a powerful new near- Jones, E.B.; Marlatt, W.E. 1980. Applica- especially in the nonvisible spec- real-time mapping and manage- tions of remote sensing to emergency tral ranges, requires specialized ment tool for users on the ground. management. Final Report, FEMA Con- knowledge that few emergency tract #DCPAO1–79–C–0268. Ft. Collins, CO: Federal Emergency Management service users might possess, A major challenge will be to reduce Agency. 58 p. including those trained in conven- the cost of data acquisition. This Richardson, A. 1993. GIS and imagery join tional mapping techniques. The forces to combat wildland fire. In: Pro- can best be accomplished by devel- ceedings of the 13th Annual Environ- technological ability to obtain oping portable airborne scanner mental Systems Research Institute scanner data depicting a multitude subsystems and telemetry systems Users Conference; 1992 May 24–28; Palm Springs, CA: vol. II: 429–434. ■
30 Fire Management Notes FLYING WITH THE MEDIA OVER WILDFIRES
Michael G. Apicello
o matter how remote the loca- tion of a wildfire, there’s a Although documentary film productions take time Ngood chance the media will and require much oversight and energy, find it. Each year, the media seek doing them right enables the parties involved out dozens of stories featuring the drama of wildland firefighting. to ensure safe operations. Because some of the most spec- tacular firefighting activity occurs in the air, reporters often focus production must take a clear, sys- Command System (ICS) protocol. their stories on the aircraft and tematic approach if agreements are ICS can deal with immediate aerial resources used to fight fires. to be reached that go beyond just requests and has procedures in covering the news to deepening place to assist media on large inci- In fact, media interest in wildland the public’s understanding of and dents. The chain of command for fire aviation has surged in the last appreciation for wildland fire handling breaking news is well few years. Today, almost half the management. Systematic planning established and should be ob- media inquiries fielded at the and coordination are especially served; normally, the incident National Interagency Fire Center important for media productions commander has decisionmaking in Boise, ID, are from producers on wildland fire aviation, where powers and will ask the informa- worldwide who are intrigued by flying adds another dimension to tion and air attack functions to the use of aircraft and other aerial the challenge of safely operating coordinate an appropriate response resources in wildland firefighting. near wildfire. to a media news request. From military C–130 Modular Air- borne Fire Fighting Systems units Breaking News. Breaking news Documentary Films. Documen- to infrared platforms, rappellers, and related features are usually tary films are much more difficult smokejumpers, and even cargo handled through the Incident and require a different approach. drops, just about everything we do in the air counts for the media as a good story. Approaching Media Requests for Stories Breaking news, feature articles, movies, and documentary films are but a few of the methods used by the media to tell stories. Each method has its own requirements, and agencies with fire manage- ment responsibilities must deal realistically with each. Based on the particular type of request, all parties involved in a media
Mike Apicello is the public affairs officer An aviation maintenance inspector checks a potential camera mount area on a P–2V for the USDA Forest Service at the aircraft. Before permitting any installation or aircraft modification, the Federal Aviation National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, Administration requires aircraft to be inspected for safety. Photo: Courtesy of Discovery ID. Communications, Inc., Bethesda, MD, ©1997.
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 31 These productions are more com- To safely portray a successful wildland fire story, plex than breaking news stories. fires must be burning, personnel and resources For their safe and accurate production, several key elements must be available, and approved plans and are needed: communication linkages must be in place.
• Comprehensive planning for air and ground safety, coordination, then chances of suc- appropriate local fire and aviation • A cooperative spirit of commit- cess are slim. management personnel. Before a ment from all involved, and single frame was shot, coordina- • Finely tuned networks for Recent Experiences tion channels were well established coordinating all planning and Two recent examples illustrate and the ground rules were set. operations. what is needed to make a success- During filming, coordination and ful documentary film on wildland communication occurred on a If these elements are not in place fire aviation. In early 1996, Na- daily basis at local, regional, and or are dropped to meet a party’s tional Geographic television and national levels. deadline, then the endeavor is the Discovery Communications, probably not worth the risk. For Inc., film division both began plan- Thanks to all this painstaking plan- example, to safely portray a suc- ning for documentaries that fo- ning and coordination, filming cessful wildland fire story, fires cused heavily on aerial firefighting went off without a hitch. The must be burning, personnel and resources. For both productions, result was a highly informative and resources must be available, and filming started during the 1997 entertaining television documen- approved plans and communica- fire season, with completion sched- tary that aired March 1, 1998. Na- tion linkages must be in place. If uled for 1998. tional Geographic has also offered these conditions are not met due to provide professional-quality film to poor networks for planning and National Geographic. National for pilot cockpit training and wild- Geographic’s “Firebombers” docu- land fire management computer mentary portrays airtankers, lead simulation training. planes, and the lives of the people who fly them. Filmed in its en- Discovery Communications. tirety on the Narrows Fire on Discovery’s documentary (under California’s Angeles National For- the working title “Wildfire”) is a est in August 1997, the documen- large-format film that captures the tary involved 18 firefighting air- total essence of the wildland fire craft during 3 weeks of filming. environment. This 3-year under- National Geographic used a skilled taking is expected to be released three-person production crew, worldwide in early 1999. along with a designated agency liaison and a contract chase Since large-format documentary aircraft. films are projected on 70-foot by 70-foot (21-m by 21-m) screens, Prior to filming, the project was they often focus on scientific and approved, appropriate certifica- educational topics of lasting inter- tions were issued, inspection crite- est and high visual appeal. For this ria were met, and the foundation documentary, Discovery signed an agreements were signed. Long agreement to work with the five Before a filming flight, a Discovery Federal agencies charged with cameraman checks the camera mounted before a single camera was mount- on the tailboom of a Skycrane. Long ed to a public aircraft or a chase wildland fire management respon- before the camera was ever mounted, the plane left the ground, all air and sibilities (the USDA Forest Service film company began working with the and the USDI Bureau of Indian Forest Service to plan the documentary. ground safety operating plans Photo: Courtesy of Discovery Communica- were reviewed and shared with tions, Inc., Bethesda, MD, ©1997.
32 Fire Management Notes A production must have adequate planning time for safe and accurate completion. If you don’t plan it, don’t do it.
Affairs, Bureau of Land Manage- requirements. The MOU negotia- ment, National Park Service, and tions facilitated coordination, plan- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) to ning, and implementation. Most produce educator and student importantly, however, they built packages that address modern familiarity and trust between the wildland fire management and to parties. The trust built during the make wildland fire information entire process—from initial con- available through Discovery’s tact to “final wrap”—helped to highly popular and extensive infor- ensure safety consciousness on the mation networks. Results of these part of all involved throughout collaborative efforts promise to filming. entertain as well as educate global audiences for years to come. Ingredients In preparation for filming from a helicop- for Success ter, a Discovery cameraman makes final Lessons Learned camera adjustments after all inspections, Thanks to these experiences, there modifications, and safety plans are in Several major factors contributed is now a systematic approach for place. Photo: Courtesy of Discovery to the success of the National dealing with these types of media Communications, Inc., Bethesda, MD, ©1997. Geographic and Discovery requests in the future. Although productions: documentary film productions take hazards and mitigate risks. Before time and require much oversight the parties reach agreement, they • Adequate lead time, from the and energy, doing them right en- must elaborate their expectations point of initial contact to the ables the parties involved to ensure and plans for risk management in desired filming date; safe operations. discussions that involve aviation • Upfront agreement by the pro- specialists (including contract ducers not to compromise key Adequate Planning Time. A pro- specialists, pilots, mechanics, and aviation safety standards (these duction must have adequate plan- inspectors)—the folks whose standards include using the ning time for safe and accurate detailed knowledge and expertise right tools, communicating for completion. If you don’t plan it, are necessary to determine wheth- effectiveness, and keeping safety don’t do it. Working on someone er a project is a “go.” During these first and foremost in all planning else’s deadline can easily create preliminary talks, aviation pro- and operations); and unnecessary risk and should count gram managers, air officers, and • Strict adherence to all public as a “watchout situation.” Ade- aviation personnel must make laws, Federal Aviation Adminis- quate lead time constitutes at least difficult decisions. Unless trust tration (FAA) requirements, and a year of planning and working emerges and things feel right, it’s agency policies, procedures, and together before filming begins. time to step back. guidelines. Open Communication. The pro- Good Coordination. Coordination Early in the process, both duction will succeed only with is another important ingredient for productions involved yearlong continuous, open, and honest success. Coordination is good negotiations that resulted in communication that begins during when the approval process moves memorandums of understanding the very first talks. It is vitally smoothly from review, through (MOU’s) articulating how things important for the parties to know inspections, to local planning, and would be done and how each party each other’s expectations and for finally to implementation on the would benefit, and delineating agency personnel to understand ground and in the air. At each policies, procedures, and safety how the producers will deal with stage, clearances become green
Volume 58 • No. 4 • Fall 1998 33 lights, until final on-the-ground follows practices that are safe and the tenets of aviation safety, and briefings lead to inflight operations prudent, it not only risks disas- ultimately help deepen the public’s and the camera starts to roll. With- trous failure, but also puts the understanding of wildland fire out coordination, those involved in safety and efficacy of the firefight- aviation. incident management would not ing operation itself at risk. All par- be able to perform the missions ties involved in a media production For more information on the that the documentary is all about. must adhere to basic aviation National Geographic and Discovery Good coordination firmly links safety philosophy: they must use documentaries and on working people, aircraft, airspace, lights, the right tools, be cost-effective with the media, contact Mike cameras, and action, enabling the with people and resources, and Apicello, USDA Forest Service documentary to capture our people keep safety first and foremost. public affairs officer, National doing what they professionally do Interagency Fire Center, 3833 S. best—working in the wildland fire Following these guidelines is a Development Avenue, Boise, ID environment. recipe for success. It’s a lot of work 83705-5354, tel. 208-387-5460, fax but worth the effort. When done 208-387-5386, IBM: mapicello/ Absolute Safety. The most impor- correctly, media productions accu- wo,nifc; Internet: mapicello/ tant ingredient for success is rately portray agencies and people, wo,[email protected]. ■ safety. Unless a media production meet producers’ goals, embrace
GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Editorial Policy information. If the same or a similar manuscript location, as well as for style of paragraph Fire Management Notes (FMN) is an is being submitted elsewhere, include that headings and references. Inhouse editing can be international quarterly magazine for the information also. Authors who are affiliated expedited if authors have their manuscript wildland fire community. FMN welcomes should submit a camera-ready logo for their reviewed by peers and by someone with editing unsolicited manuscripts from readers on any agency, institution, or organization. skills. Please list the name(s) of reviewer(s) and/ subject related to fire management. (See the or the editor when submitting manuscripts. subject index of the first issue of each volume Electronic Files. If the manuscript is word- for a list of topics covered in the past.) processed, please submit a 3-1/2 inch, IBM- Authors are asked to use the English unit compatible disk with the manuscript as an system of weight and measure, with equivalent Because space is a consideration, long manu- electronic file in one of these formats: values in the metric system. Tables should be scripts are subject to publication delay and WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS; WordPerfect 7.0 or typed, with titles and column headings editorial cutting; FMN does print short pieces of earlier for Windows 95; Microsoft Word 6.0 or capitalized as shown in recent issues; tables interest to readers. earlier for Windows 95; or ASCII. Do not embed should be understandable without reading the illustrations (such as maps, charts, and graphs) text. Include tables at the end of the manuscript. Submission Guidelines in the electronic file for the manuscript. Submit manuscripts to either the general Instead, submit each illustration in a separate Photos and Illustrations. Figures, illustrations, manager or the editor at: file using a standard interchange format such as overhead transparencies (originals are EPS, TIFF, JPEG, or GIF (EPS format is preferable), and clear photographs (color slides USDA Forest Service preferable, 256K colors). Please label the disk or glossy color prints are preferable) are often Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff carefully with name(s) of file(s) and system(s) essential to the understanding of articles. P.O. Box 96090 used. Clearly label all photos and illustrations (figure Washington, DC 20090-6090 1, 2, 3, etc.; photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end tel.: 202-205-0891, fax: 202-205-1272 Style. Authors are responsible for using of the manuscript, include clear, thorough Internet e-mail: abaily/[email protected] wildland fire terminology that conforms to the figure and photo captions labeled in the same latest standards set by the National Wildfire way as the corresponding material (figure 1, 2, Hutch Brown, Editor Coordinating Group under the National 3; photograph A, B, C; etc.). For photos, indicate Fire Management Notes Interagency Incident Management System. FMN the “top” and include the name and affiliation of 4814 North 3rd Street uses the spelling, capitalization, hyphenation, the photographer and the year the photo was Arlington, VA 22203 and other styles recommended in the “United taken. For illustrations such as maps, charts, tel.: 703-525-5951, fax: 703-525-0162 States Government Printing Office Style and graphs, submit camera-ready copy in Internet e-mail: [email protected] Manual.” Try to keep titles concise and addition to any electronic files (see above). descriptive; subheadings and bulleted material If you have questions about a submission, please are useful and help readability. As a general rule All photos and illustrations require a written contact Editor Hutch Brown. of clear writing, use the active voice (e.g., write, release by the photographer or illustrator. In “Fire managers know…” and not, “It is addition, non-Federal Government authors Paper Copy. Type or word-process the known…”). Provide spellouts for all must sign a release to allow their work to be in manuscript on white paper (double-spaced) on abbreviations. Consult recent issues (on the the public domain and on the World Wide Web. one side. Include the complete name(s), title(s), World Wide Web at
34 Fire Management Notes Twelve Standard Aviation Questions That Could Save Your Life
1. Is this flight necessary? 2. Who is in charge? 3. Are all hazards identified and have you made them known? 4. Should you stop the operation or flight due to: • Communications? • Weather? • Confusion? • Turbulence? • Personnel? • Conflicting priorities? 5. Is there a better way to do it? 6. Are you driven by an overwhelming sense of urgency? 7. Can you justify your actions? 8. Are there other aircraft in the area? 9. Do you have an escape route? 10. Are any rules being broken? 11. Are communications getting tense? 12. Are you deviating from the assigned operation or flight?
WHEN IN DOUBT…DON’T!
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