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"> "> You will learn in this lesson: Arabic numbers, cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers in Arabic. The table below shows examples of Arabic numbers. The first and the fifth columns have numbers used in some Arab countries; they’re not of Arabic origins but still used in many places especially copies of the Holy Qur’an …. Nowadays what tis’ ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ٩ thamaniya (th in thin) 9 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ٨ sab’a 8 ﺳﺘﺔ ٧ sitta 7 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ٦ khamsa 6 أرﺑﻌﺔ ٥ arba’a 5 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ٤ thalatha (th as in bath) 4 إﺛﻨﺎن ٣ ithnan 3 واﺣﺪ ٢ wahid 2 ﺻﻔﺮ ١ 0 sifr 1 ٠ we call the Arabic numbers are the numbers shown on the columns 2 and 6, which are used by the Arab world as well as the rest of the world. Arabic Numbers wahed ﻋﺸﺮون ٢١ ishrun 21‘ ﺗﺴﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ٢٠ tis’a ‘ashar 20 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٩ thamaniya ‘ashar 19 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٨ sab’a ‘ashar 18 ﺳﺘﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٧ sitta ‘ashar 17 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٦ khamsa ‘ashar 16 أرﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٥ arba’a ‘ashar 15 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٤ thalatha ‘ashar 14 إﺛﻨﺎ ﻋﺸﺮ ١٣ ithna ‘ashar 13 إﺣﺪى ﻋﺸﺮ ١٢ ahada ‘ashar 12 ﻋﺸﺮة ١١ ashra 11‘ ﺗﺴﻌﺔ ١٠ 10 ﺗﺴﻌﺔ و tis’a wa-’ishrun ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ و ﻋﺸﺮون ٢٩ thamaniya wa-’ishrun 29 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ وﻋﺸﺮون ٢٨ sab’a wa-’ishrun 28 ﺳﺘﺔ و ﻋﺸﺮون ٢٧ sitta wa-’ishrun 27 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ و ﻋﺸﺮون ٢٦ khamsa wa-’ishrun 26 أرﺑﻌﺔ و ﻋﺸﺮون ٢٥ arba’a wa-’ishrun 25 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ و ﻋﺸﺮون ٢٤ thalatha wa-’ishrun 24 إﺛﻨﺎن وﻋﺸﺮون ٢٣ ithnane wa-’ishrun 23 واﺣﺪ و ﻋﺸﺮون ٢٢ wa-’ishrun 22 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻮن ٨٦ thamanun ﺧﻤﺴﺔ و ﺳﺒﻌﻮن ٨٠ khamsa wa-sab’un 80 ﺳﺒﻌﻮن ٧٥ sab’un 75 أرﺑﻌﺔ و ﺳﺘﻮن ٧٠ arba'a wa-sittun 70 ﺳﺘﻮن ٦٤ sittun 64 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ و ﺧﻤﺴﻮن ٦٠ thalatha wa-khamsun 60 ﺧﻤﺴﻮن ٥٣ khamsun 53 إﺛﻨﺎن و أرﺑﻌﻮن ٥٠ ithnan wa-arba’un 50 أرﺑﻌﻮن ٤٢ arba’un 42 واﺣﺪ و ﺛﻼﺛﻮن ٤٠ wahid wa-thalathun 40 ﺛﻼﺛﻮن ٣١ thalathun 31 ﻋﺸﺮون ٣٠ 30 ,Forming numbers in Arabic is quite easy, from 13 to 19 you just place a number before ten for example 13 = three ten ﻣﻠﻴﻮن Million أﻟﻔﻴﻦ ١٠٠٠٠٠٠٠ alfain 10000000 ﻣﺎﺋﺔ أﻟﻒ ٢٠٠٠ mi'at alf 2000 أﻟﻒ ١٠٠٠٠٠ alf 100000 ﻣﺎﺋﺔ ١٠٠٠ mi'a 1000 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ و ﺗﺴﻌﻮن ١٠٠ sab'a wa-tis’un 100 ﺗﺴﻌﻮن ٩٧ tis’un 97 ﺳﺘﺔ و ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻮن ٩٠ sitta wa-thamanun 90 86 instead of thirteen in English, 17 is seven ten in Arabic. From 21 to 99 you just need to reverse the numbers and add (wa- between the two numbers) 36 would six wa- thirty instead of thirty six (sitta wa-thalathun), (wa means and). 0 is sifr in Arabic, from which the word cipher came. For 11 and 12 they’re irregular, so just remember how to write them by now (11 = ehda ‘ashar, 12 = ithna ‘ashar). So in general, numbers standing alone are easy to use, or say. The hard part is that numbers 3 to 10 have a unique rule of agreement with nouns known as polarity: A numeral in masculine gender should agree with a feminine referrer and vice versa (thalathatu awlaad = three boys), boys are masculine plural, so the feminine form of number 3 should be used (which is thalathatu, and not thalathu which is the masculine form, the at the end of numbers is used when a number is followed by another word to make an easy jump to the next word) (thalathu banaat = three girls) banaat = girls, which is feminine plural, therefore a masculine form of number 3 should be used (thalathu). That may sound complicated but once you get used to it, it will not be as hard as it seems now, besides most Arab natives make mistakes or simply don’t care about matching the gender and the number. Arabic Ordinal Numbers: Ordinal numbers in Arabic are almost like the cardinal numbers, with some exceptions in the numbers from 1 to 10, and a slight difference in numbers from 11 and up. Note that ordinal numbers in Arabic are somehow like adjectives, so they have to take the masculine, or feminine form. Please check the adjectives page for more information. Arabic Cardinal Numbers First Awwal Oula Second Thani Thania Third Thaleth Thaletha Fourth Rabe’ Rabe’a Fifth Khaames Khaamesa Sixth Sadis Sadisa Seventh Sabe’ Sabe’a Eighth Thamen Thamena Ninth Tase’ Tase’a Tenth acher achera Eleventh Hady achar Hadiata achar Twelfth Thani achar Thania achar After 10 only the first number takes the feminine, for example 13th is thaleth achar for masculine, and thalethata achar for feminine, achar stays the same, the first half “thaleth” which means 3rd takes “a” in the feminine, and so does the rest of the ordinal number, except ten numbers like 20, 30, 40, 50, they look like cardinal numbers but they add “a” as a prefix for numbers starting with a consonant, for example: 70 = sab’un, 70th = asab’un (for both masculine and feminine), and they add “al” for ten numbers starting with a vowel, like: 40= arba’un, 40th = alarba’un. 2005-2006 © speak7.com [email protected] All Rights Reserved SPEAK7.COM Arabic Translation Arabic Calligraphy Alphabet (Audio) new! Vowels Arabic Phrases (Audio) new! Articles Numbers Pronouns Feminine & Plural Verbs Present Tense Adjectives Comparison Prepositions Questions & Negation Arabic Reading Writing Letters Test your Arabic! How to Learn Arabic 3 Tips for Learning Arabic Intro to Arabic Pronouns Important Arabic Phrases Arabic Job Opportunities Reading Arabic Script Dialects of Arabic Arabic Business Culture Arabic Keyboard Install Arabic Vocabulary List - Adjectives - Animals - Body - Food & House - Occupations & School - Places & Sport - Time & Weather - Verbs - By Alphabet (A-B) (new) - By Alphabet (C-D) (new) - By Alphabet (E-F) (new) - Join Our Mailing List Islam - How to Pray - How to make Wudu - Memorize Quran - Islamic Expressions - Muslims Activities LEARN SPANISH LEARN FRENCH LEARN ITALIAN LEARN RUSSIAN LEARN GERMAN LEARN JAPANESE Here is another post that deals with the writing and pronunciation of Arabic numbers. The table below gives the ﺳﺒﻌﺔ sitta 7 ﺳﺘﺔ khamsa 6 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ arba3a 5 أرﺑﻌﺔ thalaatha 4 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ithnaan 3 اﺛﻨﺎن waa7id 2 واﺣﺪ Sifr 1 ﺻﻔﺮ at the end of each number, but not the table. 0 (ﺗﻨﻮﻳﻦ) numbers in writing and transliteration of the sounds. The following video gives the numbers in a sound file with the writing. Please note that the youtube clip includes nunation ﻋﺸﺮون tis3ata 3ashar 20 ﺗﺴﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ thamaneyata 3ashar 19 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ sab3ata 3ashar 18 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ sittata 3ashar 17 ﺳﺘﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ khamsata 3ashar 16 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ arba3ata 3ashar 15 أرﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ thalaathata 3ashar 14 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ ithna 3ashar 13 اﺛﻨﺎ ﻋﺸﺮ a7ada 3ashar 12 أﺣﺪ ﻋﺸﺮ ashara 11ﻋﺸﺮة tis3a 10 3 ﺗﺴﻌﺔ thamaaneya 9 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ sab3a 8 ﺳﺘﺔ Khamsa 6 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ Arba3a 5 أرﺑﻌﺔ Thalaatha 4 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ Ithnaan 3 اﺛﻨﺎن Wa7id 2 واﺣﺪ Sifr 1 ﺻﻔﺮ mi’a 0 ﻣﺌﺔ / ﻣﺎﺋﺔ tis3oun 100 ﺗﺴﻌﻮن thamaanoun 90 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻮن sab3oun 80 ﺳﺒﻌﻮن sittoun 70 ﺳﺘﻮن khamsoun 60 ﺧﻤﺴﻮن arba3oun 50 أرﺑﻌﻮن thalaathoun 40 ﺛﻼﺛﻮن ithnaan wa 3ishroon 30 اﺛﻨﺎن وﻋﺸﺮون wa7id wa 3ishroon 22 واﺣﺪ وﻋﺸﺮون 3ishroon 21 Tis3ata ﺗﺴﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Thamaneyata 3ashar 19 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Sab3ata 3ashar 18 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Sittata 3ashar 17 ﺳﺘﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Khamsata 3ashar 16 ﺧﻤﺴﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Thalaatha 3ashar 15 أرﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Thalaathata 3ashar 14 ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ Ithna 3ashar 13 اﺛﻨﺎ ﻋﺸﺮ A7ada 3ashar 12 أﺣﺪ ﻋﺸﺮ ashara 11ﻋﺸﺮة Tis3a 10 3 ﺗﺴﻌﺔ Thamaneya 9 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ Sab3a 8 ﺳﺒﻌﺔ Sitta 7 Mi’a Tags: Arabic numbers, Pronunciation, Vocabulary, writing Keep learning ﻣﺌﺔ / ﻣﺎﺋﺔ Tis3oun 100 ﺗﺴﻌﻮن Thamaanoun 90 ﺛﻤﺎﻧﻮن Sab3oun 80 ﺳﺒﻌﻮن Sittoun 70 ﺳﺘﻮن Khamsoun 60 ﺧﻤﺴﻮن Arba3oun 50 أرﺑﻌﻮن thalaathoun 40 ﺛﻼﺛﻮن Ithnaan wa 3ishroon 30 اﺛﻨﺎن وﻋﺸﺮون Wa7id wa 3ishroon 22 واﺣﺪ وﻋﺸﺮون ishroon 21ﻋﺸﺮون 3ashar 20 3 Arabic with us! Build vocabulary, practice pronunciation, and more with Transparent Language Online. Available anytime, anywhere, on any device. The ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 For other uses, see (disambiguation). Arabic numerals set in Source Sans Arabic numerals are the ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The term often implies a number written using these digits (in particular when contrasted with ). However the term can mean the digits themselves, such as in the statement " numbers are written using Arabic numerals." Although the Hindu–Arabic [1][2] (i.e. decimal) was developed by Indian mathematicians around AD 500,[3] quite different forms for the digits were used initially. They were modified into Arabic numerals later in North Africa. It was in the Algerian city of Bejaia that the Italian scholar Fibonacci first encountered the numerals; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe. European trade, books, and colonialism helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals have found worldwide use significantly beyond the contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet, intruding into the writing systems in regions where other variants of the Hindu–Arabic numerals had been in use, such as Chinese and Japanese writing. The term Arabic numerals may be intended to mean the numerals used in Arabic writing, such as the Eastern Arabic numerals. The Oxford English Dictionary uses lowercase Arabic numerals to refer to Western digits, and capitalized Arabic Numerals to refer to the Eastern digits.[4] Other alternative names are Western Arabic numerals, Western numerals and Hindu–Arabic numerals. just uses the unadorned term digits.[5] History Origins Main article: History of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system The numeral "zero" as it appears in two numbers (50 and 270) in 9th century inscription in Gwalior, India.[6][7] The decimal Hindu–Arabic numeral system was developed in India by around 700.[8] The development was gradual, spanning several centuries, but the decisive step was probably provided by Brahmagupta's formulation of zero as a numeral in 628. The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated to sometime between the 3rd and 7th -Al-Jam` wal-Tafrīq bil-Ḥisāb al-Hindī) was written about 825 in Arabic, and then the Arab mathematician Al اﻟﺠﻤﻊ واﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺴﺎب اﻟﻬﻨﺪي :century AD. The numeral system came to be known to the court of Baghdad, where mathematicians such as the Persian Al-Khwarizmi, whose book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (Arabic Kitāb fī Isti`māl al-'A`dād al-Hindīyyah) in about 830. Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West.[9] Middle-Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal ﻛﺘﺎب ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل اﻷﻋﺪاد اﻟﻬﻨﺪﻳﺔ :Kindi, who wrote four volumes, On the Use of the Indian Numerals (Arabic numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by the Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–953. The decimal point notation was introduced[when?] by Sind ibn Ali, who also wrote the earliest treatise on Arabic numerals. Origin of the Arabic numeral symbols According to Al-Biruni, there were multiple forms of numerals in use in India, and "Arabs chose among them what appeared to them most useful"[citation needed]. Al-Nasawi wrote in the early eleventh century that the mathematicians had not agreed on the form of numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals.[10] The oldest specimens of the written numerals available from Egypt in 873–874 show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and the (Western) Arabic numerals.[11] The western Arabic variants of the symbols came to be used in Maghreb and Al-Andalus, which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals.[12] Calculations were originally performed using a dust board (takht, Latin: tabula) which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them as part of calculations. Al-Uqlidisi then invented a system of calculations with ink and paper "without board and erasing" (bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās).[13] The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called ḥisāb al-hindī in the east, it was called ḥisāb al-ghubār in the west (literally, "calculation with dust").[14] The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as ashkāl al‐ghubār (dust figures, in Ibn al-Yāsamin) or qalam al-ghubår (dust letters).[15] The divergence in the terminology has led some scholars to propose that the Western Arabic numerals had a separate origin in the so-called "ghubār numerals" but the available evidence indicates no separate origin.[16] Woepecke has also proposed that the Western Arabic numerals were already in use in Spain before the arrival of the Moors, purportedly received via Alexandria, but this theory is not accepted by scholars.[17][18][19] Some popular myths argue that the original forms of these symbols indicated their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but no evidence exists of any such origin.[20] Adoption in Europe Evolution of Indian numerals into Arabic numerals and their adoption in Europe Woodcut showing the 16th century astronomical clock of Uppsala Cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals. A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Talhoffer Thott, 1459). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer presents them with the Hebrew alphabet and astrology. Late 18th-century French revolutionary "decimal" clockface. The reason the digits are more commonly known as in other areas. In 825 Al-Khwārizmī wrote a treatise in Arabic, On the (٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩) Arabic numerals" in Europe and the Americas is that they were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic-speakers of North Africa, who were then using the digits from Libya to Morocco. Arabs were also using the Eastern Arabic numerals" Calculation with Hindu Numerals,[21] which survives only as the 12th-century Latin translation, Algoritmi de numero Indorum.[22][23] Algoritmi, the translator's rendition of the author's name, gave rise to the word algorithm.[24] The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of 976.[25] From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later, Pope Sylvester II) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France.[citation needed] Leonardo Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa), a mathematician born in the Republic of Pisa who had studied in Béjaïa (Bougie), Algeria, promoted the Indian numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci: When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it. The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press, and they became widely known during the 15th century. Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396,[26] in England, a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral. (See G.F. Hill, The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe for more examples.) In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous, started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456.[27] By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe.[28] Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of anno Domini years, and for numbers on clockfaces. The evolution of the numerals in early Europe is shown here in a table created by the French scholar Jean-Étienne Montucla in his Histoire de la Mathematique, which was published in 1757: Today, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), for sequential volumes, to differentiate monarchs or family members with the same first names, and (in lower case) to number pages in prefatory material in books, as well as on clockfaces. Adoption in Russia Cyrillic numerals were a numbering system derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, used by South and East Slavic peoples. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century when Peter the Great replaced it with Arabic numerals. Adoption in China Iron plate with an order 6 magic square in Persian/Arabic numbers from China, dating to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). was introduced to China during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) by the Muslim Hui people. In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits.[29][30][31] Encoding The ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as Morse code. They are encoded in ASCII at positions 0x30 to 0x39. Masking to the lower 4 binary bits (or taking the last digit) gives the value of the digit, a great help in converting text to numbers on early computers. These positions were inherited in Unicode.[32] EBCDIC used different values, but also had the lower 4 bits equal to the digit value. Binary Octal Decimal Hex Glyph Unicode EBCDIC (Hex) 0011 0000 060 48 30 0 U+0030 DIGIT ZERO F0 0011 0001 061 49 31 1 U+0031 DIGIT ONE F1 0011 0010 062 50 32 2 U+0032 DIGIT TWO F2 0011 0011 063 51 33 3 U+0033 DIGIT THREE F3 0011 0100 064 52 34 4 U+0034 DIGIT FOUR F4 0011 0101 065 53 35 5 U+0035 DIGIT FIVE F5 0011 0110 066 54 36 6 U+0036 DIGIT SIX F6 0011 0111 067 55 37 7 U+0037 DIGIT SEVEN F7 0011 1000 070 56 38 8 U+0038 DIGIT EIGHT F8 0011 1001 071 57 39 9 U+0039 DIGIT NINE F9 See also Text figures Chinese numerals – decimal positional numeral system with zero Decimal Seven-segment display Regional variations in modern handwritten Arabic numerals Notes References ^ Schipp, Bernhard; Krämer, Walter (2008), Statistical Inference, Econometric Analysis and Matrix Algebra: Festschrift in Honour of Götz Trenkler, Springer, p. 387, ISBN 9783790821208 ^ Lumpkin, Beatrice; Strong, Dorothy (1995), Multicultural science and math connections: middle school projects and activities, Walch Publishing, p. 118, ISBN 9780825126598 ^ Bulliet, Richard; Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel; Hirsch, Steven; Johnson, Lyman (2010). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume 1. Cengage Learning. p. 192. ISBN 978-1439084748. Indian mathematicians invented the concept of zero and developed the "Arabic" numerals and system of place-value notation used in most parts of the world today[better source needed] ^ "Arabic", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition ^ Official Unicode Consortium code chart ^ Smith, David Eugene; Karpinski, Louis Charles (1911). The Hindu-Arabic numerals. Boston, London, Ginn and Company. p. 52. ^ For a modern image ^ 'Connor, J. J. and E. F. Robertson. 2000. Indian Numerals, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. ^ The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 7: "Les personnes qui se sont occupées de la science du calcul n'ont pas été d'accord sur une partie des formes de ces neuf signes; mais la plupart d'entre elles sont convenues de les former comme il suit." ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu- Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 5. ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, pp. 12–13: "While specimens of Western Arabic numerals from the early period—the tenth to thirteenth centuries—are still not available, we know at least that Hindu reckoning (called ḥisāb al-ghubār) was known in the West from the tenth century onward..." ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, pp. 7–8. ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 8. ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 10. ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu- Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, p. 10: 'I should think that, therefore, it is no longer justified for us to call the Western Arabic forms of the Hindu-Arabic numerals "ghubār numerals." Rather we should speak of the Eastern and the Western Arabic forms of the nine numerals.' ^ Kunitzsch, The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered 2003, pp. 12–13: "Since edition of and research on the Pseudo-Boethius[41] we now know that the texts running under his name and carrying Arabic numerals date from the eleventh century. Thus the assumed way of transmission from Alexandria to Spain is impossible and this theory can no longer be taken as serious." ^ Smith, D. E.; Karpinski, L. C. (2013) [first published in Boston, 1911], The Hindu-Arabic Numerals, Dover, Chapter V, ISBN 978-0486155111 ^ Gandz, Solomon (November 1931), "The Origin of the Ghubār Numerals, or the Arabian Abacus and the Articuli", Isis, 16 (2): 393–424, doi:10.1086/346615, JSTOR 224714, S2CID 144993740 ^ Ifrah, Georges (1998). The universal history of numbers: from prehistory to the invention of the computer; translated from the French by David Bellos. London: Harvill Press. pp. 356–357. ISBN 9781860463242. ^ Philosophy Of Mathematics Francis, John – 2008 – Page 38 ^ The Ellipse: A Historical and Mathematical Journey Arthur Mazer – 2011 ^ "al-Khwarizmi - Muslim mathematician". ^ Models of Computation: An Introduction to Computability Theory – Page 1 Maribel Fernández – 2009 ^ "MATHORIGINS.COM_V". www.mathorigins.com. ^ "14th century timepiece unearthed in Qld farm shed". ABC News. ^ Erdélyi: Magyar művelődéstörténet 1-2. kötet. Kolozsvár, 1913, 1918 ^ Mathforum.org ^ Helaine Selin, ed. (1997). Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Springer. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. ^ Meuleman, Johan H. (2002). Islam in the era of globalization: Muslim attitudes towards modernity and identity. Psychology Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0- 7007-1691-3. ^ Peng Yoke Ho (2000). Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Courier Dover Publications. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-486-41445-4. ^ Sources Kunitzsch, Paul (2003), "The Transmission of Hindu-Arabic Numerals Reconsidered", in J. P. Hogendijk; A. I. Sabra (eds.), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 3–22, ISBN 978-0-262-19482-2 Plofker, Kim (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Pres, ISBN 978-0-691-12067-6 Further reading Ore, Oystein (1988), "Hindu-Arabic numerals", Number Theory and Its History, Dover, pp. 19–24, ISBN 0486656209. Burnett, Charles (2006), "The Semantics of Indian Numerals in Arabic, Greek and Latin", Journal of Indian Philosophy, Springer-Netherlands, 34 (1–2): 15–30, doi:10.1007/s10781-005-8153-z, S2CID 170783929. Encyclopædia Britannica (Kim Plofker) (2007), "mathematics, South Asian", Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 189 (4761): 1–12, Bibcode:1961Natur.189S.273., doi:10.1038/189273c0, S2CID 4288165, retrieved 18 May 2007. Hayashi, Takao (1995), The Bakhshali Manuscript, An ancient Indian mathematical treatise, Groningen: Egbert Forsten, ISBN 906980087X. Ifrah, Georges (2000), A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to Computers, New York: Wiley, ISBN 0471393401. Katz, Victor J., ed. (20 July 2007), The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691114859. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Arabic numerals (category) Development of Hindu Arabic and Traditional Chinese History of Counting Systems and Numerals. Retrieved 11 December 2005. The Evolution of Numbers. 16 April 2005. O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. Indian numerals. November 2000. History of the numerals Arabic numerals Hindu-Arabic numerals Numeral & Numbers' history and curiosities Gerbert d'Aurillac's early use of Hindu- Arabic numerals at Convergence Retrieved from "

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