Chapter 1

Achieving Lasting Behavior Change By Applying Behavior Analysis What Is It and How Does It Work?

Goals

1. Describe how human behavior influences our welfare. 2. Briefly describe the evolution of behavior analysis from its early beginnings to the present. 3. Describe the specific position radical behaviorists take to explain human behavior. 4. Discuss the circumstances under which the behavior of organisms was found as equivalently lawful as other natural phenomenon and thereby amenable to scientific investigation. 5. List and describe the philosophical concepts on which applied behavior analysis (ABA) is based. 6. Describe the manner in which ABA consists of a (a) scientific method, (b) technology, and (c) professional approach. 7. Define behavior. 8. Describe ABA in simple language. 9. Say how you would justify labeling a particular intervention as being behavior-analytic in character. 10. Differentiate betweenapplied and basic behavior analysis. 11. Briefly describe ABA’s position on the protection of clients’ rights. 12. List four current roles and functions of ABA participants of particular interest to you. 13. Specify and describe each of ABA’s basic features. 14. Specify and describe each ABA practitioner category. 15. Describe radical .

1 2 • behavior analysis for lasting change

16. Discuss the behavioral position on assigning responsibility for an individual’s particular actions. 17. Provide a general overview of the professional approach to ABA and describe and illustrate each major step or element in Figure 1.1.

**********

INTRODUCTION in answer to these questions. At present, thousands of scientific researchers and practitioners continue For better or worse, change is a fact of life. Change actively to pursue those questions, standing as evi- is inherent in nature and, as creatures of nature, in dence of the broad interest in humane, responsible, all of humanity’s personal and social behavior. Over constructive, durable behavioral change. the millennia, familial, tribal, social, cultural, legal, Certainly most recognize just how critical a role educational, business, health, and numerous other human behavior plays in determining the future sur- organizational systems have evolved to manage vival of humankind. Increasingly apparent is the fact behavioral change. Contemporary societies attempt that not only our own personal health and happiness, to manage such change by creating laws, institu- but the very continuation of we homo-sapiens as a tions, policies, and practices to provide a balance species, heavily depend on our behavioral choices. between personal and communal freedom, thereby To illustrate: enabling these societies to survive and flourish. In the best of all possible worlds, if those sys- • Attaining/retaining good health by access- tems were to function smoothly and effectively, all ing, choosing, and consuming nutritious would be well. Alas, they often are imperfect and foods; exercising regularly and gaining that is where the need for change begins. If chil- adequate rest; having the wherewithal to dren fail to attain appropriate verbal, social, or self- function safely at work, play, and at home; help skills, that becomes a source of distress for and obtaining essential skilled medical their families and others in the community. When assistance versus damaging our health by members of social, service, healthcare, business, or consuming excessive quantities of margin- other organizations commit mistakes or shirk their ally or non-nutritious foods or of harmful responsibilities, others within, and perhaps outside substances; participating in hazardous of the group pay the price. Personal and group mis- activities; and being unable to access essen- conduct like criminal deeds, neglectful or harmful tial help and support. parenting, and drug, sexual, or self-abuse certainly • Optimizing our abilities to permit us to sup- can take a toll on individuals and their societies. port ourselves and our dependents through While the world’s societies have made incred- education, training, and constructive plan- ible progress to date, much remains to be accom- ning and to detect and capitalize on avail- plished, especially within the realm of human able opportunities versus struggling just to behavior. Probably that fact explains why so many survive. of us are fascinated by such questions as, “Why do • Saving and contributing to our own savings people (and other living organisms) do the things and the world’s resources versus exploiting, they do?” and “What, if necessary, can be done over-expending, or wasting them. to produce effective and enduring learning of, or • Cooperating and collaborating in mutually change, in a particular behavior?” beneficial group decisionsversus competing Within the past hundred years or so, a science of to the advantage of few but to the detriment the behavior of living organisms has been evolving of many. chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 3

The list goes on and on. As any rational person challenges and gain better control over their desti- must agree, not only our present but our personal nies have been wise; others, though perhaps well- and collective future prospects depend upon how intended, have been fanciful or even cruel: from humans behave. Ergo, one of the most profound belief systems, folklore, social regulation and sanc- questions anyone can pose is: “What must we as tions to wars, torture and various other benign or individuals and as members of the human family do cruel strategies. Of those, the more serious-minded to advance our survival and to permit us to live lon- and systematic approaches eventually coalesced ger, healthier, and more fulfilling lives?” The more into the field of psychology. we understand about human behavior and our abil- Within the more recent past, though, many reso- ity to modify it humanely and effectively the closer lute philosophers and scientists began to speculate we approach the answer to that question. about whether the behavior of living organisms Be cautious about accepting undocumented actually might obey natural laws in ways similar advice, though, because, as Daniels and Lattal (2017) to those of the physical world. In keeping with that have pointed out, despite abundant advice available perspective, during the latter part of the nineteenth via the web, social media, and from numerous books century, experimental psychology began to emerge on how to live the good life, make personal changes, as a scientific enterprise represented by an expand- and to reach one’s potential, much of that material is ing array of methodologically-oriented investigators based on outdated theories and beliefs. By contrast, of the “psyche” or “mind.” Some viewed behavior thanks to the science of human behavior, rigorous according to its structure. This structuralism, ini- tools now exist for determining: tially proposed by Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) and promoted by Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927), • why individuals tend behave as they do sought to understand the adult “mind” in terms of a under particular circumstances and set of simple, definable components. Wundt viewed • how effectively to: the mind as being composed of the sum total of the individual’s experience from birth to the present °° promote and teach specific behaviors time. The structural psychologists’ major tool was °° broaden or refine the circumstances under introspection (a careful set of self-observations made which particular behaviors are emitted under controlled conditions by trained observers °° reduce or eliminate inappropriate or using a stringently-defined descriptive vocabulary). unhealthy behavior, without necessarily Using this technique, they attempted to discover having to resort to threats or punishment. how these components fit together into complex forms called hypothetical or imaginary constructs.1 In other words, we no longer need to turn to These include internal mentalistic processes like outdated beliefs or theories about why people (and attitudes, feelings, self-concepts, or motivations, or other living organisms) behave the way they do. even structures like ’s (1856–1939) Rather, thanks to the findings of nearly a century of id, ego, and superego or ’s (1865–1961) scientific study of human behavior, we now possess concepts of the extroverted and introverted per- a set of effective tools for altering behavior for the sonality types, archetypes (differing but repeating good of the individual and of society. patterns of thought and action that appear time and Addressing people’s directly observable behav- again across people, countries, and continents), and ioral issues goes as far back as humans have lived the collective unconscious, the repository of all the in social groupings. From prehistoric times onward, religious, spiritual, and mythological symbols and people have struggled to comprehend why liv- experiences. ing organisms behave the way they do, and, how Others, like John B. Watson (1878–1958), to change it. This seemingly universal inclination considered by many to be the founder of behav- to comprehend and change behavior has gener- iorism (Malone, 2014), took an alternative, much ated numerous explanations and methods. Some strategies designed to help people meet their daily 1See MacCorquodal & Meehl, 1948. 4 • behavior analysis for lasting change more objective route toward exploring why people the laws of nature—that it is causally determined— behave as they do. His methodological behaviorism by combinations of preceding events and/or con- emphasized directly observing human and animal sequences. And, perhaps even more important for action to study behavior. He assumed that, like other ourselves, as agents of behavioral change, we appre- natural phenomena, behavior obeys certain basic ciate that like physical and chemical processes, laws. He particularly emphasized the interaction once translated into (technically, operationalized as) between maturing human beings and their environ- human actions, these behavioral phenomena lend ments, contending that he could guarantee to take themselves to manipulation for purposes of scien- “well-formed” healthy infants and a specifically tific investigation. This recognition has evoked an organized world, and train those infants to become ever-expanding experimental analysis of behavior; “any type of specialist… doctor, lawyer, artist, mer- one directed toward producing a body of knowledge chant-chief, and, yes, even beggerman” (Watson, and understanding about how contingencies of rein- 1930, p. 82). B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) assumed forcement influence what people and other living a similar, though more parsimonious (economical) organisms say and do. perspective, endorsing the notion that the behavior As with other scientific information (i.e. physi- of organisms is the subject matter of science. cal phenomena), many have pondered whether it Today, behavior analysts agree that the behav- would be possible to put the knowledge derived ior of organisms is as subject to the laws of nature from the scientific analysis of behavior to use for as any other natural phenomena. Like other natural the benefit of humankind. Or is it too late? The race scientists, radical behaviorists attribute what living between the forces supportive of healthy growth and organisms do and say to their ontogeny (the origin of destruction is intense. The more we learn about and development of an individual organism from the intricacies of the behavior of organisms, and the embryo to adult) and to their phylogeny (those his- sooner we learn how to constructively and compas- torical patterns of relationships among their genetic sionately apply that knowledge, the better chance endowments, past experiences, and the internal and humanity has to continue to survive and thrive. Ber- external environmental contingencies of reinforce- trand Russell, the eminent philosopher, stressed this ment currently affecting them). Of special relevance point in 1955: is the way multiple events may affect one another, especially when they are contingently related to one Whether men will be able to survive another (i.e., preceding or following one another). the changes of environment that their Examples of contingent relations include twisting own skill has brought about is open to the doorknob and the door opens (positive rein- question. If the answer is in the affir- forcement), touching a hot stove and getting burned mative, men will have to apply scien- (positive punishment), inhaling pepper and sneez- tific ways of thinking to themselves ing, pressing the correct elevator button and arriving and their institutions. They cannot continue to at the correct floor. Contingent relations of that sort hope, as all politicians hitherto have, that in a are fundamental to nonhuman and human learning world where everything has changed, the politi- and behavior change. Another way of saying this is cal and social habits of the eighteenth century that particular patterns of behavior evolve and per- can remain inviolate. Not only will men of sci- sist through natural selection, in much the same way ence have to grapple with the sciences that deal that Darwinian selectionism (Darwin,1872/1958) with man, but—and this is a far more difficult operates. Those qualities best suited to the organ- matter—they will have to persuade the world ism’s physical and its cultural environment (the to listen to what they have discovered (Russell, local common code of systems of beliefs and atti- 1955, p. 6–7). tudes about what is good and bad, right and wrong) are most readily selected for survival. What Russell sagely endorsed was scientifically This deterministic perspective asserts that, like to examine and publicly disseminate new methods other natural phenomena, human behavior obeys for arranging and applying effective, morally and chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 5 ethically justifiable behavior-change techniques, as environment relationships of relatively immediate epitomized by applied behavior analysis. This sci- individual, social, and cultural importance for the ence would purpose of studying and successfully managing behavior in the real world. • rely on an empirical approach, one based on Applications of behavior analysis soon began to observational and experimental practice, to expand into a variety of areas. Among others, Hol- seek to discover and describe as economi- land and Skinner (1961) successfully advanced col- cally or parsimoniously as possible the nat- lege students’ conceptual learning by programming ural laws and principles that explain and are instruction, that is, breaking instructional content capable of controlling human behavior. down into small parts or “steps” and requiring the • convince others that they should pursue student to participate actively by answering ques- such discoveries and then establish how tions on the material. Meanwhile, in the mid to late best to apply these findings toward the bet- sixties, Israel Goldiamond (1968) addressed stutter- terment of both individuals and humankind ing, Theodore Ayllon and Nate Azrin (1965) studied in general. psychiatric patients’ adaptive behaviors, and Sidney Bijou, Donald Baer, Jay Birnbrauer, and Montrose Wolf (see references) addressed the behavioral defi- THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION cits and excesses of young children with develop- OF THE FIELD OF APPLIED mental delays. The unambiguous success of those BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS early efforts unleashed a movement toward apply- ing behavior analysis to an array of behavioral chal- lenges previously found quite resistant to change. By the 1940s, experimental psy- Well-controlled applied experimental investigations chology was sufficiently well covered the gamut from coping with communication established to enable Edwin G. difficulties, school learning and deportment, self- Boring (1950) to draw upon a management, physical well-being, and social issues, fairly voluminous body of work to an extensive list of methods for remedying other in preparing his History of Experimental Psychol- behavioral deficiencies and excesses. Not only did ogy. Among the greats contributing to the discipline those investigators present compelling evidence of was B. F. Skinner (1938), of whom you will read their participants’ progress, but thanks to the tightly- more in Chapter 2. Skinner undertook to experimen- controlled experimental methods of ABA, they were tally analyze basic behavioral processes both within able to supply clear and objective evidence convinc- a temporal and a biological context. This endeavor ingly to support their claims. was labeled “the experimental analysis of behav- A number of features comprise applied behavior ior.” Then, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, Skin- analysis. (See Box 1.1, “Definitions of Philosophi- ner and several of his students and colleagues (e.g., cal Concepts on which ABA is Based.”) As you James Holland, Sidney Bijou, Israel Goldiamond, proceed through this text, you increasingly will rec- Nathan Azrin, Fred Keller, and others) began to ognize how successfully the field of applied behav- explore ways to extend those processes and research ior analysis has adhered to these concepts. procedures to behavior within a social context. With Another facet of the discipline of behavioral the publication of the Journal of Applied Behavior analysis has focused primarily on the conceptual Analysis in 1968, the latter endeavor, previously analysis of behavior, which verbally addresses his- labeled “,” officially assumed torical, philosophical, theoretical, and methodologi- the title applied behavior analysis (ABA). ABA is cal issues. Illustrations of the latter are found in such an evidence-based method of examining and chang- journals as The Behavior Analyst, Verbal Behavior, ing what people (and other living creatures) say and and numerous others, covering conceptual and pro- do. Practitioners of applied behavior analysis con- fessional issues. duct their experimental investigations of behavior- 6 • behavior analysis for lasting change

Box 1 Definitions of Philosophical Concepts on which ABA is Based

Determinism: Doctrine that acts of the will, occurrences in nature, or social or psychological phenom- ena are causally determined by preceding events or natural laws. Empiricism: Derived from or guided by experience or experiment. Parsimony: The simplest theory that fits the facts of a problem is the one that should be selected. Scientific method: A method of inquiry based on empirical or measurable systematic observation mea- surement and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses or questions. Pragmatism: A practical approach to problems in which truth is found in the process of verification. Pragmatism and behaviorism go hand in hand (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968). Selectionism: Behaviors evolve and persist through natural selection (based on the contingencies—an- tecedents, or precursors, and consequences related to the behavior's occurrence—in the environment interacting with biology) in much the same way as Darwinian selectionism in the evolution of species.

As you will see, by referring to our list of refer- APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS ences, the analysis of behavior—basic, applied, and conceptual—has not only survived, but continues to TODAY flourish to the extent that today literally thousands As our knowledge about the way organisms learn (we estimate about 50,000) of behavior-analytic and change their behavior expands, those practicing papers on the topic have been published in scien- applied behavior analysis become increasingly able tific journals. As one exemplar, ABA’s effective- to successfully and constructively guide learning ness in promoting adaptive behavior among people and performance in specific directions. As often hap- on the autism spectrum certainly has attracted the pens with new terms, the meaning of applied behav- attention of scientists, professionals, and the lay ior analysis has been evolving over time. Essential population at large. (Autism is a syndrome asso- to its definition are that ABA is a scientific method, ciated with communicative, emotional, social and a technology, and/or a professional approach. The other severe difficulties, previously highly -resis Behavior Analysis Certification Board has provided tant to successful treatment.) Yet the difficulties us with the following simplified definition of ABA: of autism-related behaviors are only one among numerous sets of behavioral challenges. Through- out this text, you will encounter extensive experi- mental evidence illustrating how behavior analysts Definition of ABA have successfully applied established principles of behavior toward improving learning and perfor- ABA is the design, implementation, and evalu- mance in a myriad of specialty areas. Examples ation of environmental modifications to pro- among the multitude include education, job train- duce socially significant improvement in human ing, developmental and rehabilitation services, par- behavior. ABA includes the use of direct obser- enting, personal, family and vocational counseling, vation, measurement, and functional analysis of sports performance, health promotion and treat- the relations between environment and behav- ment, commercial and industrial ventures, public ior. ABA uses changes in environmental events, services, public affairs, war and peace. In fact, just including antecedent stimuli and consequences, about any situation involving the actions of living to produce practical and significant changes in organisms is a potential focus for an experimental behavior. These relevant environmental events analysis. chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 7

the beginning, applied behavior analysis has taken are usually identified through a variety of spe- an empirical, that is, an experimental, data-based, cialized assessment methods. ABA is based on the scientific approach, drawing upon observation and fact that an individual’s behavior is determined experience to describe, predict, and ethically man- by past and current environmental events in con- age (“control”) behavior. Its aim has been to iden- junction with organic variables such as their tify the variables that lawfully and meaningfully genetic endowment and ongoing physiological influence behavior in real-world settings, such as variables. ABA focuses on treating behavioral clinics, hospitals, schools, the home, the workplace, difficulties by changing the individual’s environ- virtual space capsules (e.g., Hienz et al., 2005), out ment rather than on variables that are, in the community—anywhere people (and some- at least presently, beyond our direct access. times animals, like guide dogs, work horses, and (Copyright 2012 by the Behavior Analyst Certification others that perform service functions) participate Board, Inc. (“BACB”). Ver. 1.1) in their daily affairs. The meaning of “applied” in “applied behavior analysis” is that the behaviors it quantitatively describes and functionally addresses THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES are socially important. This is done by successfully teaching and supporting constructive, adaptive, OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR healthy, safe, and satisfying learning and perfor- ANALYSIS: A SCIENTIFIC, mance, and by reducing detrimental behavioral TECHNOLOGICAL AND excesses and deficits. Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) PROFESSIONAL APPROACH originally defined and described applied behavior analyses as “experimental investigations of behav- ior conducted in real-world settings.” In so doing, ABA as a Scientific Approach they noted that its essential features specify that the behaviors to be changed are explicitly important When we speak of behavior, quite simply, we and objectively and quantitatively measurable. Its refer to what living organisms do, including what experimental manipulations analyze with precision and how they communicate, aside from its intrin- sufficient to “show clearly what arrangements were sic value or acceptability. It is a neutral term. We responsible for the change” (p. 97). That means that do not use the term to connote “good behavior” or its descriptions of all procedures and contextual “misbehavior,” as teachers, parents, and child-care conditions contributing to that change are complete specialists sometimes do. Behavior analysis is the and technologically exact, while the effectiveness experimental investigation of variables that influ- and magnitude of the change is of sufficient value to ence the behavior of any living organism. From be meaningful and general (see Table 1.1).

TABLE 1.1 Basic Features of ABA Feature Function Applied Focuses on socially significant behaviors Behavioral Focuses on observable, objective measurement of behavior Analytical Demonstrates functional relationships Technological Fully describes all procedures implemented in such detail that some- one else could replicate implementation Conceptually systematic Utilizes procedures based upon principles of behavior analysis Effective Demonstrates socially significant behavior change through objective measurement Generality Produces behavior change across behaviors, people, and/or settings 8 • behavior analysis for lasting change

To elaborate, when we speak of applied whether it be smiling, singing, choosing, using, solv- research, we refer to investigating and analyzing the ing, or whatever, the experimenter has achieved a effect environmental changes produce upon socially successful behavioral analysis. Convincing parents, important behavior in real-life settings like homes, teachers, clients themselves, managers, and super- schools, health facilities, factories, etc. Typically visors that they should be able to manage behavior the behaviors ABA addresses are those intended to similarly, however, may not be easy. But as you will benefit participants (and perhaps others with whom discover, applied behavior analysts can also apply they interact) such as heightening students’ abil- their methods toward teaching others how success- ity to communicate in class, or of workers’ adher- fully to apply those behavior analytic methods (as ence to safety guidelines on the job. By contrast, is our purpose in preparing this text). Consequently, basic behavioral research (e. g., “the experimental when describing a particular application, the behav- analysis of behavior” is conducted in the laboratory ior analyst must identify and completely specify all under tightly controlled experimental conditions and the actions to be taken (or perhaps to be avoided) by generally focuses on easily quantifiable arbitrary the change agents. To meet the technological quali- actions (not necessarily valued by society) such as fication, well-prepared program implementers must bar presses or chain pulls. Because applied investi- be able to take that description and, assuming they gations tend to be pragmatic, that is, designed to be apply it reliably to participants with similar behav- of practical value, designing tight experimental con- ioral repertoires, to essentially achieve or replicate trols tends to be more of a challenge within applied (duplicate) the results. behavior analytic research. Try objectively, reliably, and validly to measure such human qualities as “being generous, affable, wise, or clever.” Not easy, Applied Behavior Analysis as a but indeed possible. Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) Technology of Behavior Change counseled that applied behavioral researchers “must try harder” (p. 93) to quantify behavior thoroughly Behavior analysts assess behavioral challenges and reliably. and design the most promising solutions by select- On reviewing the history of the ABA field ing methods to apply, monitor, analyze, revise and twenty years after publishing their initial description reanalyze if necessary, communicate the effects of of applied behavior analysis, Baer, Wolf, and Ris- their interventions. In general, ABA investigations ley (1987) noted that some of its elements (applied, involve one or more of several categories of behavior- behavioral, analytic, technological, conceptual, change tactics. Among numerous examples are: effective, and capable of appropriately generalized outcomes) had expanded in scope, in the sense that it Increasing behavior such as: was now addressing more complex problems. They • communicating, reading, defining words also noted that, in the interim, novel (especially correctly computerized) measurement and analytic tools and • praising, describing an accomplishment, strategies had emerged, and recognized that the con- donning safety equipment, precisely adher- text in which the behavior is emitted (“expressed” ing to protocols or “produced”) plays a more important role in • completing assignments according to stan- determining how a person behaves at a particular dards time and place. Additionally, they observed that practitioners were tending to pay greater attention • participating in decision-making and fol- to the particular function of unwelcome or danger- lowing through on agreements ous behavior and to the complexity of interactions • exercising more skillfully, harder, and/or between antecedent circumstances and the behavior longer of interest. • creating works of art, literature, or techno- If, the reasoning goes, an experimenter can logical solutions to problems turn behavior on and off or up and down “at will,” chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 9

• adhering to health and/or self-help routines • decoding letters and words: reading com- plex words and sentences in one’s own or a Teaching and maintaining behavior such as satis- different language factorily performing: • identifying and applying the correct way • academic skills, including reading, writing, to solve mathematical problems: basic or spelling, arithmetic operations advanced operations, such as adding, sub- • technical skills, such as designing an tracting, multiplying, dividing, solving a engine, a computer program, an electrome- range of equations or word problems chanical device • differentiating an actual painting by Ver- • professional skills, like performing difficult meer from a forgery; a benign from a diagnostic, surgical, or engineering routines malignant tumor; a fine from an ordinary wine; a designer outfit from a knock-off; a • self-care skills, like grooming, self-feeding, brilliant versus an amateur musical or sports preparing meals, making beds performance; a cat from a jaguar; a child • self-management skills, like organizing with autism versus one with a hearing loss; one’s time, completing assignments, con- an adult with depression from one with trolling emotional outbursts, choosing and fatigue caused by a medical problem conforming to healthy diets and exercise • family, organizational, and management Selecting the most valid and reliable measurement skills such as systematizing, choosing, and or functional analytic system suitable for a particu- monitoring individual and group goals lar set of circumstances • job skills, as in assembling products, pro- viding specific services, preparing reports Generalizing or expanding the breadth of perfor- mance to new stimuli: • social skills, such as asking and answering questions, greeting people, excusing one’s • reading words written in script after seeing inappropriate (rude) behavior, engaging in them in print conversations, participating in community organizations • using pictures to ask for food or for toys • leadership skills, as in defining an organiza- • behaving politely with all the teachers tion’s mission, setting objectives, defining • using addition and subtraction with both job requirements, assessing performance, word problems and numerals providing feedback, reinforcing positive • choosing a healthy diet at home and in a practices restaurant • continuing productive, proactive practices • displaying good posture while standing as such as those in this list well as while sitting • engaging in activities of civic responsibility, • listening without interrupting to one’s like voting and caring for the environment spouse, one’s parents, and one’s children • detecting subtle differences in one’s own or others’ behavior or the products of their Reducing maladaptive, counter-productive behav- behavior ior that: • interferes with one’s own or others’ well- Making behavior appropriately responsive to being, satisfaction, learning, or progress highly specific stimuli, as in learning to label • is dangerous or destructive, such as injuring actions as correct, expert, precise, sophisticated, others or making oneself ill talented, or skillful such as: • creates an atmosphere of fear and intimidation 10 • behavior analysis for lasting change

Beyond its thousands of success stories, includ- it. Generally, they persist with those explorations ing having become the standard of care for the treat- until they find a mix that continues to produce solid ment of autism spectrum disorders because of the evidence of progress. Then, to be absolutely con- hundreds of successful peer-reviewed studies pub- vinced that those indications of success are indeed lished over the past 50 years), ABA offers the dis- a function of the specific intervention and not just tinct advantage of providing objective evidence of happenstance, they test the validity of their conclu- the effectiveness of its methods. To qualify as a true sions by using one or more experimental-analytic ABA program, every single-case application must designs. Note that each ABA intervention is, in a be accompanied by graphic displays of the impact sense, a single-case “experiment.” This is not to say of the specific intervention. Additionally, before any that every problem addressed by ABA is solved; just treatment is deemed reliably to produce a particular that when success is achieved, as it often is through result, it must duplicate that outcome in the form of a course of procedural adjustments, we can feel con- multiple repetitions or replications of the treatment fident that the ultimate intervention, and not some and effect either across different behaviors within other unknown factor, was responsible. the same individual or across different individuals Given the confidence inspired by its precise or groups. Supplying evidence favoring a particular methodology and the confirmation of its - suc ABA intervention supports practitioners and con- cesses, numerous commercial, educational, or ser- sumers in their efforts to secure the resources essen- vice organizations have adopted ABA as their key tial to its implementation. behavior-management strategy and have employed trained applied behavior analysts to perform pro- fessional functions. “Applied Behavior Analyst” Applied Behavior Analysis as a increasingly is listed as a job title in educational, Profession human service, commercial, and other enterprises. In fact, many states in the United States as well as governmental agencies elsewhere already have required or are in the process of requiring that peo- ple promoting their services as applied behavior analysts document the adequacy of their training and demonstrate the precision of their knowledge and skills. They do this by presenting their creden- tials, passing examinations covering a breadth of information of the sort contained in this text, dem- By its very nature, applied behavior analysis is con- onstrating their ongoing ability to apply the skills ducted under conditions of daily living: in homes, deemed essential by specialists and peers in the educational and training institutions, hospitals, field, and regularly upgrading their competence clinics, works settings, dormitories, out in the com- through continuing education. munity—anywhere people ordinarily function. Of course, being able to pass a written or oral Clientele include those whose actions present both examination is no guarantee that the ABA practitio- ordinary and exceptional daily challenges, such as ner actually will consistently examine behavioral personal problems in living, troublesome family and challenges skillfully, design and apply interventions other social interactions, delayed developmental and analytic strategies appropriately, or communi- skills, and worrisome risks to health, safety, liveli- cate the results and make useful recommendations hood, and overall well-being. Because an essential for the future clearly. Organizations such as the feature of ABA is gathering valid evidence of behav- Behavior Analysis Certification Board™ (BACB) ior change over time, the method is self-correcting. have begun to address this concern by incorporating By observing, recording, and graphing ongoing per- documented supervised practical experience in their formance patterns, change managers can determine list of requirements. (See the Behavior Analysis whether to continue with an intervention or to adjust chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 11

Certification Board® (BACB2) website: http://www. cessfully to communicate and/or interact effectively bacb.com/ for the current requirements.) In addi- with others; control drug abuse; decrease or elimi- tion, many states now license Behavior Analysts. nate problematic behaviors such as fears or phobias, Must everyone who conducts applied behavior enuresis, behavioral excesses, and deficiencies; mas- analysis be certified? Not if the person conducting ter physical feats or job skills; achieve academically; the analysis does not gain compensation for offer- parent skillfully; lead organizations successfully; ing ABA services; nor in those cases in which the humanely train and manage animals as they perform venture is being carried out for research purposes, particular jobs; and much more. But as a science and although in the latter case it must adhere to the ethi- technology, it imposes no value on which behavior cal guidelines of the American Psychological Asso- is good or bad, right or wrong. That must be under- ciation, which includes obtaining peer approval. taken by the clients or their surrogates, behavior ana- Otherwise, those who offer their services as applied lytic professionals themselves, peer review boards, behavior analysts to the public for a fee, who work ethics committees, responsible parents or advocates, in a jurisdiction requiring it, or who seek to reassure or others who undertake to advocate for the partici- their peers (and themselves) that they have mastered pants. To assure ethical application, the Behavior the basic knowledge essential to practicing ABA Analysis Certification Board requires professional competently probably should seek certification and/ practitioners of ABA to adhere to its Professional or, should it come to pass in your state, licensure.34 and Ethical Compliance Code (2016) of which infor- 4 As an empirical scientific enter- mation can be found at BACB.com. prise, applied behavior analysis is ABA does not restrict itself to any single sub- based on or derived from controlled ject matter any more than do the broad disciplines observation or experiment; it is of social work, clinical or , designed to produce data, or factual biology, physics, chemistry, or engineering. Those evidence of change. No one honestly with special qualifications in the area of interest take can claim that ABA is a sure cure for the lead when describing optimal performance and everything that ails the human condition. On the join the participants and/or their advocates and the contrary, what this science-based technology does change agent in setting the goals and objectives of provide is a valid and objective way of examining the particular ABA intervention. (Of course, many behavioral challenges and, by using refined investi- qualified behavior analysts also have qualifications in gative methods, of testing promising interventions. other fields, such as specialized or general education, Then, depending on the behavioral repertoires of training, counseling, psychology, developmental and individual participants and change agents and acces- rehabilitation services, corrections, job safety, busi- sibility of material and human resources, it tries to ness, health, economics, animal training, medicine, identify circumstances that may support or alter the commerce, industry, and so on. In such cases, they behavior of interest. It also tests the feasibility of sometimes fulfill both sets of responsibilities.) promising ethically sound change strategies. Applied behavior analysis per se is not a moral philosophy. As you will see, ABA often has success- WHO, THEN, PROTECTS fully addressed such goals as enabling people suc- CLIENT RIGHTS?

2The BACB® is nonprofit corporation whose “mission is to As in any responsible community, develop, promote and implement a voluntary international certification program for behavior analyst practitioners” (http:// various people serve as advocates www.bacb.com/) for dependent clients by reviewing and approving (or not) the interven- 3At the time of this writing, ABA licensure is being investigated by some jurisdictions as a possible qualification for ABA tion goals and methods. These advo- professionals who provide their services for a fee. cates may include members of a peer 4This symbol of justice scales will appear throughout this text review committee who represent the perspectives when ethical or legal issues are discussed. of the clients; the consumers of ABA services, their 12 • behavior analysis for lasting change parents, guardians, or designated representatives. the membership, especially in its applied branch has Typically in the United States, when university fac- grown from a handful of ardent, primarily United ulty members plan research, whether with humans States midwesterners, to many, many thousands or nonhumans, their action plan must be vetted by worldwide. Untold numbers, certified by the Behav- a committee of peers before the study can begin. ior Analysis Certification Board™ or not, who might Professional associations, technical societies, and or might not belong to the ABAI or related organiza- health and human service agencies also delegate tions, are practicing within the discipline. As Table those sorts of responsibilities, usually to a com- 1.2 suggests, they use their skills in the community, mittee of peers, as do many educational and busi- sports, education, and human services, as well as ness organizations. Additionally, consumer groups, within clinical, health, manufacturing, commercial, such as parents or clients with particular common financial, and numerous other institutions and orga- interests or challenges, often organize committees nizations. Sensible behavior analysts who hope to to see to it that their own values and concerns are live healthy, fulfilling lives, as we ourselves try to heeded. As you will see, especially in our discussion do, also apply that knowledge to manage their own of ethics (Chapter 32), representatives of consum- behavior, and by mutual informed consent, that of ers’ communities are urged to review the goals and members of their households. proposed procedures before endorsing and allowing As we have seen, behavior analysts may com- particular categories of ABA plans to proceed. The bine their expertise with other roles. Whether BACB also assumes responsibility for disciplining parents, organizational behavior or performance any board-certified behavior analyst who violates its managers, coaches, clinicians, trainers, consul- Professional and Ethical Compliance Code. tants, teachers, counselors, psychologists, psycho- therapists, social workers, vocational counselors, speech and language therapists, personnel or orga- CONTEMPORARY BEHAVIOR nizational managers, or any other discipline related ANALYTIC PRACTICE to analyzing and improving human performance, applied behavior analysts contribute by abet- As you now recognize, ABA currently is practiced ting performance improvement. They accomplish worldwide. If you, as a reader, have a specific this by assisting their consumers to function more behavioral interest or concern, you are reasonably effectively, efficiently, productively, maturely and certain to find a set of peer-reviewed journal publi- constructively But to succeed, applied behavior ana- cations on the topic. In the increasingly rare event lysts must demonstrate a certain level of proficiency, that you cannot locate any, by the time you master including mastery of the concepts and methods of this book and proficiently practice its methods under applied behavior analysis, plus a range of other rel- supervision, you may be the one to blaze a new trail evant analytic and performance skills. in this exciting approach to evidence-based behav- Organizations desiring to verify that their behav- ior change. ior analytic personnel meet the necessary perfor- Probably because, since its emergence about a mance requirements in their specialized areas (e.g., half century ago, the field of applied behavior analy- behavioral safety, autism education, community sis has been associated with striking confirmation service, etc.) can seek certification from particular of successful management and change in socially independent organizations, such as the Cambridge meaningful behavior, in all walks of life, the enter- Center for Behavioral Studies (http://behavior.org) prise has continued to expand rapidly. With the stated or from their professional specialty organizations. mission of its flagship organization, the An example is qualifying as a Picture Exchange for Behavior Analysis International, being: “… to Communication System5 implementer or trainer. In contribute to the well-being of society by devel- oping, enhancing and supporting the growth and 5An alternative or augmentative behavior-analytic-based system vitality of the science of behavior analysis through that enables non-speaking clients to express their wants and observations, based on exchanging pictorial images rather than research, education, and practice, (Marr, 2016, p. 3)” spoken words (see Chapter 19). chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 13

TABLE 1.2 A Sample List of Current Roles and Functions of ABA Program Participants Academic task learning rehabilitation services Nervous habits, tics Seat belt use by motor- and engagement skills, Direction-following Noise, reduction in ists, children in shop- writing Donating food to food lunchroom ping carts Accident prevention banks Organizational change Self-control behavior, Activity planning and Dropping out of school Over-selectivity social interacting execution Earplug wearing Parenting Speech acquisition and Adaptive (non-destruc- Eating regulation; skills Participation in family other forms of com- tive, non-injurious) Education, academic: activities munication behavior at home, in pre-school, college, Paying attention to work Speech fluency residential placements graduate, and assignments Spelling Aggression professional Pedestrian safety Staff training Animal performance for Equivalent-class Peer management Staff interactions with work and entertain- formation Peer-assisted learning, clients ment Fear of flying tutoring Stair-use Cell-phone use, decreas- Fire evacuation skills Personal, family, and Stereotypy ing Food acceptance vocational counseling Student academic Change at an institu- Frequency of recording Pivotal responses, performance tional level b e h a v i o r a l d a t a learning Student deportment Choice-making Gang violence Preventing cumulative Student truancy Cigarette smoking Goal-setting trauma disorders Studying Classroom discipline Hallucinating, exhibit- Public affairs Stuttering problems ing fears and phobias, Public services Self-injury Commercial and indus- obsessing Quality of manufactured Self-monitoring trial ventures Handwriting goods Sports skills Communicating skills of Health: care, promotion, Quality of services Story writing typically-developing treatment Reading Supervisory perfor- children and those Hemodialysis, cooperat- Reciprocal interactions mance with delays ing during Recycling Teacher praise Community skills, Hyperactivity Requesting skills Tantrumming functional Imitating Residing in a virtual Task completion Conducting fire- In-service training space capsule Teachers greeting of evacuation skills Inhalation equipment, Safety, on-the-job, at students Conversing use of by asthmatics school, in the com- Teaching strategies Cooperative learning Initiating socially munity Test performance Correct posture Instruction-following School-wide student Tolerance for delay Creativity Lifting, transferring improvement Training skills, pre- and Customer friendliness patients Self-injury in-service skills Delivering performance Manufacturing, quality, Self-monitoring, Transition times feedback productivity recording Vandalism Dental regimens, com- Marketing Separation anxiety Verbal skills pliance Matching-to-sample Service friendliness Violence Dental treatment, coop- Mathematical problem Sick-leave, use of Vocational, job skills eration solving Social greetings War and peace Developmental and Motor performance Social skills, pro-social 14 • behavior analysis for lasting change that instance, candidates also must meet a set of managers’ involvement is limited to presenting mastery standards for certification specified by its assignments, instructions, or other forms of guid- parent organization, Pyramid Educational Consul- ance, combined with appropriate consequences such tants (http://www.pecs.com). as praise, tokens, rewards, and so on. The success If a program of behavior change is to succeed, of the enterprise depends on the productive collab- obtaining the cooperation of all affected individu- oration of everyone involved. (Chapters 3 and 24 als is essential. You can do that within organizations address such issues as how to facilitate changes in and families by inviting those directors, senior man- the contingency manager’s behavior.) agers, and/or breadwinners in charge of the rewards Currently the BACB recognizes three major (reinforcers) integral to the system (organization, levels of ABA practitioner skill: the Board Certified neighborhood, family, etc.), to participate in the Behavior Analyst (BCBA or BCBA-D, with the “D” decision-making process. Sometimes a single indi- indicating doctoral level training), the Board Certi- vidual occupies more than one role, as in the case fied Assistant Behavior Analyst (BCaBA), and the of a parent, teacher, counselor, or therapist who has Registered Behavior Technician (RBT). Major dif- designed the program, observed and recorded data, ferences among these three levels are highlighted and analyzed results. At other times, contingency in Table 1.3. At this point, allow us to provide you

TABLE 1.3 ABA Practitioner Categories Pass Criminal Minimal Level Background Illustrative Job Title of Education Training Highlights Check Activities Registered Be- High School or • 40 hrs. of RBT training Yes Provides client havior Technician Above by BCBA interventions, (RBT) • Pass RBT exam collects and graphs observa- • Pass RBT competency tional data under assessment administered by supervision of BCBA BCBA or BCaBA

Board Certified Bachelor’s • 180 classroom hrs. of Yes Works with cli- Assistant Behavior Degree from graduate level instruction ents. Supervises Analyst (BCaBA) Qualifying • Specified hrs. of BCBA RBTs. Assesses Institution supervised experience and designs intervention • Pass comprehensive exam programs. Super- vised by BCBA or BCBA-D

Board Certified Master’s • 270 hrs. of graduate level Yes Supervises RBTs Behavior Analyst Degree from instruction in ABA and BCaBAs. (BCBA) accredited • Specified hrs. of BCBA Assesses, designs university supervised experience and evaluates intervention pro- • Pass comprehensive exam grams

Doctoral level Qualifying Same as BCBA Yes Same as BCBA BCBA (BCBA-D) doctoral level degree chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 15 with a brief overview of the steps applied behavior On occasion behavior analysts may be looking for analysts take in pursuing their activities as scientist/ more effective methodological refinements, such as practitioners. ways to collect or validly analyze complicated data or social practices. And the list goes on. Chapter 2 surveys the building blocks essential to assessing WHAT PATH DOES APPLIED and planning behavior change programs. BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS GENERALLY FOLLOW? The Radical Behavioral Approach

While any bona fide application of behavior analy- Radical behaviorism takes the perspective that sis must include the basic features described earlier feelings, sensations, ideas, thoughts and other fea- and briefly summarized in Table 1.1 (Baer et al., tures of mental life are subject to the same behav- 1968; 1987), no standard template exists for con- ioral laws and principles as overt behaviors. “It ducting ABA programs of research and intervention. simply questions the nature of the object observed Rather, the field continues to evolve scientifically and the reliability of the observations” (Skinner, and technologically. For the moment, though, Fig- 1974, pp. 16–17). Applied behavior analysts, then, ure 1.1 typifies the steps applied behavior analysts tend to focus on overt behaviors, or the products of generally follow in designing and conducting their behavior that permit reliable observation and mea- ABA programs. surement, including what participants say and do. Does the fact that we may find an individual’s particular behavioral pattern troubling necessarily Identifying and Deciding to Address a mean that the individual is flawed or at fault? Not Problem or Challenge if you take a truly radical behavioral perspective. As radical behaviorists, we recognize that the person is Those who contemplate the need for behavior not to be blamed; only that the individual’s pattern of change generally are influenced by various factors. behavior is unacceptable to us. Rather than faulting Perhaps it is one’s job to manage, teach, rehabilitate, Dexter by saying he is lazy, we observe that he fre- or treat people. Maybe the impetus derives from a quently fails to do his work. Nor would it be appro- desire to support the common good, as in protect- priate to label Paula as “a procrastinator”; despite ing the environment; preserving resources; encour- that she regularly procrastinates. Better to comment aging public, group, and personal health practices; that Bruno plays the piano with exceptional skill promoting peace; international goodwill; or free- (something he does and that is subject to change) dom from want, fear, oppression, or other threats than simply to label him “a prodigy” (something he to human well-being. Fairly often an ABA program is.) And instead of calling Lucretia “a rotten little is prompted by a presenting behavioral challenge, kid” (implying a fixed quality), a preferable descrip- such as someone disrupting or failing to perform as tion would be that of a child who frequently hits expected within a family, organization, or out in the other children and grabs their toys. community. Sometimes the decision to intervene By viewing people’s problematic actions in evolves from the interest or curiosity of the behavior terms of what they do or fail to do, rather than what analysts themselves or the organization employing they are, we are led to recognize that change is pos- them. Examples of the former might be searching sible. We don’t go about altering people; rather we for reasons why students cause disturbances or fail attempt to change the rates with which they perform in school, while others survive and/or thrive; why a (technically “emit” particular behaviors). This is not youngster regularly attacks a sibling at home; why to imply that optimally applying behavior analysis line workers slow down production through inef- enables us to promote, or eradicate any individual’s ficiency or unsafe work practices; why managers particular behavior. Successful behavior change berate personnel to the point that their victims retali- depends on a number of factors, many of which ate by vandalizing or by leaving the organization. Typical applied behavior analysis process Typical

Figure 1.1 Figure

16 chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 17 may be well beyond the behavior analyst’s control. Don’t infer from this that people have no con- Those include: trol over their own behavior, assuming they have the physical attributes and environmental histories and • Genetic endowment (i.e., the person’s resources that permit them to take charge of their cir- physical attributes and limitations) in that cumstances. As you proceed through this text, you it can affect how rapidly and skillfully one will come to appreciate that one of the particular val- learns to do or say or cease doing or saying ues of learning about behavioral principles and their particular things. optimal application is that you yourself, as a profes- • Access to learning opportunities, material sional teacher, coach, therapist, manager, counselor, resources, medical care, and other aspects or other change agent—can use the rules to modify of the individual’s environment. not only the behavior of your clientele, but also the performance patterns of your consenting loved ones • Prior learning, because progress may well as well as those of your very own self. be impeded when key pieces are missing One more disclaimer: Whereas the behavioral from one’s learning history. approach forces us to conclude that people’s actions • Historical and current antecedent and con- are a function of their learning histories and any sequential stimuli, such as the reinforcers, conditions currently in place, we needn’t be unfeel- punishers, and contextual conditions pres- ing about what we see them say and do. The anger, ent when the individual had responded or is frustration, or delight we experience in response to currently responding. noting others’ behavior is just as much a product of our own learning histories as the deeds or mis- How about character? Doesn’t that fit into the deeds of the individual generating that reaction in equation? Not really. Though a person’s action pat- us. Additionally, as with our clients, you, as we, are terns may be judged to be acceptable or not, the human, with behavioral repertoires shaped by our person per se is neither dignified nor to be con- own experiences and supported or impeded by cur- demned for committing those acts, because they rent conditions. Nonetheless, as you master the prin- were molded via interactions between the indi- ciples governing behavior and their ethically sound vidual’s physical attributes, experiences, and the application, you will begin to become increasingly conditions currently missing or in place. From the more proficient in applying them not only with your behavioral perspective, “the individual—if not his/ clientele, but also to your own actions as a change 6 her actions—is­ always right.’’ agent. We see that particular proficiency as the Notice, though, we do not say that people never major advantage you, as a student of this topic, will misbehave, (or for that matter, behave admirably,) achieve by mastering the principles and procedures according to particular standards or values. Rather, described in this text. we do not attribute the blame (or credit) for their behavior to their ill will or malign intentions (or to their talents). Rather, blame or credit needs to be Designing and Implementing an ABA ascribed to the factors just discussed. Program Given this perspective, any change procedures we choose to implement must be said to apply to No law of nature dictates a single ideal approach behaviors, not to people. Dexter is not reinforced. toward promoting enduring behavior change. None- His good work is. Applied behavior analysis is not theless our field of applied behavior analysis has in the business of changing people, only in guiding generated various technologically sound ABA strat- and supporting changes in their behavior. egies that have dependably demonstrated fruitful and long-lasting outcomes. Below we present one such functionally and ethically sound system for 6B. F. Skinner contended that “the subject is always right!” in promoting effective behavior change. that his/her behavior was much a function of prior reinforcement history and contingencies currently operating. 18 • behavior analysis for lasting change

Preparing an Environment Supportive nicable disease, a disgruntled customer). Another of Constructive Change might propose that outside observers team up with a member of the work unit until they become suffi- Before initiating any action, the behavior analyst ciently comfortable with the setting and personnel to needs to know what human and material resources work alone. Fearing that the program might siphon are readily available or attainable in the setting in off resources from their own units, others might take which the program is to be carried out. That includes issue with the details of the intervention, such as the adequate funds, personnel skills, values, priorities extra time or material resources required. In the long and limitations, adequate time, space, equipment, run, altering some aspect of the plan to gain greater supplies, and so on. Identifying other contenders for support makes more sense than doggedly persisting. these and/or other resources and the strategies for Identifying the realities of existing circum- adjudicating any such competition is crucial. Should stances in advance makes much more sense than adequate means be lacking in the setting, the behav- prematurely initiating a program and having to ter- ior analyst must find a way to obtain or compensate minate or delay it midway through for lack of sup- for those deficiencies. Material support for many of port. The moral of the story is “If you don’t have the investigations reported in this text have included the wherewithal to address the problem successfully line-item budgets or special allocations, govern- and can’t readily resolve it, set that challenge aside ment, community, or private grants or awards, insur- and move on to the next one.” Chapter 3 devotes ance reimbursements, worker organizations, client itself to more thorough ways to assess and prepare fees, and pro bono or volunteer contributions of the environment for successful behavior change, time, funds, or goods. while Chapter 24 compliments that material by Social and material support by family members, addressing broader organizational factors affecting local supervisors, consumers, peers, subordinates, constructive programmatic change. and worker organizations also can influence the success of an ABA program. When all interested Specifying and Refining Goals and parties back the aims and methods of a given pro- gram, success is likelier than when there is dissen- Objectives sion in the ranks. Personnel can encourage or hinder Once sufficient evidence has been amassed to progress in a myriad of ways—some obvious, such encourage initiating a particular program, the as peers voicing their approval or their condemna- behavior analyst’s next step is to sharpen the pro- tion; some subtle, as in their volunteering for a job gram’s focus by refining its goals and objectives like collecting data or sharing resources or “forget- (see Chapter 4). Examples might be to “encourage ting” to show up on time for a scheduled training personnel to identify additional cost-cutting meth- session. This is one very important reason why ods” or “promote students’ more active involvement wise designers and implementers of ABA programs in a new unit of study.” take the time to orient those directly and indirectly Those of us who espouse Goldiamond’s (1974) affected by the proposed program, probing for any constructional approach (see Chapter 4) concentrate possible concerns, addressing those, and soliciting on selecting or designing and pursuing constructive everyone’s cooperation. behavioral goals through positive means. An exam- Suppose personnel in a work unit worry that out- ple is the positive behavioral support approach to side observers might distract them or pose a danger working with developmentally challenged young- due to their unfamiliarity with the area’s intrinsic sters (Carr et al., 2002).7 Rarely, if ever, is it justifi- risks. Rather than insisting on adhering to the origi- nal plan, the behavior analyst in charge might solicit 7“Positive behavior support (PBS) is an applied science that suggestions from those workers. For instance, one uses educational and systems change methods (environmental worker might point out potential risks (a violent cli- redesign) to enhance quality of life and minimize problem ent, a piece of equipment awaiting repair, a pathway behavior.” It “emerged from three major sources: applied behavior analysis, the normalization/inclusion movement, and that needs to be kept clear, a patient with a commu- person-centered values” (Carr et al., 2002, p. 4). chapter 1 achieving lasting change by applying behavior analysis • 19 able to aim solely toward terminating an unwanted Promoting Positive Change behavior without finding and substituting construc- tive replacement objectives designed to yield the Once confident of having clearly specified sound, client at least equivalent if not even more power- constructive objectives and reinforcers for energiz- ful reinforcers. Chapter 4,with its focus on clearly ing the change process, the behavior analyst selects specifying goals, presents a useful technology for or designs a feasible system for noting and evaluat- setting behavioral objectives springing from those ing progress and develops a sound individual (Chap- goals that can be of mutual benefit to all involved. ter 11) or group (Chapter 12) intervention plan. If the intention is to teach a new behavior, (Chapter 13) and/or chaining (Chapter 14) would be Identifying Current Reinforcers suitable. If bringing behavior under the control of simple or complex stimuli (e.g., rules, instructions) Reinforcement is the fuel that drives and supports is of concern, Chapters 15 through 19 will provide behavior change.8 Regardless of the response on the necessary guidance. When the aim is to shift or which it depends—good, bad, or indifferent—rein- expand the breadth of responding (or of the circum- forcement increases the likelihood that the indi- stances under which the change is to occur), the rel- vidual will repeat that particular behavior. Whether evant information can be found in Chapters 20 and the focus is on increasing current, instructing new, 21. Training and hoping that a modified behavior or reducing unwelcome behavior, reinforcement will maintain happily ever after is wishful think- is a crucial element of any teaching or behavior- ing, though. A better solution is to turn to Chapters management plan. Change agents need to explore 22 through 24, which provide a set of much more and identify the stimuli that presently do or can be promising science-based maintenance strategies. arranged effectively to provide a reinforcing func- Should all the aforementioned constructive tion for the individual under the circumstances of behavior-change strategies fail to prevent or remedy concern. You will learn more about how reinforcers severely disruptive, upsetting, or dangerous behav- work in Chapter 5 and how to develop and/or select ior, in Chapters 26 through 31 we provide you with them in Chapter 6. a set of options, including various primarily con- structive, humane, alternative approaches to dealing Collecting Useful Data with the situation. Above all, behavior analysts must operate under a strict code of conduct, ensuring After clearly defining the anticipated end-point of thereby that their activities are and remain ethically the program, the behavior analyst returns to the responsible (Chapter 32). here and now, assessing the current status of the behavior(s) of concern to find out what conditions support it in its present form. To accomplish that, Implementing, Monitoring, and valid, reliable measures need to be identified and Experimentally Analyzing the used to permit the collection and recording of use- Function of the Intervention Plan ful data (Chapter 7). Those data then are graphed (Chapter 8) and analyzed (Chapters 9 and 25) to Data are collected and graphed throughout any identify the contingencies of reinforcement cur- behavior-analytic program, under both baseline and rently operating on the behavior of interest or con- the treatment phases during which the change strate- cern (Chapter 10). gies are implemented. These practices continue until it is determined that the change becomes meaning- ful and durable. Then, as mentioned, the relation of 8Neurobiologists are homing in on the specific mechanism(s) of reinforcement within the brain. Based on extensive experimental that change to the intervention(s) is experimentally research, current thinking is that when a behavior is reinforced, analyzed (Chapters 9 and 25). Assuming the rates of particular chemicals, such as dopamine, are released. That, in improving performance reverse when the treatment turn, strengthens the connections (synapses) between individual is withdrawn, (for instance, are now diminishing neurons. (See Schultz, 2000 for a layperson’s explanation.) 20 • behavior analysis for lasting change toward the original baseline rather than continuing that the change is well established and persisting to increase) then the change agent becomes more at a steady state, is it reasonable to begin to thin confident of the efficacy of the strategy andreap- the reinforcers or otherwise diminish the intensity plies it to the same or a new behavior. Otherwise, of treatment (see Chapters 22 through 24). Eventu- the behavior of concern is reassessed and a new plan ally, control over the now-constant rate of perfor- designed and implemented. Alternatively, after dis- mance may, if appropriate, be shifted to the natural carding the original plan for lack of demonstrated environment—within the family, organization, or effectiveness, the behavior analyst has the choice of other social structure. Should contingency support trying another intervention method to address the be weak or lacking under these new circumstances, same problem or of selecting a different challenge. lasting change will be compromised. So, plan how to augment any necessary support to ensure change that lasts from the very start. Getting There: Continue Monitoring Behavior and Fidelity of Intervention SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Data collection continues throughout all behavior analytic programs, thereby fulfilling its roles of (1) After discussing the philosophical foundational demonstrating that the program continues faithfully underpinnings and circumstances supporting the to be administered according to its original design emergence and growth of applied behavior analy- (i.e., program fidelity), and (2) demonstrating the sis (ABA) as a science, technology, and profession, ongoing success or failure of the program of inter- this chapter has introduced you to the key features vention. In the latter case, the behavior analyst and of the field. During its evolution over the past sixty+ client(s) must decide whether to return to assessing years, ABA has undergone a tremendous expan- the behavior anew and altering the plan of inter- sion. Today, this evidence-based approach to behav- vention accordingly, or changing the specific goals ior change has undertaken and often successfully and objectives, the environment in which the inter- treated performance challenges in numerous corners vention is being conducted, or the problem being of the world and across a broad range of physical, addressed altogether. cognitive, emotional, and social behavioral chal- lenges. Those identifying themselves to the public as Staying There applied behavior analytic practitioners in the United States and elsewhere are responsible for incorporat- When, ultimately, data convincingly demonstrate ing all of ABA’s scientific and technological fea- that a sought-after solution has been achieved, the tures within their assessment and change methods. behavior analyst must resist the temptation to ter- Actually, to ensure they include all those necessary minate that program entirely while moving on to features, both experimental and practicing ABA sci- other pressing problems. Getting there is not the entists and practitioners would be well advised to same as staying there. Rather, the basic change follow the same evidence-based paths. Figure 1.1 procedures need to remain in place under ongoing displays a template designed to guide to your own surveillance for quite a while longer. Only if, after thorough and ethically sound practice in the field. reviewing the data, all key individuals have agreed