Field Report Dsyghologytoday NOVEMBER 1972

field report DsyGhologytoday NOVEMBER 1972

D by Kenneth Goodall

They take Skinnerian HE MOTHER OF A CHILD who attends a big-city school rarely gets a phone call from the principal. When principles out of the pigeon she does, she can expect the worst: very likely, her cage and put them into child is being suspended or expelled for tardiness or truancy or rowdiness. practice, out where people A call from Ronald E. Brown, principal of Bryant ele- live and work and play and mentary school in Kansas City, Kansas, almost always is a pleasant surprise. "I'm glad to see that Larry made suffer and learn. A wide- it to school on time again today," Brown might say. Or ranging report on the fast- "Larry hasn't skipped a class all week and he's doing much better on his tests." spreading, impressively When I visited Bryant school on a recent cross-country effective use of Skinnerian tour of large-scale projects in Skinnerian human- behavior control, Brown's associates told me that he psychology to change always had preferred to pat parents and children on the behavior in classrooms, back-it just came more .naturally to him than chewing them out or punishing them in other ways. Now, with kitchens, mental hospitals, guidance from R. Vance Hall, a pioneer developer of rehabilitation wards, behavior-shaping technology for use in public schools, prisons, churches, reform schools, nursing homes, Brown is a young and enthusiastic administrator whose smile and openness convey a playful feeling of day-care centers, joy in his work. He doesn't fit the fantasy of a faceless factories, movie theaters, and threatening behavior controller conjured up by the antibehaviorists' persistent question, "But who will do national parks, community the controlling?" Nor did Vance Hall when I talked with mental-health centers, him in his storefront office in Kansas City's black ghetto and over a lunch of cornbread, ham, and black-eyed peas stores, recreation centers in a tiny lunchroom nearby. Nonetheless, both Brown and in the house next door. and Hall are in the vanguard of a rapidly expanding movement that aims to make Skinnerians of us all. Aversion. I started studying the movement a year ago after editing B.F. Skinner's book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, for Psychology Today, which published the major part of the book in the August 1971 issue. In one way the editing job was a distasteful assignment because of my long-standing aversion toward behaviorism. But it also was rewarding because I quickly realized that I was working with a rare masterpiece in the literature of psychology. Above all, it was frustrating, for Skinner stayed on a philosophical plane with his argument for the development of a technology of human behavior; only occasionally did he allude to the ways this technology might work. "A technology of operant behavior is already well advanced and it may prove to be commensurate with our

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY. November 1972 53 "In civilized society, personal merit will not serve you so much as money will. Sir, you may make the experiment. Go Into the street, and give one man a lectureon morality, and another a shilling, and see which will respect you most." -Samuel Johnson (In Boswetl's Life of Johnson)

problems," he wrote. It isn't ready yet to solve all of them, but it "continues to develop and is in fact much more advanced than its critics usually realize." Behavior- al technologists still cannot design "a successful culture as a wholeH-Skinner's summum bonum-"but we can design better practices, piecemeal." Advance. These and other tantalizing allusions to the human applications of behavioral technology needed probing, I felt. If Skinnerism with its reinforcements and its contingencies really were advancing at such a rapid rate, I didn't want to be taken by surprise along with the general run of Skinner's critics. I passed the next several months reading, observing, and listening to the behaviorists who are systematically applying Skinner's operant psychology in all kinds of places with all kinds of people to change all kinds of behaviors. The experience helped me to flesh out Skin- ner's allusions and put faces on his followers, a new breed that I think of as the post-Skinnerians. Both facts and faces argued against the fantasies of Skinner's critics. Today's band of human-behavior controllers, I found, still marches to the sound of many pigeons pecking. It is a distant sound, however. Behavioral experimentation began a slow move out of the traditional campus psychology laboratory some 20 years ago, and few of the post- Skinnerians spend much time there anymore. In fact, they can be found almost anywhere but there-in classrooms, kitchens, mental hospitals, rehabilitation wards, prisons, nursing homes, day-care centers, factories, movie theaters, national parks, community mental- health centers, stores, recreation centers, and right next door. Nevertheless, the basic principles that guide them in their work with human beings are the ones B.F. Skin- ner and a few associates formulated by observing pigeons and rats in Skinner boxes. Bit. The most basic of these principles is that behavior is affected by its consequences. If a tasty bit of food falls into a Skinner box after a pigeon pecks a button or a rat presses a bar, the pigeon or the rat is likely to peck or press again. In Skinner's psychology, the food is a natural or primary reinforcer, the act of eating it is an unconditioned response, the pecking or pressing is a learned or conditioned response, the environmental conditions that determine the response are contingencies, and the whole process is operant conditioning. Beginning. In 1949, more than a decade after Skinner published his first book, The Behavior of Organisms, a graduate student at Indiana University (where Skinner headed the psychology department before he moved on to Harvard) showed that the human organism is just as apt as the avian when it comes to operant learning. Paul R. Fuller taught an institutionalized "vegetative idiot" to earn food by raising his right arm to a vertical

54 PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, November 1972 "It Is not the youngster who has failed, but It Is the publlc- "Our enthusiasm was not derived from reading persuasive school system and the ecology that maintains that school reports or theories. It Is rather based on the pleasurable system that has failed; tt Is not the youngster who Is experlences which follow from our efforts to help mentally bankrupt, but It Is the public-school system that families. The fact that these experlences are so readily Is bankrupt." translated Into data Is an additional source of -Harold L. Cohen (in a paper, "Educational Therapy") reinforcement." -Gerald Patterson (unpublished paper)

position. Fuller used a shaping technique, first reinforc- work with large groups of persons who suffered from ing random upward movements of the arm and then various behavioral disturbances as well as with single reinforcing movements that brought the arm closer and cases or small groups. [See "Mimosa Cottage: Experiment closer to the vertical position. After only a few experi- in Hope" by James R.Lent, PT, June 1968.1 mental sessions the youth, who according to his doctors The token economy, like most techniques used by hadn't learned anything in his 18 years of life, was rais- the human-behavior controllers, had its origins in animal ing his arm and swallowing his reinforcer (a warm sugar- experiments. Chimpanzees started it all in the late '30s milk solution) as fast as he could. by showing that they could learn to 1) place a poker Fuller's report on this experiment ended prophetically: chip in a slot to obtain grapes, 2) press a bar to obtain 'While of normal human parentage, this organism was, a chip, and 3) save up a specified number of chips to behaviorally speaking, considerably lower in the scale exchange for grapes after a specified time interval. The than the majority of infrahuman organisms used in con- chimpanzees also learned an unrelated task-weightlift- ditioning experiments . . . Perhaps by beginning at the ing-to obtain only chips, which meant that the chips bottom of the human scale the transfer from rat to man had become secondary reinforcers. In other words, a can be effected." chimpanzee would work for a chip that wasn't worth Bound. Two of Skinner's graduate students at Harvard, a grape. It was a delightful development for the Skin- Ogden R. Lindsley and Nathan H. Azrin, helped effect nerians, since chips have distinct advantages over grapes: the transfer. Lindsley, working closely with Skinner at they are less perishable, less satiating (for the chimpan- Boston's Metropolitan State Hospital in the mid-'50s, set zees) and less limited in their appeal once the chimpan- up experiments with psychotic patients that closely re- zees learn they can use them to buy bananas as well sembled earlier animal experiments. He found that he as grapes. could control human operant responses (in this case, Cookies. More than 20 years later, when Ayllon set pulling a lever to obtain reinforcements of candy or ciga- up the token system with patients at Anna State Hospital rettes) by varying the reinforcement schedule. (Continu- and Arthur W. Staats and Montrose M. Wolf experi- ous reinforcement speeds up the learning of a task. But mented at Arizona State University with a similar system once the task is learned, human beings, like animals, for children, they used these advantages to good effect. will work harder and longer when the prize comes at Just as chimpanzees tire of grapes, children tire of M&M an intermittent schedule than when it comes with every candy. But, as Staats and Wolf found, even children with pull of the lever.) little love for reading will do a lot of it if their reward Though Lindsley was working with a group of psychot- is a bunch of tokens that they can trade in later for ics, his primary interest at the time was in gathering cookies, pieces of cake, toys-or M&MS.That such a sys- data on operant conditioning of human beings, not in tem amounted to bribing a child for doing something modifying their sometimes bizarre behavior. It was Azrin he ought to get into the habit of doing was once a com- who took a giant step into behavior modification in the mon charge. It usually came from authoritarian types early '60s after he became director of behavioral research who were blind to their own double standard. Behav- at Anna State Hospital in southern Illinois. To help him ior-therapist Israel Goldiamond once made this come- he brought in a Wunderkind: Teodoro Ayllon, who had back: "If they stopped paying me for coming to work, a brand-new Ph.D. from the University of Houston. this nice ingrained habit I have might quickly vanish." Bananas. Ayllon first did some ingenious experiments The charge is heard less often these days. with individual psychotic patients. To treat a woman Chores. Ayllon and Azrin's application of the token who had a nine-year history of towel hoarding, he had system is commonly regarded as one of the most signifi- nurses deliver towels to her room by the dozens until, cant achievements to date in human-behavior control. satiated by what she had once found reinforcing and Like Ayllon, other researchers had used experimental exhausted by her customary folding-and-stacking rou- techniques to modify specific behaviors of individual tine, the woman carried 625 towels out of her room, psychotics like the woman who hoarded towels. "But," never to hoard again. Ayllon then undertook the behav- as Ayllon and Azrin recall, "none of us had yet attempt- ioral management of an entire ward of 40-odd severely ed to design a total environment that would deal with disturbed patients. all of the behavioral problems in a mental hospital.'' Over the next few years, Ayllon and Azrin moved the This engineering feat showed that long-hospitalized experimental analysis of human behavior forward on and idle psychotics, when they were properly reinforced, two fronts. They demonstrated the efficacy of a token- could learn how to care for themselves, do housekeeping economy system of reinforcement, and they devised an chores, and even hold down jobs around the hospital, operant model that enabled clinical psychologists to The trick was to learn which reinforcers worked with

56 PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, November 1972 "Indeed, behavioral education may create the very kind 'Whatever the merit of the doctrine of tender loving care, of people needed to cope with the extremes of technical human sympathy and concern may obviously be directed advancement and social crisis characteristic of the toward better ends than creating and maintaining many 20th century." of the very behaviorswhich lead to continued -Roger Ulrich, Stephen E. Louisell, Marshall Wolfe (in Educational Incarcerationin a mental Institution." Technology) -Roger Ulrich, Thomas Stachnik and John Mabry (In Control of Human Behavior)

which persons-one patient might spend tokens to sit spreading thebenefits of any successful behavioral tech- in a favorite chair, another to attend religious services nique. At one point in our conversation about his work -and to find an efficient way to deliver the rewards. and its shift in focus from psychotics in mental hospitals Hospital staff members had to look at each patient's to ordinary children in ordinary classrooms, Ayllon re- individual behaviors and overcome the stereotyped ferred to Walden Two, Skinner's fictionalized account images that went with "schizophrenic," "mental defec- of a community that was run on behavioral principles. tive," and other labels the patients had acquired. Staff 'Walden Two is visionary," he told me. "It's going to members also had to keep records of how each patient come." spent the day and had to hand out reinforcements Ayllon's shift in focus is no accident. In the last five systematically. years behavior controllers increasingly have moved away The token system proved to be so effective that Ayllon from the laboratorylike settings of mental hospitals, cor- and Azrin predicted that it "will probably find great rectional institutions and special classrooms and have applicability in many different disciplines concerned set up programs-sometimes large-scale ones-in public with human behavior." They were right. Their example schools, halfway houses, private homes and communi- inspired many similar programs in the United States and ty-mental-health centers. In Kw,they have helped abroad-with retarded children, slow learners and juve- vitalize a large urban ghetto housing project; in Mary- nile delinquents as well as with adult psychotics in men- land, they even talk confidently of a plan to convert tal hospitals. the governmental, educational and law-enforcement sys- Chaos. The most notable program was created by tems of a huge suburban county to the use of behavior Harold L. Cohen, an artist and designer who, as head modification. of the design department at Southern Illinois University, Dealing. "Behavior modification," however, is a catch- had been greatly impressed by the behavioral approaches all term that is fast losing whatever meaning it once of Israel Goldiamond, who was also at Southern Illinois had. In popular usage, it generally refers to psycho- University, and of Ayllon and Azrin at nearby Anna therapeutic methods that sprang from experimentation State Hospital. Cohen later succeeded Goldiamond as and theory in the two main branches of scientific behav- executive director of the Institute for Behavioral Re- iorism: Pavlovian classical conditioning and Skinnerian search (IBR), a private company in Silver Spring, Mary- operant conditioning. But Leonard Krasner, a leading land. IBR'S CASE Project at the National Training School behaviorist, uses "behavior modification" to cover what for Boys (then located in Washington, D.C.) successfully he calls evocative psychotherapies, including psycho- extended the token system to a new age group (adoles- . analysis, as well as the behavioral therapies. Albert Ban- cent boys), new behavior problems (juvenile delin- dura, another major behaviorist, contends that "all forms quency and failure in school) and a new setting (prison). of psychotherapy, regardless of their self-conferred hon- In general, the youths they worked with made academic orific titles and noble aims, effect behavioral changes gains three times greater than the standard gains that through either deliberate or unwitting manipulation of are expected of public-school children. A New Learning controlling variables." (To complicate matters further, Environment, the book Cohen wrote with his colleague Bandura himself has contributed a distinct therapeutic James C. Filipczak, tells how they did it. technique, modeling, to the behavior-modification armo- Ayllon's name has become almost synonymous with ry.) To me, it seems simpler to discard "behavior modifi- the token system, especially since the publication in cation" and to think instead in terms of two major move- 1968 of Ayllon and Azrin's The Token Economy. His ments that attempt to deal with human problems from reputation led me to suspect, before I visited him last a behaviorist orientation: behavior therapy and applied December, that his current work with children in the behavior analysis. Atlanta schools (he moved to Georgia State University Design. Behavior therapy, a mid-century outgrowth of in 1968) probably involved the wholesale use of token classical-conditioning experimentation and the learning systems. I was surprised to learn from one of Ayllon's theories of psychologist Clark Hull, retains many of the graduate students, William Skuban, that in working with trappings of older psychotherapies: a predominantly a highly disruptive seventh-grade class they had set up one-to-one, therapist-client relationship; scheduled ses- a token system only as a last resort after more traditional sions in the therapist's office or clinic; fees paid by methods had failed to end the chaos. When I asked why, clients. Its techniques-systematic desensitization, assert- he replied, "Why use tokens if something else will ive training, covert sensitization and other, mainly aver- work?" sive, conditioning methods-differ considerably from That seemed heretical until I realized that Ayllon was those used in psychoanalysis, but both therapies have less interested in promoting "his" method than in the same limitations: their practice usually requires ex-

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY. November 1972 5 I TEODOROAYLLON NATHAN H. AZRIN DONALD M. BAER ALBERT BANDURA WESLEY C. BECKER MARTHA E. BERNAL SIDNEY W. BIJOU Professor of Psychology Professor at Rehabilita- Professor of Human De- Professor of Psychology, Professor of Education, Associate Professor of Professorof Psychology and Special Education, tion Institute, Southern ll- velopment, U. of Stanford U. of Oregon Psychology, U. of Denver and Director of Child Be- Georgia State U. linois U., and Director of Kansas b. December 4,1925 b. March 17,1928 b. April 13, 1931 havior Laboratory, U. of Illinois b. April 25,1929 Behavior Research Labo- b, october 25, 931 M.A. 1951, Ph.D. 1952, M.A. 1953, Ph.D. 1955, M.A. 1957, Syracuse U.; rawAnnaState How- ph,D, lg57, chi_ b. November 12,1908 M.A. 1955, U. of Kansas; tal, Anna, Illinois U. of Iowa Stanford Ph.D. 1962, IndianaU. Ph.D. 1959, U. cago M.A. 1937, Columbia; of Houston b. November 26,1930 Joined Stanford faculty in Joined Oregon faculty in Joined Denver faculty in Ph.D. 1941, U. of Iowa M,A, 953, Boston U,; Joined Kansasfaculty in 1953. Hasspent entire 1970 after 15 years at U. 1971 after teaching and Joined GeorgiaState fac- Ph,D, 955, Haward 1965after teaching and career there, teachina of Illinois, where he and conductina research at Joined Illinois faculty in ulty in 1968after six conducting researchfor and conducting research Siegried ~ngelmannde- Indiana, ~Tof~rizona and 1965after two years at years as clinical research Moved to Southern Illinois eight years at U. of Wash- on social-iearnina tneorv velooed Enoelmann- UCLA'SNeuro~svchiatric Indiana U. and 17 years director at Anna State in 1957 after conducting ington. Trained in devel- and applications.Out- ' ~eckermodel curriculum Institute. ~ajorwork has at U. of Washinaton, Hospital and profes- research at Harvard on opmental psychology, standing contribution has for compensatory-educa- been in modification of where ne was instru- sorships at Southern II- childhood psychosis and, not in operant condi- been in modeling (or tion classes. Former con- brat" behaviors and mental in buildina the linois U.and U. of Penn- with Skinner, on auto- tioning. With Bijou he pio- imitative-learning)tech- sultant to US. Office of trainina Darents to modifv university's reputation as sylvania. Pioneereduse mated teaching methods, neered use of applied be- niques. Behavior thera- Educat on's Fol ow- their chiiaren's oehav- ' a top-flight center for ap- of behavioral techniques, Azrin and Ayllon set up havior analysiswith pists use them to modify Throuah oroaram and iors Stud ea autistic cnil- plication of behavioral including token econ- first large-scaletoken- severely disturbed chil- phobias, and applied be- now codirecfbr of Follow- dren and psychosomatic techniques to problems omy, with severely dis- economy system. His dren. Principal author, havior analvsts use them Through planned-vari- problems. Coauthor of of children. Conducted turbed mental-hospital other coresearchers with Wolf and Risley, of as shortc~t's n tne snap- ation project using E-B "Behavior Modification and directed numerous patients. Author, with Mi- have included Lindsley, paper that defined the naorocess Bandura aia model. Did research with and the Brat Syndrome," studies that led the field chael, of articlethat Goldiamond, Ulrich and field-"Some Current Di- important studies on TV O'Leary and Madsen. Au- reprinted in Ulrich, Stach- [see "The Mentally Re- sparked applied behavior Sulzer-Azaroff.Devel- mensions of Applied Be- and aggression more re- thor of The Empirical nik and Mabry's Control tarded Child," PT,June movement ("The Psy- oped technology for havior Analysis," re- centiy on serf-contro Basis for Change in Edu- of Human Behavior. 19681. Former editor of chiatric Nurse as a Be- treating many behavioral printed in Ulrich, Stachnik mecnan sms and ind vid- cation (Science Research Journal of Experimental havioral Engineer," problems, including ciga- and Mabry's Controlof ual and collective aggres- Associates, 1971). ChildPsychology and 1959) and coauthor, with rette smoking, posture, Human Behavior. [See sion. Author of Principles coeditor, with Baer, of Azrin, of The Token Econ- stuttering, self-medica- Let'sTake Another Look of Behavior Modification three-volume Child De- omy. Current work is tion and incontinence at Punishment," PT Oc- fHolt, 19691. President- velopment (Appleton- mainly with children in At- [see "Pain and Aggres- tober 1971.] elect of American Psy- Century-Crofts, 1961, lanta public schools. sion," PT,May chological Association 1964 and 1967). 1967].Coauthor, with Ayllon, of The Token Economy (Appleton-Cen- tury-Crofts, 1968).

Who's Who and Where in Behavior tensive training; they can reach only a small fraction of the people who are in need of them, and they are Applied behavior analysts have moved through a tight network of designed to alleviate problems, not to prevent problems. 16 major centers, mainly in the Applied behavior analysis is a direct descendant of Midwest and far West. Over the Slzinnerian operant-conditioning experimentation. It has years, 17 of the 42 leading be- retained many of the scientific trappings (such as close havior shapers have taught and observation and precise recording of behaviors) and most conducted research at the Univer- of the jargon of the rat-and-pigeon days. It also has added sity of Washington in Seattle.The some trappings of its own, such as interval recording uu and new observation procedures and research designs. and Kansas Citv mbme Though many of its practitioners are therapists, and base for 11, Indiana University in many have done work in one-to-one and small-group Bloomington and Indianapolis for situations, its milieu more closely resembles an educa- nine, and Harvard University and Southern Illinois University in tional setting than a doctor's office. Unlike psychoan- Carbondale for six each. alysts, who use a battery of techniques but seldom refer The University of Kansas and to them as a technology, applied behavior analysts spend Western Michigan University in a great deal of time developing, packaging, disseminating Kalamazoo now lead the field. At and talking about behavioral technology. They have not Kansas, the two main currents of given up experimentation, but their laboratory is the real the movement have converged: world; they still treat individual problems, but they at- that of operant-conditioner- tempt to do it on an increasingly massive scale; and their turned-behavioral-engineer (Og- technology, usable to a large extent by just about any- den Lindsley) and that of child-de- body, permits them to emphasize prevention rather than velopment-researcher-turned-be- cure. In short, they are becoming behavioral engineers. havior-analyst (D r)~ LindsIey came fmnner's Deviance. Freed from built-in restraints of most psy- animal laboratory at Harvard, chotherapies, applied behavior analysis is an aggressive while Baer was associated with and radical reform movement that already has stepped Sidney Bijou's child-development into a vacuum of failures left by traditional methods clinic at the University of of teaching and healing. And, like the potential victor Washington.

58 PSYCHOLOGY TODAY. November 1972 10BERT L. BURGESS DONALD G. BUSHELL Jr. HAROLD L. COHEN CHARLES B. FERSTER WILBERT E. FORDYCE PAUL R. FULLER ISRAEL GOLDIAMOND issociate Professor of xAssociate Professor of Executive Director of In- Professor of Psychology, Professor of Clinical Psv- Professor of Psychology, Professor of Psychiatry Sociology, U. of Human Development, U. stitute for Behavioral Re- American U. chology, U. of Washing- Western Michigan U. and Psychology, U. of Vashington of Kansas search, Silver Spring, b. November 1,1922 ton School of Medicine b. January 16,1923 Chicago Maryland ).June 24,1938 b. June 22,1934 M.A. 1948, Ph.D. 1950, b. January 3,1923 M.A. 1949, Ph.D. 1952, b. November 1, 1919 d.A. 1964, Ph.D. 1969, M.A. 1958, Kent State U.; b. May 24,1925 Columbia MS. 1951, Ph.D. 1953, Indiana U. Ph.D. 1955, U. of Chicago Vashington U., St. Louis Ph.D. 1964, Washington B.A. 1949, Illinois In- U. of Washington stitute of Technology Joined American faculty Joined Western Michigan Joined Chcago faculty in loined Washingtonfac- u.' st, in 1969after teaching Joined Washington fac- faculty in 1970 aHer sev- 1968after teaching and ilty in 1963. Heand Joined Kansas faculty in Joined staff of Institute for and conducting research ulty in 1959 after five eral fears as psycholo- conducting research at 3ushell (also aSt. Louis 1967afterteaching soci- Behavioral Research in at Harvard, theYerkes years as clinical psy- aist in industry. where he Southern Illinois U., Ari- iroduct) are a rare breed: ology and conducting re- 1964 and succeeded primate laboratories, In- chologist at VA Hospital, supervised work in zonastate U. and Johns iperant sociologists, search at Washington U. Goldiamondas its execu- diana U., Arizona State U. Seattle. Reportedsuc- America's manned Hopkins U. Executive di- ,-hey coedited Behavioral and Webster College in tive director in 1968. andsouthern Illinois U. cessful use of behavioral space-flight programs. rector, Institutefor Be- Sociology: The Experi- St. Louis, U. of Washing- Spent nine vears as chair- Preceded Goldiamond techniaues in physical re- As Graduate student at havioral Research, 1963- nenta12nalysisofSocial ton n Seattle Directed man of Soutnern Illinois and Cohen as executive habilitation of patients lndkna U , he con- 1968 Important early 'recess (Columbia U projects in desian of in- U 's department of de- director of Institute for Most impressive work has ducted Dioneer exoeri- workon stuttering (with 'ress, 1969). With Roger structional systems at sign With James A Filip- Behavioral Research been in reduction or elimi- men! inhuman operant Azr1n)and the control of 4. Clarkand John C. Central Midwestern czak, he set up a token- Coauthor, with Somner, nation of long-standing conditioning. Taught at other verbal behaviors iendee, Burgess pio- Regional Educational economy environment for of operant-conditioning chronic pain through op- Indiana and Florida State Pioneered use of self- leered open-setting Laboratory and use of inmates at National Train- classic Schedules of erant-conditioning. Au- U. A behavioral engineer control proceduresto itudies to control littering contingencies in college ing School for Boys Cur- Reinforcement (Appie- thor of excellent overview for nearly 20 years, he solveproblems personal [see behavior"Moral )ehavior. Book in prog- classrooms at U. of North rent projects include PICA ton-Century-Crofts, in RehabilitationPsy- focused on the integra- ess: EnvironmentalPol- Carolina. At Kansas he to shape interpersonal 1957) Dio influential chology (American Psy- tion of applied behavior BehavioriA Functional ution: An Experimental was codirector of and academic behaviors earlv work wirn autistic chological Association, analysis into total- Analysis, PT, September viodel for Its Analysis and Juniper Gardens pre- of students in trouole, two children and behavioral 1971). systems analysis. Author 19681. treatment. school and now heads preventivedelinauencv control of overeatina. of "Parameters of Man- Follow-Throughand programs called more recently with Ian- in-Space-The Psycho- Head-Start projects using BPLAY and TARR,and a auaae teachina. colleae phvsioloav of Manned his own behavior-analy-- whole-system use of be- instruction, self-control Space ~Kght,"a Martin sis model. Author of havioral techniaues in an0 S~inneriananalysis Companv technical Classroom Behavior: A public schools. of the psychoanalytic report. . Little Book for Teachers Coauthor, with Filipczak, process [see "The Autis- (Prentice-Hall, in press) of A New Learning Envi- tic Child," PT,November and coeditor with ronment (Jossey-Bass, 19681. Burgess, of Behavioral 1971). Sociology. (Columbia U. Press, 1969).

-or analysts in the mid-'60s, but it remains an active center. Also highly active are the State University of New York at Stony Brook, the University of Oregon in Eugene, and the University of

Harvard, Indiana ;of Bijou at Washington; d S. Keller at Columbia. Other centers owe their present centers have grown quiescent, in- oping behavior-modificationand status to the work of one or two eluding Arizona State University, educational-engineeringtraining standing individuals-Bijou at which was known in the early '60s programs; and the University of University of Illinois in as "Fort Skinner in the desert." Utah in Salt Lake City, where How- aign; Nathan Azrin at South- The next few years will see the ard Sloane, Gabriel Della-Piana rn Illinois; Albert Bandura at flowering of new centers. Best and others have a wide range of tanford; Ralph Wetzel at the Uni- bets are Drake University in Des programs under way, including one versity of Arizona; Charles Madsen Moines, where Jon E. Krapfl, W. that uses behavioral techniques to at Florida State. A few once-busy Scott Wood and others are devel- train poets and sculptors.

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, November 1972 59 R. VANCE HALL NORRISG. HARING ROBERT P. HAWKINS LLOYD E. HOMME FREDS. KELLER LEONARD KRASNER OGDEN R. LINDSLEY Associate professor of Professor of Education Associate Professor of Self-emoioved. , Adiunct Professor of Psv- Professor of Psychology, Professor of Education, Human Development,U. and Director of Experi- Psychology, Western b, ~~~~~b~~5,191 7 chology, Western ~ich-' State U. of New York at U. of Kansas of Kansas mental Education Unit, U. Michigan U. Stony Brook b. August 11,1922 of Washington M.A. 1948, Southern igan u. b. December 4,1928 b. February 10,1931 ~~th~di~~u,; ph,~, b. January 2,1899 b. December 17,1924 Sc.M. 1950, Brown U.; M.Ed. 1960, Ph.D. 1966, b. July 25, 1923 MS. 1963, Ph.D. 1965, 1953. Indiana U. M.A. 1928. Ph.D. 1931. M.A. 1947, Ph.D. 1950, Ph.D. 1957, Harvard U. of Washington M.A. 1950, U. of Ne- U. of Pittsburgh Haward "' Columbia braska; Ed.D. 1956, Syr- Formerly head of behav- Joined Kansas faculty in Joined Kansas faculty in acuse U. Joined Western Michiaan ioral-svstemsresearch Joined Western Michiaan JoinedStony Brook fac- 1965 after teaching and 1965 after several years faculty n 1966 after a- for several organ zations, faculty in 1968 after 26 ulty in 1965 after eight conducting research at as elementary-school Joined Washington fac- year's research at U. of incl~dng Teaching Ma- years at Columb a, three years as aprofessor at Boston U. Medical School teacher and principal. ulty in 1965 after five Kansas under super- chines, lnc., West- years at Arizona State U Stanford and coordinator and Haward Medical Now director of Juniper years at U. of Kansas vision of Baer. Spent a ingnouse Learning Cor- ana a year atthe Institute of trainina and soecial re- School. With Skinner, he Gardens Children's Proj- Medical Center. Special- year working with Bijou at poration. and most lor Behav oral Research. searcn projectsat VA did pioneer studies in hu- ect in Kansas City ghetto. ist in education of excep- U. of Wasn naton's Ch d recentlv. Individual In manv wavs. Keller has Hosoital in Palo Alto. man operant conditioning Studied use of behavioral tional children and asso- ~evelopmen~Clinicand earni in^ Systems in San nad even more nfluence a aught at U. of Washing- and coined term 'behav- techniaues in class- ciate editor of journal did pioneer study in train- Rafael California Taught on the development of ton. Pioneereduse of ior therapy." Devised rooms ~hroughseminars Exceptional Children. ngparents to modify at Indiana U , U of Pills- benaviorai engineer- reinforcement in psy- simplified system for pre- and oackaaed resoon- Worked on new curricu- tneir children s behav or burgh and J of New ng than has Skinner his chotherapy, and pub- cise behavioral manage- sivelteachhg model, he lum oesigns an0 preci- At Western Michigan ne Mexico and conducted long-time friena His ex- lished many important ar- ment ("pinpoint, record and his graduate stu- sion-teachina model for directed research Pro- research in proarammea Derimental and aoolied ticles in theory and and consequate") and dents have spread tech- training teachers in con- gram for emotionally dis- instruction withSkinner at research ,n human learn- practice of oehavior ther- precision-teaching niques across U.S. Au- tingency management. turbed children soon- Harvara Pioneereduse inaand communications aov and human ooeram model. His Behavior Re- thor of Managing Author of preface to H. P. sored oy Kaiamazoo of Premack Principle in training inspired class- conditioning. introduced search Company in Kan- Behavior(H & H Enter- Kunzeiman'sPrecision public schools Advo- yhoo s: helped develop room-instrucnon tech- token-economy systems sas City has set up com- prises, 1971). Teaching: An Initial Train- cates "universal parent- reinforcing-event mques that are used in at mental hospitals in Cal- puterized Behavior Bank ing Sequence (Special hood training" in behav- menu" and contingency many behavioral pro- iforniaand New York. tostore and retr eve data Child Publications, ioral techniques to contracting. AJtn0r of grams, and his operant Coeaitor, witn bllmann, on now to chanqe behav- Seattle, 1970) and coau- prevent mental-health How to Use Conmgency psychology program at of Researchin Behavior tors. thor of Analysis and Mod- problems [see "Stimulus/ Contracting (Research Columbia turned o~t Modification and Case ification of Classroom Be- R~Do~s~."oaae 281. Press, 1969). Now writina-, manvSkinnerians. Studies in Behavior Modi- havior (Prentice-Hall, ~oundingeditor of journal book on humanistic be- fication (both Hoit, 1965). 1972). for teachers called haviorism. School Applications ol Learning Theory (SALT)

How Behavior Shaoers Move in an evolutionary struggle, it has several built-in advantages that make it a likely alternative in the present search for social programs that refuse to set limits on an individual's possibilities for growth. Though Skinner's philosophy, with its unabashed in- sistence on the need for planned control of human behavior, is the bane of humanists, the implicit assump- tions of the post-Skinnerians have a strangely humanist ring. For many applied-behavior analysts, as for humanist heroes like Thomas Szasz and R.D. Laing, mental illness is a myth. Labeling persons as schizophrenic or retarded is useless and often harmful. The illness, or medical model, which perpetuates the myth and the labels, is no longer valid. Neither are the tools-I.Q. tests, attitude scales, questionnaires-that facilitate the pigeonholing process. If a person exhibits "deviant" behavior, the failure is in the social and physical environment that determines his behavior, not in the individual; changing the environment will change the behavior. If "treatment" is nec- essary, the best place to do it is in the home or school, not in some artificial or perhaps permanent place of confinement. And the best persons to provide the treatment are parents, teachers, friends-not medicine men. 70 Therapy, even with large groups, must concentrate on the individual or it will not be effective, and its concern is with the here and now, not with some past trauma DAY or some statistical prediction about future performance. But therapy itself should take a back seat to prevention, 'Shaper got Ph.D. at this institution

60 PSYCHOLOGY TODAY. November 1972 0. IVAR LOVAAS CHARLES H. MADSEN Jr. RICHARD W. MALOTT HUGH S. MCKENZIE MERLE L. MEACHAM JACK L. MICHAEL K. DANIEL O'LEARY Professor of Psychology, Associate Professor of Associate Professor of Associate Professor of Associate Professor of Professor of Psychology, Associate Professor of U. of California at Los An- Psychology, FloridaState Psychology,Western Education, U. of Vermont Educational Psychology, Western Michigan U. Psychology,State U. of geles U. Michigan U. b. May 10,1935 U. of Washington b. January 16,1926 New York at Stony Brook b. May 8,1927 b. March 28,1933 b. October 3,1936 Ph.D. 1966, U. of Arizona b. Feburary 22,1920 M.A. 1952, Ph.D. 1955, b. October 3,1940 M.S.1954,Ph.D.1958, M.A.1964,Ph.D.1965, Ph.D. 1963, Columbia M.A. 1956,U. of Wash- U. of Californiaat Los An- M.A. 1965. Ph.D. 1967, U. of Washington U. of Illinois JoinedVermontfaculty in ington; Ed.D. 1964, geles U. of Illinois Joined Western Michigan 1967 after a year as re- Washington State U. Joined UCLA faculty in Joined FloridaStatefac- faculty in 1966 after search fellow at U. of Joined Western Michigan Joined Stony Brook fac- 1961 after teaching and ulty in 1967 after two teaching and conducting Kansas Bureau of Child Joined Washington fac- faculty in 1967 after ulty in 1967 after a year of doing clinical and re- years as research profes- research at Indiana U., Research. Developed ulty in 1966 after several teaching at U. of Kansas, teaching and research at search work at U. of sorat Illinoisand asstaff Columbia and Denison U. consulting-teachermodel years as psychologist U.of Houstonand, for Illinois. With Becker, Su- Washington. Leading au- psychologist of mental- Pioneered use of contin- for training school psy- and au dance counselor seven years, at Arizona san G. O'Learv and oth- thority in treatment of au- health clinic in gency management in in- chologists and special- in Washington secondary State U. With graduate ers, he did extensive re- tistic children with a corn- Champaian. Did exten- troductorv ~svcholoav education teachers in be- schools and colleges. student Ayllon he pub- search in useof token bination of behav oral sive research with course for wllege st;: havioral tecnniques. Cur- Specialist in use of rein- lished seminal study, reinforcementand other techniques, including op- Becker, Ullmann and oth- dents. Coauthor, with D. rent research in Vermont forcement techniaues bv "The Psychiatric Nurse behavioraltechniques in erant, imitative (mod- ers, mainly in modifica- L. Whaley, of pro- public and parochial school psychologistsaid as a Behavioral Engi- public schools. Coordina- eling) and aversive(elec- tion of child behavior. grammed textbook, Ele- schools involves behav- counselors. Coauthor of neer," in 1959. Pio- tor of the Child Clinic and tric shock). Did research With Clifford K. Madsen, mentary Principles of Be- ior-shapingtechniq~es Changing Classroom Be- neered use of behavioral director of the University on tension, aaaression, also at Florida State, he havior (Appleton- and natural reinforcers in havior: A Manual for Pre- aoproach in rehabilita- Laboratory School at verbal behavh? and self- explored use of music Century-Crofts, 1971). learning language, cision Teaching (Inter- tion, counselingand col- Stony Brook. Coauthor, destructive behavior, and other innovations in Now doina ~ilotresearch arithmetic, self-care and nationalTextbook Co , leae instruction. Has with Ronald Drabman, of principally with chi dren. behavioraltechnology, on behavior-orientedex- social Behaviors. Author 1969). been influentialas "Token Reinforcement Plannina new study on As consultant to schools ~erimentalcolleae. His of "Special Education teacher, consultant and Programs in the Class- childhood gender prob- and child-care centers in Behaviordeliafirm pro- and Consulting Teach- lecturer at workshops room: A Review" (Psy- lens. Coeditor of Read- Illinois and Florida, he duces DOD-culture,multi- ers." in ImoIementinoBe- and conferences across chological Bulletin, June ings in Behavior Modifica- helped spread classroom media works such as Big- havioralPrograms inEdu- the country. Coeditor, 1971)and coeditor, with tion with Deviant Children use of behavioraltech- New-MotherMind-Boa- cation and Clinical with Charles Neurinaer, Susan O'Leary, of Class- (Prentice-Hall, in press). niques to more than gling Behavior Expander Settings (Research of Behavior Modification room Management(Per- 6,000 teachers. (1 972) and The First Fly- Press, 1972). in Clinical Psychology gamon Press, 1972). by-Night Underground (Appleton-century- ExperimentalCollege of Crofts, 1970). Kalamazoo (1 971).

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, November 1972 61 GERALD R. PATTERSON DAVID PREMACK TODD R. RISLEY IRWIN G. SARASON ELF. SKINNER ARTHUR W. STAATS BETH SULZER- Research Professor of Professor of Psychology, --Associate Professor of Professor of Psychology, Professor of Psychology, Professor of Psychology AZAROFF Education, U. of Oregon U. of California at Santa Human Development, U. U. of Washington Harvard and EducationalPsy- Training Consultant, b. July 24, 1926 Barbara of Kansas b. September 15,1929 b. March 20, 1904 chology, U. of Hawaii MansfieldTraining b. October 26, 1925 b. September 8,1937 b. January 17,1924 School, Mansfield Depot, M.A. 1951, U. of Oregon; M.A. 1953. State U. of M.A. 1930, Ph.D. 1931, Connecticut Ph.D. 1956,U. of Min- M.A. 1951, Ph.D. 1955, M.S. 1963, Ph D. 1966, Iowa; Ph.D. 1955, Indiana Harvard M.A. 1953, Ph.D. 1956, nesota U. of Minnesota U. of Washington u. U. of Californiaat Los An- b. September 6,1929 Joined Harvard faculty in geles M.A. 1953, City College Joined Oregon faculty in Joined Santa Barbara Joined Kansas faculty in Joined Washington fac- 1948 after teaching and of New York; Ph.D. 1966, 1957. He is also research faculty after nine years at 1965 after a year at Flor- ulty in 1956. Has done re- conducting research at Joined Hawaii faculty in U. of Minnesota associate at Oreaon Re- U. of Missouri. Tauaht idastate U. Director of searcn on personality U. of Minnesota and In- 1967 after 10 years at Ari- search Institute and pres- and aid research aftne preschool research at ana proolems in cmica diana U. Formulated op- zonastate U. and two Joined Southern Illinois idem of the Association Verges orimate laoora- Juniper Gardens Chil- psychology, including erant-conditioning para- years at U. of Wisconsin. faculty in 1966 after sev- for the Advancement of tories inorange Park, dren's Project. Director test anxiety and verbal digm in first book, The Pioneereduse of token- eral years as elementary- Behavior Therapy. Pio- Florida, and at UCLAand of living-environments conditioning. Out- Behavior of Organisms economy system in spe- school teacher. Left in neer in teaching behav- Harvard. Primarily an ani- projects for infant, pre- standing work was the in- (Appleton-century- cial education, behavioral 1972 to take present po- ioral techniques to par- mal experimentalist, he school and day-care cen- troduction of modeling Crofts 1938 Generally techniques to correct sition. Completedthree- ents, teachers and formulated the Premack ters, an urban recreation techniques in behavior considered the father reading disabilities. Did year study on use of to- student oeers. Now de- Princi~leof ODerant rein- center and a nursing modification of test-anx- (through Azrin and Linds- extensive research in hu- ken systems to raise velopingengineering forcement, wn ch app eo home; develops pack- ious students, juvenile of- ley) of applied behavior man learning aimed at de- academic-achievement technology in work with behavior analysts have ages telling how to de- fenders and parolees. analysis, though some veloping unified theory of level of public-school juvenile delinquents. De- found invaluabe in con- sign, select and organize Author of Personality: An members of movement social behaviorism.Au- children. Directed in- veloped intervention tingency management facilities, equipment, ma- Objective Approach preferto pay direct alle- thor of Learning, Lan- service teacner-train ng techniques for Lse in ("Toward Empirica Be- terials and personnel for (Wiley, 1966) and coau- gianceto Bijou and Baer. guage and Cognition woronops in Dehavior- marital conflict. A~thorof haviora Laws I. Pos tive complete environments thor of Reiiiforcing Pro- One of the few operant (Holt, Rinehart and Win- modification procedures Families: Application of Reinforcement,'' re- that will maintain appro- ductive Classroom Be- psychologists who has ston, 1968) and Complex Coa~tnorof Behavior Social Learning to Family printed in Ulrich, Stachnik priate behaviorsforvari- havior (Behavioral written books for general Human Behavior (Holt, Modification Procedures Life (Research Press, and Mabry's Controlof :us populations [see Publications, 1971). public-Walden Two 1963). for School Personnel 1971) and coauthor of Human Behavior). It was Learnina and Lolli- (Macmillan, 1948), Sci- (Dryden Press, 1972) Living with Children: New Premack who taught Sa- pops," P< January ence andHuman Behav- Methods forparents and rah, a chimpanzee, to 19681. Risley is editor of ior (Macmillan, 1953), Teachers (Research "talk" [see "The Educa- the Journal of Applied and Beyond Freedom Press, 1968). tion of s*A*R*A*H," PT, BehaviorAnalysis. and Dignity (Knopf, September 19701. 1971) [see PT,August 19711.

which is far better and less expensive. Above all, the How Behavior Shaping Grows process of changing human lives must be evaluated con- tinually; and it must be accountable to its consumers, the persons who are affected by it and the persons who pay for it. Essence. This is my own summary, distilled from talks with several applied behavior analysts and a great deal of reading between the lines of their scientific reports. The analysts themselves spend little time denounc- ing traditional clinical and teaching methods. But if my overview is accurate, the new breed of Slzinnerians has a lot in common with many of the younger radical and humanist professionals who are challenging the tradi- tionalists in psychiatry, psychology, education, counsel- ing, social work, rehabilitation and correction. This con- clusion, which practically forced itself upon me after I noted point after point of similarity, was the most personally surprising outcome of my trip beyond Beyond Freedom and Dignity. I suspect that if it weren't for their own curtains of mutually exclusive jargons and mutually reinforcing labels, the humanists and the behaviorists might be surprised at how near they are to being bed- fellows. Editors. The applied behavior analysts meanwhile keep themselves busy writing prescriptions for change and producing results that astonish almost all who be- hold. The program at Bryant .&- one of the numerous ongoing oro~ect

62 PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, November 1972 ROLAND G. THARP A JACK TURNER LEONARD P. ULLMANN ROGER E. ULRICH ROBERTG. WAHLER RALPH J. WETZEL MONTROSE M. WOLF Professor of Psychology Research Director, Professor of Psychology, Research Professor of Professor of Psychology, Professor of Psychology, Professor of Human De- and Director of Clinical Huntsville-Madison U. of Hawaii Psychology, Western U. of Tennessee U. of Arizona velopment, U. of Kansas Studies, U. of Hawaii County Mental Health b May 28, 1930 Michigan U. b. October 1, 1936 b. June11,1933 b. May 29,1935 b. June 6,1930 Center, Alabama M.A. 1953, Ph.D. 1955, b. August 30,1931 M.S. 1960, Ph.D. 1962, M.S. 1958, Ph.D. 1961, M.A. 1961, Ph.D. 1963, Ph.D. 1961, U. of Mich- b January 19,1932 Stanford M.A. 1957, Bradley U.; U. of Washington U. of Washington ArizonaState U. igan Ph D 1962, FloridaState Joined Hawaii faculty in Ph.D. 1961, Southern II- Did post-doctoral work at Joined Arizona faculty in Joined Kansas faculty in u linois U. Joined Hawaiifaculty in 1972 after nine years at U. of Washington Child 1962. Chief work has 1965 after teaching and 1968 after five years at U. Moved to Huntsville- U. of Illinois. Also taught Joined Western Michigan Development Clinic un- been in training parents, conducting research for Madison center in 1970 at Stanford and San Jose faculty in 1965 after der supervision of Bijou teachers and para- two years at U of Wash- of Arizona and two years ! as field selection officer after six years as profes- State and was coordi- teaching and conducting and Baer. Moved to Ten- professionalsto use be- ington and a year at U of for Peace Cores. Soecial- sorof psychology at Au- nator of Psychiatric Evalu- research at AnnaState nessee in 1964. Special- havioral techniques with Arizona As graduate stu- st in marriage problems, burn .,. Planneaand ation Project at Palo Hospital, Illinois Wesleyan ist in use of behavioral children. Former consult- dent, he wasa research Jse of oehavioralteen- coorainateo conversion Alto VA Hospital. Major U. and IllinoisState U. techniques in evaluation ant to Head-Start and Fol- assistant to Goldiamond niques by family thera- of center to whole-system work has been on normal Studied at U. of Illinois and treatment of deviant low-Through programs. and Staats, his dis- pists and probation off- use of empirical-chiefly and schizophrenic and Indiana U., worked child behavior. Best- Current research in- sertation adviser was Mi- cers. Author, with Wetzel, operant-techniques and responses to emotional with Azrin-and Gol- known work is with "op- volves change processes chael Developed behav- of Behavior Modification now directs three-year stimuli, problems of diamond. Set up and di- positional" children-or in educational and men- ioral techniques for in the NaturalEnviron- implementationand eval- psychodiagnosis and rects Learning Village, a "brats," as Bernal calls tal-health systems. Coau- modifying problems of 1 ment (Academic Press, uation program, modification of verbal private, behavior-ori- them-and with parents thor, with Tharp, of Be- normal disadvantaged I 1969)and, with David behavior. Author of insti- ented school for children as therapists. Current havior Modification in the and retarded children and Watson, of Self-Directed tution and Outcome: A in Kalamazoo Does ex- work, on generality of be- Natural Environment adolescents Created Beriavior(Brooks Cole, Comparative Study of ~erimentalana vses of havior changes, takes (Academic Press, 1969). Achievement Place, a 1972) In ear er years he Psychiatric Hospitals aggression in animals ecological approach. community-based home won several literary (Pergamon, 1967) and and people. Coeditor, Coeditor, with 0.H. Mil- for predelinquents, and awards, including the At- coauthor, with Krasner, withT.J. Stachnik and ton, of Behavioral Dis- the teaching-family lantic Monthly's Grand of A Psychological Ap- J.H. Mabry, of two-vol- orders: Perspectivesand model Prize. proach to Abnormal ume collection of impor- Trends (Lippincott, Behavior (Prentice-Hall, tant papers in behavior 1969). 1969). Also coeditor, shaping, Controlof Hu- with Krasner, of two col- man Behavior(Scott, lections of major behav- Foresman, 1966and ior-modification articles 1970). Thirdvolume is in (see Krasner). press.

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, November 1972 63