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Chapter3643.Pdf

Biology and Management of ’s Wildlife

Dr. D.K. Belsare M.Sc., Ph.D., S.S.E., D.Sc., F.N.A.Sc., F.Z.S.I. Former Professor of Bioscience and Head of the Department of Bioscience, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P. (India) Dr. Rakesh Kumar Singh (Bhabua) D.F.Sc., Ph.D. (Israel), F.Z.S.I., F.I.A.E.S., F.S.L.Sc., F.I.A.Sc., F.I.F.S.I., Former Consultant of the World Bank of and Nigeria.

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First Edition : 2019

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This book is dedicated to my teacher, Late Dr. Har Swarup Former Vice Chancellor, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, India. Preface

India’s wildlife is distributed in Palaearctic, Ethiopian and Oriental biogeographical realms and constitutes 26 endemic which are as per IUCN List. Three species, i.e., Indian Wild Ass, Leopard and Red are threatened to extinction. Many of its wild cats, which balance India’s ecosystems, are on the verge of extinction. The Tiger, which is an ‘icon’ of India, may vanish in near future and efforts are being made to conserve its population at any cost. The meeting of 13 countries held at St. Petersburg (Russia) on 23-24 November, 2010 to plan out for conservation of Indian Tiger’s population indicates the importance of this magnificent species of wildlife. Once it becomes extinct, it will not be restored. The healthy forests are recognized by the presence of tiger population, because they are at the apex of ecological pyramid. However, the main aim of this book is to focus the attention of other wildlife species, which are equally important for the health of forests of India and to balance its ecosystems. The management of wildlife should, therefore, be done in scientific manner and considering India’s ethnic diversity (Belsare, 2002). The natural heritage of India was made famous in Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book and has had a profound impact on people’s perceptions of the country’s wildlife. Another important point to mention here is the threat posed by endocrine disruptive chemicals in environment coming from disposal of plastic waste, biomedical waste and pharmaceutical industrial effluents, that enter our waterways and soil. The conservationists must pay immediate attention to control this pollution so that we may not loose our precious wildlife species. Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Professor Wilfred Bassus of Tharandt Institute, Germany for his visits to forests of Madhya Pradesh during 1983-85 and suggestions made regarding wildlife of this State when he used to accompany us during field studies. Our (DKB) thanks are also due to Professor Dr. Jan Dobrowlski of Center of Environmental Studies, Krakow, Poland for arranging my lectures on Wildlife Management and to Late Professor E. Seidel of Berlin, UNEP Coordinator for Ecosystem Management (DKB) for giving me an opportunity to deliver lectures on Wildlife Biology and Management at Technical University, Dresden (Germany) during Training Course sponsored by UNEP for participants from the tropical countries for the period 1980 to 1987. We are also grateful to Mr. J.J. Dutta, Chief Warden Wildlife Wing of Madhya Pradesh Forest Department for providing facilities in National Parks for study on wildlife. Introduction

The Indian subcontinent represents the confluence of three biogeographical realms of Wallace classification. These are Palaearctic ( and Northeastern Himalaya), and the rest of the continent as Ethiopian (Afro-tropical) and Oriental (Indo-Malayan) realms. Hordridge (1967) presented a life zone system such as ice desert (Trans-Himalayan), moist forest in the Himalayas and the eastern part of Peninsula, in the , and Andaman & Nicobar Islands; dry forest over most of the Northern plains and the Peninsula; thorn woodland dry forest from Punjab to Tamil Nadu and the desert/scrub in the extreme western portions. Udvardy (1975) distinguished eight biogeographic zones such as, the Malabar rainforest, the Western Ghats, the Bengalian rainforest: parts of West Bengal, and other rainforests of the Northern-east, the Indus-Ganges Monsoon forests – most of the Northeastern Frontier areas, the Mahanadia – Eastern (coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa), the Coromandal (Eastern Ghats), the Deccan Thorn Forest (much of the Deccan plateau), the (arid zones of Gujarat and ), the Laccadive Islands, the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the Himalayan High Lands, and the Tibetan (Trans-Himalayan cold desert area of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir). Rodgers and Panwar (1988) recognized ten biogeographic zones and twenty biotic provinces. These are: (1) the Trans-Himalaya with one province (18,423 km2), (2) the Himalayas with four provinces (2,10,662 km2), (3) the Indian desert with two provinces (2,15,757 km2), (4) the Semiarid Zone with two provinces (5,45,850 km2), (5) the Western Ghats with two provinces (1,32,606 km2), (6) The Deccan Peninsula with five provinces (13,80,380 km2), (7) the Gangetic Plain with two provinces (3,54,782 km2), (8) the Northeast India with two provinces (17,134 km2), (9) the Islands with three provinces (8,249 km2) and (10) the Coasts with two provinces (82,813 km2). The grassland ecosystem of India covers 3.9 per cent (12 million ha) of its total landmass. The bamboo forests are not included in this ecosystem. There are five broad grass cover types found in India (Belsare, 2006). These are: 1. Sehima-Dichanthium which is spread over peninsular India. The key species are Sehima nervosum, Heteropogon contortus, Dichanthium annulatum, and Themeda quadrivalvis. 2. Dichanthium-Cenchrus- type which are found in northern parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and semi-arid Punjab. There are 11 perennial grasses, 19 legumes and 26 herbs. 3. Phragmites- Saccharum-Imperata type which spread over the alluvial plains of Ganga and delta plains of West Bengal and Assam Valley. There are 19 species of perennial grasses, 16 legumes and 40 herbs. 4. Themeda-Arundinella type covering the northern plains to the outer humid hills of the Himalayas, in Assam, Manipur, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. There are 47 perennial grass species, 9 species of legumes and 30 herbs. The temperate-Alpine type is distributed over the higher altitudes of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Assam. There are 47 species of perennial grasses, 6 species of legumes and 67 species of herbs. The desert ecosystems of India are natural ecosystems characterized by very low rainfall (< 600 mm) and are broadly distinguished into sandy warm desert in the far western region of Rajasthan, salt desert (> 10,000 km2) in the western region of Gujarat and cold desert (1,09,990 km2) in the trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir and Lahaul-Spiti in Himachal Pradesh. India has a rich variety of wetland , ranging from river system of 14 major rivers, 44 medium-sized rivers to 55 minor rivers with total linear length of 45,000 km. Some of the largest rivers in the world are in India and 80 per cent of the total length is covered by 14 major rivers (Belsare, 2010). Besides these, there are several streams and village ponds to large lakes and reservoirs, the longest rivers, coastal lagoons, estuaries and brackish waters, coral reefs, mangroves, open coastal and oceanic waters. There are numerous man-made wetlands like reservoirs behind dams and impoundments and aquatic ponds. These ecosystems can be grouped into two categories, i.e., marine and brackish or freshwater on the basis of salinity. The ecosystems supported on the coast are estuaries, coral reefs, mangroves, sea grassbeds, sandy beaches, rocky beaches, lagoons and salterns. Oceanic ecosystem covers an area of 1.5 to 1.6 million km2. India represents 2.4 per cent of the world’s area, but accounts for 7.3 per cent of its faunal wealth (Belsare, 2006). The Indian Constitution specifies that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.” Even under tremendous development pressures, India harbors an impressive array of wildlife. This is mainly due to its cultural and religious significance combined with a very strong legal and constitutional framework for wildlife protection, active judiciary, and a proactive civil society sector. Contents

1 Wild Fauna of India 1 – 27 2 Wild Flora of India 28 – 31 3 Ramsar Sites of Wetlands 32 – 50 4 Fauna of Salt Desert 51 – 52 5 Fauna of Cold Desert 53 6 Wildlife of Mangrove Ecosystems 54 – 58 7 Biology of Some Representative Species of 59 – 148 Wildlife 8 Biology of Some Representative Species of 149 – 164 Terrestrial Birds 9 Biology of Some Representative Species of 165 – 189 Waterfowls 10 Biology of Some Representative Species of 190 – 202 11 Biology of Some Representative Species of 203 – 209 Indian 12 Threats to Wildlife 210 – 219 13 Conservation of Wildlife 220 – 249 14 Impact of Ecotourism 250 – 252 15 Wildlife Action Plan, Government of India 253 – 304 (2002-2016) 16 Methods to Study Wildlife 305 – 329 17 Guidelines for Scientific Research in the 330 – 334 Wildlife Protected Areas of India 18 Legislation for Protection of Wildlife 335 – 349 References 350 – 378 Appendices 379 – 386 1 Wild Fauna of India

Although documentation of faunal species of India is far from complete, it has rich fauna as noted from the vertebrate taxa described from time to time. Several new species of freshwater are recently reported. Similarly, surveys in the Western Ghats have reported nearly 110 new species. There are new records of from the north-eastern region of India. The non-human primate species are increased from 15 to 21. There are two major centers of species richness, i.e., Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas in which many endemic species are reported. The Western Ghats has 139 species of mammals, 508 species of birds, 127 species of reptiles (mostly snakes), 121 species of and 218 species of fish (Ranjit Daniels, 2007). Recent survey done by Zoological Survey of India described Protozoa (2577 sp), Mesozoa (10 sp), Porifera (486 sp), Cnidaria (842 sp), Ctenophora (12 sp), Platyhelminthes (1622 sp), Rotifera (330 sp), Gastrotricha (100 sp), Kinorhyncha (10 sp), Nematoda (2850 sp), Acanthocephala (229 sp), Sipuncula (35 sp), Mollusca (5070 sp), Echiura (43 sp), Annelida (840 sp), Onychophora (1 sp), Arthropoda (68389 sp), Crustacea (2934 sp), Insecta (59353 sp), Arachnida (5818 sp), Pycnogonida (16 sp), Chilopoda (100 sp), Diplopoda Symphyla (162 sp), Merostomata (4 sp), Phoronida (2 sp), Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) (3 sp), Endoprocta (200 sp), Pogonophora (10 sp), Priapula (3 sp), Hemichordata (30 sp), Protochordata (765 sp), Cephalochordata (119 sp), Urochordata (4952 sp), Pisces (119 sp), Amphibia (2.72), Reptilia (several sp), Aves (2546 sp) and 2 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

Mammalia (209 sp). Thus, the total number of species constitutes 7.28 per cent of the total species found in the world. The endemic species are 9.23 per cent of the total endemic species in the world. The microbial fauna are ubiquitous in distribution and incorporate algae (40,000 sp), bacteria (3,000 sp), fungi (69,000 sp), protozoans (40,000 sp) and viruses (5,000 sp). 1. The fauna of salt desert is represented by fish (Sciana sp), Polynemus indicus; amphibians (Rana tigrina, R. cyanophlyctis, R. limnocharis, R. hexadactyla, Bufo melanostictus, Microhyla ornata, Ophisops jerdonii, O. microlepis, Acanthodactylus cantoris); reptiles ( – Cyrtodactylus kachensis, Hemidactylus brookii, H. leschenaultia, H. flaviviridis); (Sitana ponticeriana, Calotes versicolor, Agama agilis, A. minor); skinks (Mabuya macularia, Eutropis carinata, Ablepharus grayanus, Riopa punctata, Eumeces taeniolatus, Ophiomorus raithmahi); monitor (Varanus bengalensis), ( punctata); chameleon (Chamaeleo zeylanicus); snakes (Ramphotyphlops braminus, Eryx johnii, Xenochrophis piscator, Psammophis leithii, P. condaranus, Bungarus caeruleus, Naja naja, Echis carinata); birds ( senegalensis, Centropus sinensis, Corvus macrorhynchus, Columba livia, Psittacula krameri, Acridotheres tristis, Francolinus pondicerianus, Turdoides caudatus, Dicrurus adsimilis, Upupa epops) and mammals (Hemiechinus auritus, Paraechinus minus minus, Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari, Tophozous kachhensis, Tadarida aegyptiaca, Lepus nigricollis, Tatera indica, hurrianae, meltodo). The elevated islands or ‘bets’ are inhabited by a number of including , Tatera and Meriones. The Great Indian Salt Desert, Rann of Kutch, is represented by the Indian Wild Ass, Equus hemionus khur. 2. The fauna of cold desert is represented by the Tibetan Wild Ass or Kiang (Equus hemionus kiang), Snow Leopard ( uncia), Wolf ( lupus), Himalayan Marmot (Marmota holak), Long-tailed Marmot (M. caudate), Woolly (Lepus oiostolus), Woolly Flying Squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus), Yak ( grunniens), Wild Fauna of India 3

Wild Goat ( hircus), Shapu or Urial ( orientalis), Great Tibetan Sheep or Nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni), Marco Polo’s Sheep (O. ammon polii), Chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Tibetan ( picticaudata), Bharal or Blue Sheep ( nayaur), Ibex (Capra ibex), and Markhor (Capra falconeri megaceros). The other species are Himalayan (Mustela erminea), Beach (Martes foina) and Tibetan Polecat (M. putorius). 3. Mammalian Fauna of India – (Carnivores) (i) Cats ( ) – Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica), Asiatic ( silvestris ornata), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), Clouded Leopard ( nebulosa), Golden Cat ( temminckii), (Caracal caracal schmitzi), Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata charltoni), Leopard Cat ( bengalensis), Rusty Spotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus), Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Jungle Cat (Felis chaus), Pallas Cat (Felis manul), Eurasian (Lynx lynx), Tibetan Lynx (Felis lynx isabellina) and Asiatic Cheetah ( jubatus venaticus – extinct from India). (ii) Canines (Family ) – Indian Fox ( bengalensis), Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana), Tibetan Sand Fox (Vulpes ferrilata), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), (Canis aureus), Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) and (Cuon alpinus). (iii) (Family Ursidae) – Sloth (Melursus ursinus), Himalayan Black Bear ( thibetanus), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) and Malayan (Helarctos malayanus). (iv) Panda (Family Alluropodinae. It resembles a bear because of its short legs and tail, small rounded ears and large paw, e.g. (Alliurus fulgans). 4 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

(v) Mustelids (Family ) – Weasel-like differing mainly in being largely arboreal. Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii), Himalayan Yellow-throated Marten (Martes flavigula) and Beech Marten (Martes foina). – Long, muscular bodies that have a reputation for being courageous and bold. Another weasel trait is stealth, which allows it to sneak up on prey. Striped-backed Weasel (Mustela strigidorsa), Yellow-bellied Weasel (Mustela kathiah), Pale Weasel (Mustela altaica), Himalayan Weasel (Mustela sibirica), Ermine/Stoat (Mustela erminea ferghanae) and Tibetan Polecat (Mustela putorius larvatus). – Heavily built animals with short legs, short tail and broad flat head. Their loose tuft skin, powerful jaws and the foul smell glands make them dangerous. Hog (Arctonyx collaris), Burmese Badger (Melogale personata) and Chinese Ferret Badger (Melogale moschata). Ratel (Mellivora capensis) – Oriental Small-clawed (Amblonyx cinereus), Common Otter ( lutra) and Smooth Indian Oter ( perspicillata). (vi) Civets (Family ) – They have long body (about the size of domestic cat), short legs and a tapered head with small ears and a long bushy tail. Large Indian Civet ( zibetha), Himalayan Palm Civet (Paguma larvata), Small-toothed Palm Civet (Arctogalidia trivirgata), ( jerdoni), Malabar Large-spotted Civet (Viverra civettina), Malabar Civet (Viverra megaspila), (Viverricula indica), (Arctitis binturong albifrons), Toddy Cat (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and Spotted Linsang (Prionodon pardicolor). Wild Fauna of India 5

(vii) (Family Herpestidae) – Weasel-like animals. Indian Marsh ( palustris – endemic), Common Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), Brown Mongoose (Herpestes fuscus), Ruddy Mongoose (Herpestes smithii), Crab-eating Mongoose (Herpestes urva) and Striped-necked Mongoose (Herpestes vitticollis). (viii) Hyaenas (Family Hyaenidae) – Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena). ORDER – Insectivora (i) Hedgehogs (Family Erinaceidae) – Madras Hedgehog (Paraechinus micropus nudiventris – endemic), Long-eared Desert Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris), Brandt’s Hedgehog (Hemiechinus hypomelas) and Indian Pale Hedgehog (Paraechinus micropus). (ii) Moles (Family Talpidae) – Small burrowing mammals characterized by a pointed snout, rudimentary eyes, soft thick velvety fur and having long powerful claws on the forelimbs. White-tailed Mole (Parascaptor leucura) and Himalayan Mole (Euroscaptor micrura). (iii) Shrews Family Soricidae Tiny creatures, often mistaken for or mice. They are mainly insectivorous. Eurasian Pygmy Shrew (Sorex minutus), Himalayan Water Shrew (Chimarrogale platycephala himalayica), Mole Shrew (Anourosorex squamipes), Tibetan Water Shrew (Nectogale elegans sikhimensis), Flat-headed (Kashmir) Shrew (Sorex planiceps), Asiatic Shrew/Hodgson’s Brown-toothed Shrew (Soriculus caudatus), Indian Long-tailed Shrew (Soriculus leucops), Small Long-tailed Shrew/Arboreal Brown-toothed Shrew (Soriculus macrurus) and Sikkim Large-clawed Shrew (Soriculus nigrescens nigrescens). 6 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

Family Crocidurinae White-toothed Andaman Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis), Grey Shrew (Crocidura attenuata), Southeast Asian White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura fuliginosa), Horsfield’s Shrew (Crocidura horsfieldi), Andaman Spiny Shrew (Crocidura hispida), Jenkin’s Shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi), Bicolored White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura leucodon), Nicobar Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica), Pale Grey Shrew (Crocidura pergrisea), Kashmir White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura pullata), Kelaart’s Long-clawed Shrew (Feroculus feroculus), Musk Shrew (Suncus dayi – endemic), Savi’s Pygmy Shrew (Suncus etruscus), House Shrew/Musk Shrew (Suncus murinus), Anderson’s Shrew/Yellow-throated Shrew (Suncus stoliczkanus) and Hill Shrew (Suncus montanus – endemic S. India and Sri Lanka). ORDER – Scandentia (i) Treeshrews (Family Tupaiidae) – Most primitive mammals climb trees like squirrels and have long bushy tail. Nicobar Treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica), Indian Treeshrew (Anathana ellioti), Northern Treeshrew (Tupaia belangeri) and Pegu Treeshrew (Tupaia glis lepcha). Retain Herbivores 1. Ungulates ORDER – Perissodactyla – Odd-toed Ungulates (i) Horses (Family Equidae) – Kiang (Equus kiang) and Asiatic Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur). (ii) Rhinoceroses (Family Rhinocerotidae) – Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). ORDER – Artiodactyla – Even-toed Ungulates (i) (Family ) – (Porcula salvania) and Indian (Sus scrofa). Wild Fauna of India 7

(ii) (Family ) – Dromadary (Camelus dromadrius). (iii) (Family Tragulidae) – Indian Spotted ( indica). 2. Family – Musk (Moschus chrysogaster) and Black (Moschus fuscus). Family Cervidae – Cheetal/Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), Swamp Deer ( duvauceli duvauceli), Barasingha (C. duvauceli branderi), Thamin, Sangai or Manipur Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldii eldii), Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Hangul (Cervus affinis hanglu), Barking Deer/Munjtac (Muntiacus muntjak), Leaf (Muntiacus putaoensis) and Black Muntjac (Muntiacus crinifrons). (v) Bovids (Family ) Domestic Yak (Bos grunniens), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Wild Buffalo ( arnee) and (Budorcas taxicolor). Antelopes – (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Chinkara (Gazella bennettii), Four-horned Antelope/Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), (Antilope cervicapra), Chiru or (Pantholops hodgsoni) and Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticauda). Goats – Wild Goat or Sind Ibex (Capra aegagrus), Markhor (Capra falconeri), Ibex (Capra ibex), Nilgiri (Nilgiritragus hylocrius – endemic), Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), (Naemorhedus sumatraensis = Capricornis sumatraensis), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur nayayr), Marco Polo Sheep (Ovis ammon polii), Nayan or Great Tibetan Sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsonii), Urial/ Shapu (Ovis orientalis vignei), Red (Naemorhedus baileyi), Grey Goral (N. goral hodgsonii) and Brown Ghoral (Naemorhedus goral goral). 8 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

ORDER – Proboscidea Elephants (Family Elephantidae) – Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus). ORDER – Primates (i) Old World Monkeys (Family Cercopithecidae) – Stump- tailed Macaque (Macaca arctoides), Assamese Macaque (Macaca assamensis pelops), Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca fascicularis), Nicobar Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta), Arunachal Macacque (Macaca munzala), -tailed Macacque (Macaca nemestrina), Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata – endemic), Tibetan Macacque (Macaca thibetana), Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus – endemic), Common Langurs (Semnopithecus spp.), Grey Langur (Semnopithecus schistaceus), Kashmir Grey Langur (Semnopithecus ajax), Tarai Grey Langur (Semnopithecus hector), Northern Plains Grey Langur (Semnopithecus entellus), Black-footed Grey Langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos), Southern Plains Grey Langur (Semnopithecus dussumieri), Tufted Grey Langur (Semnopithecus priam), Silvered Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus), Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei), Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii – endemic), Capped Langur (Trachypithecus pileatus), Phayre’s Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei) and Himalayan Langur (Presbytis entellus schistaceus). (ii) Lesser Apes (Gibbons) (Family Hylobatidae) – Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock). (ii) Lorises (Family Lorisidae) – Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus) and Bengal Slow Loris (Nycticebus bengalensis). ORDER – Chiroptera – (i) Fruit Bats (Family Pteropodidae) – Salim Ali’s Fruit (Latidens salimalii), Malaysian Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis), Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus sphinx), Niphan’s Tailless Fruit Bat (Megaerops niphanae), Egyptian Fruit Bat (Rousettus egyptiacus), Fulvous Fruit Bat (Rousettus leschenaulti), Mountain Wild Fauna of India 9

Fruit Bat (Sphaerias blanfordi), Greater Long-tongued Fruit Bat (Macroglossus sobrinus), White-collared Tailless Fruit Bat (Megaerops wetmorei), Golden-capped Fruit Bat (Pteropus vampyrus), Dawn Bat (Eonycteris spelaea), Nicobar/Erabu Flying Fox (Pteropus faunulus), Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus giganteus) and Christmas Island Flying Fox (Pteropus melanotus). (ii) Mouse-tailed Bats (Family Rhinopomatidae) – Mouse- tailed Bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum) and Small Mouse-tailed Bat (Rhinopoma hardwickii). (iii) Sheath-tailed Bats (Family Emballonuridae) – Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat (Taphozous longimanus), Black-bearded Sheath- tailed Bat (Taphozous melanopogon), Sheath-tailed Bat (Taphozous saccolaimus), Theobald’s Tomb Bat (Taphozous theobaldi), Naked- rumped Tomb Bat (Taphozous nudiventris) and Tomb Bat/Egyptian Tomb Bat (Taphozous perforatus). (iv) False Vampire Bats (Family Megadermatidae) – Indian False Vampire Bat (Megaderma lyra) and Asian False Vampire Bat (Megaderma spasma). (v) Horseshoe Bats (Family Rhinolophidae) – Horsfield’s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus pearsonii), Least Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus pusillus), Rufous Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus rouxi), Intermediate Horseshoe Bat/Acuminate Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus affinis), Kindred Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus cognatus), Greater Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), Great Indian Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus luctus), Mitred Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus mitratus – endemic to Bihar), Chestnut Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus subbadius), Trefoil Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus trifoliatus) and Dobson’s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus yunanensis). (vi) Leaf-nosed Bats (Family Hipposideridae) – Dusky Leaf- nosed Bat (Hipposideros ater), Least Round-leaf Horse-shoe Bat (Hipposideros cineraceus), Large Malayan Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema), Fulvous Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros fulvus), Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithi), Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros armiger), Old World Leaf-nosed Bat 10 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

(Hipposideros durgadasi), Common Round-leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros galeritus), Great Ceylon Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros lankadiva), Intermediate Round-leaf Bat (Hipposideros larvatus), Round-leaf Bat (Hipposideros pomona), Split Round-leaf Bat/Bellary Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros schistaceus) and Schneider’s Round-leaf Bat (Hipposideros speoris). (vii) Evening Bats (Family ) – Asian/Eastern Barbestelle Bat ( leucomelas), Northern ( gobiensis), Dobson’s Bat (Eptesicus pachyotis), Common Serotine Bat (Eptesicus serotinus), Bobinskii’s Serotine (Eptesicus nilssoni – endemic to Kashmir), Tate’s Serotine Bat (Eptesicus tatei), Tickell’s Bat ( tickelli), Korean Orange- whiskered Bat (Myotis formosus), Great ( io), Hairy- faced Bat (Myotis annectans), Lesser Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis blythii), Daubenton’s Bat (Myotis daubentonii), Large-footed Bat (Myotis hasseltii), Horsfield’s Myotis Bat (Myotis horsfieldii), Long- fingered Bat (Myotis longipes), Large Brown Myotis Bat (Myotis montivagus), Dark-whiskered Bat (Myotis muricola), Whiskered Bat (Myotis mystacinus), Peshwa Bat (Myotis peshwa), Ridley’s Bat (Myotis ridleyi), Little Brown Bat (Myotis sicarius), Small-toothed Whiskered Bat (Myotis siligorensis), Leisler’s Noctule/Hairy-armed Bat ( leisleri), Medium-sized Noctule Bat (Nyctalus montanus), Bat (Nyctalus noctula), Hemprich’s Long-eared Bat (Otonycteris hemprichii), Dormer’s Pipistrelle Bat ( dormeri), Dormer’s Bat (Scotozous dormeri), Dobson’s Chocolate Bat (Pipistrellus affinis), Cadorna’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus cadornae), Kelaart’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus ceylonicus), Kuhl’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus kuhlii), Thomas’ Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus paterculus), Bat (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), Savi’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus savii), Bat (Pipistrellus tenuis), Brown Longeared Bat ( auritus), Grey Longeared Bat (Plecotus austriacus), Temminck’s House Bat/Lesser House Bat ( kuhlii), Philippine Bamboo Bat ( pachypus), Frosted Bat/Particolored Bat ( murinus), Round-eared tube-nosed Wild Fauna of India 11

Bat (Murina cyclotis), Tube-nosed Insectivorous Bat (Murina grisea), Hutton’s Tube-nosed Bat (Murina huttoni), Great Tube-nosed Bat/ Long-nosed Goblin Bat (Murina leucogaster), Gilgit Tube-nosed Bat (Murina tubinaris), Little Tube-nosed Bat (Murina aurata), Small Bent-winged Bat (Miniopterus pusillus), Schreiber’s Long-fingered Bat (Miniopterus schreibersii), Hairy-winged Bat (Harpiocephalus harpia), Hardwicke’s Forest Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii), Papillose Woolly Bat (Kerivoula papillosa), Painted Butterfly Bat (Kerivoula picta), Yellow Desert Bat ( pallidus), (Scotomanes ornatus) and Common Yellow-bellied Bat (Scotophilus heathii). (viii) Free-tailed Bats (Family Molossidae) – Wroughton’s Free-tailed Bat (Otomops wroughtoni), Egyptian Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida aegyptiaca), Wrinkled-lipped Bat (Tadarida plicata = Chaerephon plicata) and European Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida teniotis). ORDER – Pholidota Pangolins (Family Manidae) – These are mammals with large, overlapping pointed scales from head to tip of tail. During danger, they roll their body into a ball. They can erect their scales in an array of knife-like blades. Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Malayan Pangolin (Manis javanica) and Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla aurita). ORDER – Rodentia Rodents are animals that gnaw. Squirrels (Family Sciuridae) – Small slender bodied creatures with long tail that balance their body. Jungle Striped Squirrel (Funambulus tristriatus – endemic), Red-bellied Tree Squirrel (Callosciurus erythraeus), Hoary-bellied Himalayan Squirrel (Callosciurus pygerythrus), Orange-bellied Himalayan Squirrel (Dremomys lokriah), Three-striped Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum), Five-striped Palm Squirrel (Funambulus pennantii), Dusky-striped Squirrel (Funambulus 12 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife sublineatus), Pernyi’s Ground Squirrel (Dremomys pernyi), Red- cheeked Squirrel (Dremomys rufigenis), Layard’s Palm Squirrel (Funambulus layardi), Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana), Bobak Marmot (Marmota bobak himalayana), Golden Marmot (Marmota caudata), Malayan Giant Squirrel (Ratufa bicolor gigantea), Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica, R. indica centralis, R. indica dealbata, R. indica indica and R. indica maxima), Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Ratufa macroura) and Himalayan Striped Squirrel (Tamiops mcclellandii). Flying Squirrels (Family Pteromyidae) – Kashmir Woolly Flying Squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus), Parti-coloured Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes alboniger), Kashmir Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes baberi), Small Kashmir Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes fimbriatus), Hairy-footed Flying Squirrel (Belomys pearsonii = Trogopterus pearsonii), Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi), Grey-headed Flying Squirrel (Petaurista elegans), Hodgson’s Flying Squirrel (Petaurista magnificus), Noble Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista nobilis), Giant Red Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista), Large Brown Flying Squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) and Small Travancore Flying Squirrel (Petinomys fuscocapillus). Old World Mice/Rats Family (i) Mice Korean Field Mouse (Apodemus draco), Long-tailed Field Mouse (Apodemus orestes), Kashmir Wood Mouse (Apodemus rusiges), Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), Wroughton’s Wood Mouse (Apodemus wardi), Pencil-tailed Tree Mouse (Chiropodomys gliroides), Manipur Mouse (Diomys crumpi), Indian Field Mouse ( booduga), Fawn-coloured Mouse (Mus cervicolor), Cook’s Mouse (Mus cookii), House/Ricefield Mouse (Mus dunni = Mus terricolor), Servant Mouse (Mus famulu – endemic to the Western Ghats), Shrew Mouse (Mus pahari), Spiny Mouse (Mus phillipsi), Spiny Field Mouse (Mus platythrix – endemic), Grey Spiny Mouse (Mus saxicola), Long-tailed Tree Mouse ( oleracea Wild Fauna of India 13 dumeticola), Indian Long-tailed Tree Mouse (Vandeleuria nilagirica), (Meriones hurrianae), Eurasian Harvest Mouse ( minutus) and Malabar Spiny Dormouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus). (ii) Rats Indian Bush (Golunda ellioti), Blanford’s Rat ( blanfordi), Cutch Rock Rat (Cremnomys cutchicus), Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira – known only from Kurumbapatti, Salem), Large-toothed Giant Rat/Millard’s Rat (Dacnomys millardi millardi), Indian Mole Rat ( bengalensis), Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota indica), Short-tailed Mole ( indica), Bower’s Rat (Berylmys bowersii), Kenneth’s White-toothed Rat (Berylmys mackenziei), Manipur White-toothed Rat (Berylyms manipulus), Edward’s Giant Rat (Leopoldamys edwardsi edwardsi), Murray’s Soft-furred Rat ( gleadowi), Asian Soft-furred Rat (Millardia kondana), Soft-furred Field Rat or Metad (Millardia meltada), Manipur Bush Rat (Hadromys humei), Miller’s Rat (Rattus burrus – endemic to Nicobars), Polynesian/Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans), Himalayan Rat (Rattus nitidus), /Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus), Palm Rat (Rattus palmarum – endemic to Nicobars), Kerala Rat (Rattus ranjiniae – endemic to Western Ghats), Sikkim Rat (Rattus sikkimensis = Rattus remotus), Andaman Rat (Rattus stoicus), Brahma White-bellied Rat (Niviventer brahma), Smoke-bellied Rat (Niviventer eha), Lang Bian White-bellied Rat (Niviventer langbianis), White-bellied Rat (Niviventer niviventer niviventer), Tenasserim White-bellied Rat (Niviventer tenaster), Malaysian Wood Rat/Malaysian Field Rat (Rattus tiomanicus), Turkestan Rat (Rattus turkestanicus), Bay Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius badius), Hoary Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys pruinosus), Little Himalayan Rat (Niviventer eha), Chestnut Rat (Niviventer fulvescens), Ghose’s White-bellied Rat (Niviventer niviventer monticola) and Indian Bush Rat (Golunda elloti). 14 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

(iii) Hamsters and Gerbils Ladakh Hamster (Cricetulus alticola), Armenian Hamster (Cricetulus migratorius), Indian Gerbille (Tatera indica), Indian Hairy-footed Gerbil (Gerbillus gleadowi) and Baluchistan Gerbil (Gerbillus nanus). (iv) Voles – Small short-tailed rodents. White-tailed Mountain Vole (Alticola albicauda), Kashmir Mountain Vole (Alticola montosa), Royle’s Mountain Vole (Aticola roylei), Silvery Mountain Vole (Alticola argentatus), Thomas’s Mountain Vole (Alticola stracheyi), Pere David’s Vole (Eothenomys melanogaster), Murree Vole/Punjab Vole (Hyperacrius wynnei), Blyth’s Vole (Microtus leusurus) True’s Vole (Hyperacrius fertilis) and Sikkim Vole (Microtus sikimensis). Family Zapodidae (i) Jumping Mice – Jumping Mouse (Sicista concolor). (ii) Old World Porcupines – Bush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurus macrourus assamensis) and Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica). (iii) Marmots – Large rodents with blunt snout, a short bushy tail and short legs. They are burrowing animals and hibernate during winter. Himalayan Marmot (Marmota bobak himalayana) and Eastern Red Marmot (Marmota hemachalanus). ORDER – Lagomorpha (i) and Rabbits – Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus), Cape Hare (Lepus capensis), Indian Hare/Blacknaped Hare (Lepus nigricollis) and Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus). (ii) Pikas – These are miniature rabbits but ears are not so lengthy. They do not have tail and their fur is fine. They have short legs. Nubra Pika (Ochotona nubrica), Black-lipped Pika (Ochotona curzoniaed), Forrest’s Pika (Ochotona forresti), Ladakh Pika (Ochotona ladacensis), Large-eared Pika (Ochotona macrotis), Himalayan Mouse-hare/Royle’s Pika (Ochotona roylei) and Mountain Pika (Ochotona thibetana). Wild Fauna of India 15

ORDER – Cetacea Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises (Aquatic Mammals) Dolphins (Family Delphinidae) – Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Pilot Whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus), Risso’s Dolphin (Grampus griseus), Irrawady Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Orca (Orcinus orca), Melon-headed Whale (Peponocephala electra), False Killer Whale (Pseudorca crassidens), Pygmy Killer Whale (Feresa attenuata), Humpback Dolphin (Sousa chinensis), Spinner Dolphin (Stenella longirostris), Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), Fraser’s Dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei), Pantropical Spotted (Bridled) Dolphin (Stenella attenuata), Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) and Rough-toothed Dolphin (Steno bredanensis). River Dolphins (Family Platanistidae) – Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) and Indus River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica minor). Whales Family Balaenopteridae – Minke Whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), Sea Whale (Balaenoptera borealis), Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera edeni), Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus), Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) and Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Family Balaenidae – Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis). Family Ziphiidae – Cuvier’s Beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostris), Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) and Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon ginkgodens). Family Phocoenidae – Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps), Dwarf Sperm Whale (Kogia sima), Finless Porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) and Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus). ORDER – Sirenia Family Dugongidae – Dugong (Dugong dugon). 16 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

Birds There are 1,228 species of birds found in India; approximately 82 species are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, 2006). The most of bird are: White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis), Sarus Crane (Grus antigone), Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa), Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea), Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus), Oriental Stork (Ciconia boyciana), Forest Owlet (Athene blewitti), Jerdon’s Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), White- winged Duck (Cairina scutulata), Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), Nordmann’s Greenshank (Tringa guttifer), Rufous-breasted Laughingthrush (Garrulax cachinnans), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus), White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala), Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) and Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indica). The Migratory Waterfowls Migratory waterfowls of India are Black-throated Diver (Gavia arctica), Black-necked Grebe (Podiceps nigricollis), Red- necked Grebe (Podiceps grisegena), Great White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus), Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea), Large Egret (Casmerodius albus), Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), Oriental White Stork (Ciconia boyciana), Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), Greater White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons), Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus), Bar- headed Goose (Anser indicus), Greylag Goose (Anser anser), Brahminy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), Common Shelduck (Tadorna tadorna), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris), Baikal Teal (Anas formosa), Wild Fauna of India 17

Common Teal (Anas crecca), Spot-billed Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Gadwall (Anas strepera), Falcated Duck (Anas falcata), Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope), Garganey (Anas querquedula), Northern Shoveler (Anas clypeata), Red-crested Pochard (Rhodonessa rufina), Common Pochard (Aythya ferina), Ferruginous Pochard (Aythya nyroca), Baer’s Pochard (Aythya baeri), Tufted Pochard (Aythya fuligula), Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), Smew (Mergellus albellus), Common Merganser (Mergus merganser), White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala), Pallas’s Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), White-tailed Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Western Marsh Harrier (Circus aeruginosus), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), Common Crane (Grus grus), Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus), Demoiselle Crane (Grus virgo), Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus), Baillon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla), Spotted Crake (Porzana porzana), Little Crake (Porzana parva), Common Coot (Fulica atra), Eurasian Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), White-tailed Lapwing (Vanellus leucurus), Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius), Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), European Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria), Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva), Greater Sand Plover (Charadrius leschenaultia), Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula), Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus), Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius), Long-billed Ringed Plover (Charadrius placidus), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Eurasian Curlew (Numenius arquata), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Bar- tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica), Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus), Common Redshank (Tringa tetanus), Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia), Green Sandpiper (Tringa ochropus), Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola), Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer), Terek Sandpiper (Xenus cinereus), Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos), Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Asian Dowitcher (Limnodromus 18 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife semipalmatus), Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), Red Knot (Calidris canutus), Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris), Sanderling (Calidris alba), Rufous-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis), Little Stint (Calidris minuta), Temminck’s Stint (Calidris temminckii), Long- toed Stint (Calidris subminuta), Dunlin (Calidris alpina), Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea), Spoonbill Sandpiper (Calidris pygmeus), Broad-billed Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus), Ruff (Philomachus pugnax), Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), Red Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicaria), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Pied Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), Yellow-legged Gull (Larus cachinnans), Pallas’s Gull (Larus ichthyaetus), Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), Slender-billed Gull (Larus genei), White-winged Black Tern (Chlidonias leucopterus), Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias hybridus), Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica), Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia), Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), Little Tern (Sterna albifrons), Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicensis), Small Blue Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Sand Martin (Riparia riparia), Common Swallow (Hirundo rustica), Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica), Red-throated Pipit (Anthus cervinus), Water Pipit (Anthus spinoletta), Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava), White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) and Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea). The endangered wetland birds listed by Bird Life International (2001) are Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus), Spot-billed Pelican (P. philippensis), White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis), Oriental Stork (Ciconia boyciana), Lesser Adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus), Greater Adjutant (L. dubius), White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala), Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus), White-winged Duck (Cairina scutalata), Baikal Teal (Marmaronetta augustirostris), Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea), Baer’s Pochard (Aythya baeri), Pallas’s Fish-eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus), Hooded Crane (G. monacha), Black-necked Crane (G. nigricollis), Sarus Crane (G. antigone), Andaman Crake (Rallina canningi), Masked Finfoot (Heliopais Wild Fauna of India 19 personata), Wood Snipe (Gallinago nemoricola), Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer), Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Euryhorhynchus pygmaeus), Indian Skimmer (Rynchops albicollis), Marsh Babbler (Pellorneum palustre), Jerdon’s Babbler (Chrysomma altirostre) and Black-breasted Parrotbill (Paradoxornis flavirostris). Reptiles (i) and (Family Testudinidae) Ganges Soft-shelled Turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), Peacock Soft-shelled Turtle (Aspideretes hurum), ( baska), (Geoclemys hamiltonii), Brahminy River Turtle (Hardella thurjii), Brown-roofed Turtle (Kachuga smithii), Narrow-headed Soft-shelled Turtle ( indica), Southeast Asian (Cuora amboinensis), Indian Flap-shelled Turtle (Lissemys punctata), ( tricarinata), Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), (Kachuga tecta), Three-striped Roofed Turtle (Kachuga dhongoka), Red Crowned Roof Turtle (Kachuga kachuga), (Vijayachelys silvatica), Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), (Melanochelys trijuga), ( tentoria), Cantor’s Giant Soft-shelled Turtle ( cantorii), ( petersi), Nagpur Soft-shelled Turtle (Aspideretes leithii), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), Indian Star ( elegans), ( elongata) and ( ). (ii) Snakes Andaman Krait (Bungarus andamanensis), Northeastern Hill Krait (Bungarus bungaroides), Lesser Black Krait (Bungarus lividus), Greater Black Krait (Bungarus niger), Sind Krait (Bungarus sindanus), Captain’s Wood Snake (Xylophis captaini), Sri Lanka Cat Snake (Boiga ceylonensis), Common Cat Snake (Boiga trigonata), Hump-nosed Viper (Hypnale hypnale), Indian Cobra (Naja naja), Indian Black Earth Snake (Melanophidium wynaudense), Jerdon’s Snake Eye (Ophisops jerdonii), Leschenault’s Snake Eye (Ophisops 20 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife leschenaultii), Travancore Hills Thorntail Snake (Platyplectrurus madurensis), Kerala Shieldtail Snake (Plectrurus aureus), Kanara Shieldtail Snake (Plectrurus canaricus), Perrotet’s Shieldtail Snake (Plectrurus perrotetii), Python (Python molurus), Brahminy Blind Snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus), Cardamom Hills Earth Snake (Rhinophis fergusonianus), Travancore Shieldtail Snake (Rhinophis travancoricus), Madurai Earth Snake (Uropeltis arcticeps) and Bombay Earth Snake (Uropeltis macrolepis). (iii) Lizards Water Monitor (Varanus salvator), Yellow Monitor (Varanus flavescens), Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus), Bengal Monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Clouded Monitor (Varanus nebulosus), Agamid (Coryphophylax subcristatus), Yellow-headed Rock Agama (Laudakia himalayana), Indian Fringe-fingered Lizard (Acanthodactylus cantoris), Wall Lizard (Ophisops minor) and Indian Chameleon (Chamaeleon zeylanicus). (iv) Geckos Leopard (Eublepharis macularius), East Indian Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis hardwickii), Gecko of Western India (Eublepharis fuscus) and Malayan Forest Gecko (Cyrtodactylus pulchellus). (v) Crocodiles Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) and Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). Amphibia India has the third largest amphibian population in Asia comprising 272 species of which 167 (66.3 per cent) species are endemic. Family Bufonidae (i) Toads Ornate Torrent Toad (Ansonia ornata), Silent Valley Torrent Toad (Ansonia rubina), Bedom’s Toad (Bufo beddomii), Short-nosed Wild Fauna of India 21

Toad (Bufo brevirostris), Projective-occiputed Toad (Bufo cyphosus), Himalayan Toad (Duttaphrynus himalayanus), Projective-occiputed Toad Clade (Bufo hololius), Koyna Toad (Bufo koynayensis), Ladakh Toad (Pseudepidalea = Bufo latastii), Common Indian Toad (Bufo = Duttaphrynus melanostictus), Ridged Toad (Bufo parietalis), Ferguson’s Toad (Bufo scaber), Silent Valley Toad (Bufo silentvalleyensis), Marbled Toad (Bufo stomaticus), Green Toad (Bufo viridis), Stuart’s Toad (Bufo stuarti), Khasi Hill Rock Toad (Bufoides meghalayanus), Kemp’s Asian Tree Toad (Pedostibes kempi) and Malabar Tree Toad (Pedostibes tuberculosus). Family Hasselt’s Toad (Leptobrachium hasseltii), Xizang Alpine Toad (Scutiger gongshanensis), Nyingchi Alpine Toad (Scutiger nyingchiensis), Sikkim Alpine Toad (Scutiger sikimmensis), Pale- shouldered Horn Toad (Xenophrys boettgeri), Kemp’s Bubble-nest Toad (Xenophrys kempii), Glandular Horned Toad (Xenophrys major), Lesser Stream Horned Toad (Xenophrys parva), Medog Horned Toad (Xenophrys robusta) and Wuliangshan Horned Toad (Xenophrys Wuliangshanensis). (ii) Frogs Family Ceratobatrachidae Charles Darwin’s ( charlesdarwini = Rana charlesdarwini). Family Common Skittering Frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), Ghosh’s Frog (Euphlyctis ghoshi), Indian Five-fingered Frog (Euphlyctis hexadactylus), Chestnut Brown Frog (Fejervarya andamanensis = Limnonectes andamanensis), Calcutta Wart Frog (Fejervarya assimilis), Bengal Wart Frog (Fejervarya brama), Short-webbed Frog (Fejervarya brevipalmata), Crab-eating Frog (Fejervarya cancrivora), Hainan Wart Frog (Fejervarya greenii), Kerala Wart Frog (Fejervarya keralensis), Alpine Cricket Frog (Fejervarya limnocharis), Murthy’s Frog (Fejervarya murthii), Mysore Frog 22 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

(Fejervarya mysorensis), De Bay Wart Frog, (Fejervarza nicobarensis), Nepal Wart Frog (Fejervarya nepalensis), Nilgiri Frog (F. nilagirica), Orissa Frog (Fejervarya orissaensis), Parambikulam Frog (Fejervarya parambikulamana), Rufescent Burrowing Frog (Fejervarya rufescens), Lizard-headed Frog (Fejervarya sauriceps), Sahyadri Cricket Frog (Fejervarya syhadrensis = Limnonectes syhadrensis), Terai Wart Frog (Fejervarya teraiensis), Jerdon’s Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus crassus), Indian Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus tigerinus), Burmese Wart Frog (Limnonectes doriae), Penang Taylor’s Frog (Limnonectes hascheanus), Khasi Wart Frog (Limnonectes khasianus), Kuhl’s Creek Frog (Limnonectes kuhlii), Khasi Wart Frog (Limnonectes laticeps), Taylor’s Frog (Limnonectes limborgi), Mawlyndipi Wart Frog (Limnonectes mawlyndipi), Kopen Wart Frog (Limnonectes shompenorum), Resplendent Shrub Frog (Minervarya sahyadris), Annandale’s Paa Frog (Nanorana annandalii), Arnold’s Paa Frog (Nanorana arnoldi), Kashmir Torrent Frog (Nanorana barmoachensis = Paa barmoachensis), Blanford’s Paa Frog (Nanorana blanfordii = Paa blanfordii), Cona Paa Frog (Nanorana conaensis = Paa conaensis), Torrent Paa Frog (Nanorana ercepeae = Paa ercepeae), Hazara Torrent Frog (Nanorana hazarensis, (Nanorana liebigii = Paa liebigii), Nepal Paa Frog (Nanorana minica = Paa minica), Mokokchung Paa Frog (Nanorana mokokchungensis = Paa mokokchungensis), Langtang Paa Frog (Nanorana polunini = Paa polunini), Songpan Slow Frog (Nanorana pleskei), Karez Frog (Nanorana sternosignata = Paa sternosignata), Murree Hill’s Frog (Nanorana vicina = Paa vicina), Sikkim Asian Frog (Ombrana sikimensis = Chaparana sikimensis), Burrowing Frog (Sphaerotheca breviceps, S. dobsoni, S. leucorhynchus), Marbled Sand Frog (Sphaerotheca rolandae), Northern Frog (Occidozyga borealis), Green Puddle Frog (Occidozyga lima), Sumatran Puddle Frog (Occidozyga sumatrana), Canopy Frog (Philautus nerostagona) and Night Frog of Western Ghat ( minimus). Wild Fauna of India 23

Family Hylidae Jerdon’s Tree Frog (Hyla annectans). Family Micrixalidae Elegant Tropical Frog (Micrixalus elegans – endemic), Dusky Torrent Frog (Micrixalus fuscus), Gadgil’s Tropical Frog (Micrixalus gadgili), Narain’s Tropical Frog (Micrixalus narainensis), Naked Tropical Frog (Micrixalus nudis), Nilgiri Tropical Frog (Micrixalus phyllophilus), Malabar Tropical Frog (Micrixalus saxicola), Southern Tropical Frog (Micrixalus silvaticus), Swami Tropical Frog (Micrixalus swamianus) and Silent Valley Tropical Frog (Micrixalus thampii). Family Microhylidae Spotted Narrow-mouthed Frog (Kalophrynus interlineatus = K. orangensis), Narrow-mouthed Frog (Micryletta inornata), Microhylid Frogs (Ramanella anamalaiensis, R. minor, R. montana, R. marmorata, R. triangularis), White-bellied Pug-snout Frog (R. variegata), Indian Balloon Frog (Uperodon globulosus), Marbled Balloon Frog (Uperodon systoma), Malabar Black Narrow-mouthed Frog (Melanobatrachus indicus), Smooth-fingered Narrow-mouthed Frog (Kaloula baleata), Asian Painted Frog (Kaloula pulchra), Assam Painted Frog (Kaloula assamensis), Sri Lankan Bullfrog (Kaloula taprobanica), Pegu Rice Frog (Microhyla berdmorei), Mayabunder Rice Frog (Microhyla chakrapanii), Dark-sided Chorus Frog (Microhyla heymonsi), Marbled Pigmy Frog (Microhyla pulchra) and Red Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla rubra). Family Cream Spotted Frog (Nyctibatrachus aliciae), Tirunvelveli’s Hill Frog (Nyctibatrachus beddomii), Deccan Wrinkled Frog (Nyctibatrachus deccanensis), Bombay Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus humayuni), Wrinkled Frog (Nyctibatrachus hussaini), Kempholey Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus kempholeyensis), Boulenger’s Narrow- eyed Frog (Nyctibatrachus major), Castle Rock Wrinkled Frog (Nyctibatrachus petraeus), Coorg Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus 24 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife sanctipalustris), Forest Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus sylvaticus), Kalakad Wrinkled Frog (Nyctibatrachus vasanthi), Malabar Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus minimus), Dattatreya Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus dattatreyaensis) and Jog’s Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus jog). Family Petropedetidae Beddome’s Leaping Frog (), Short-legged Leaping Frog (Indirana brachytarsus), Spotted Leaping Frog (Indirana diplosticta), Gundia Indian Frog (Indirana gundia), Leith’s Leaping Frog (Indirana leithii), Long-toed Leaping Frog (Indirana leptodactyla), Rao’s Leaping Frog (Indirana longicrus), Kerala Indian Frog (Indirana phrynoderma), Brown Leaping Frog (Indirana semipalmata) and Slender-tongued Leaping Frog (Indirana tenuilingua). Family Ranidae Dehradun Stream Frog (Amolops chakrataensis), Assam Sucker Frog (Amolops formosus), Yembung Sucker Frog (Amolops gerbillus), Himalaya Sucker Frog (Amolops himalayanus), Jaunsar Stream Frog (Amolops jaunsari), Marbled Sucker Frog (Amolops marmoratus, Amolops monticola, Amolops viridimaculatus), Bicolored Frog ( curtipes = Rana curtipes, Huia chloronota = Rana chloronota, Humerana humeralis = Rana humeralis), Fungoid Frog (Hylarana malabarica = Rana malabarica), Hydrophylax raniceps, Pterorana khare, Hylarana tytleri = Rana tytleri, Nasirana alticola = Rana alticola, Golden Frog (Sylvirana aurantiaca = Rana aurantiaca), Chitwan Frog (Sylvirana chitwanensis = Rana chitwanensis, Mawphlang Frog (S. danieli = Rana danieli), Boulenger’s Garo Hill Frog (Sylvirana garoensis = Rana garoensis), Hylarana leptoglossa (S. leptoglossa = Rana leptoglossa), Black-striped Frog (Sylvirana nigrovittata) and Bronzed Frog (Sylvirana temporalis = Rana temporalis). Wild Fauna of India 25

Family Cherrapunjee Bush Frog ( cherrapunjiae), Dudhwa Tree Frog (Chirixalus dudhwaensis), Shyamrup’s Bush Frog (Chirixalus shyamrupus), Beddome’s Bush Frog (Philautus beddomii), Konkan Bush Frog (Philautus bombayensis), Günther’s Bush Frog (Philautus chalazodes), Chari’s Bush Frog (Philautus charius), Boulenger’s Tree Frog (Philautus dubius), Yellow-bellied Bush Frog (Philautus flaviventris), Garo Hills Bush Frog (Philautus garo), Rough-skinned Bush Frog (Philautus glandulosus), Munnar Bush Frog (Philautus griet), Günther’s Micro Tree Frog (Philautus jerdonii), Kemp’s Bush Frog (Philautus kempiae), Kirundadu Bush Frog (Philautus luteolus), Kobo Bush Frog (Philautus microdiscus), Namdapha Bush Frog (Philautus namdaphaensis), Sacred Grove Bush Frog (Philautus sanctisilvaticus), Shillong Bush Frog (Philautus shillongensis), Cross-backed Bush Frog (Philautus signatus), Similipal Bush Frog (Philautus similipalensis), Boring Bush Frog (Philautus terebrans), Nilgiri Bush Frog (Philautus tinniens), Nilgiri Bush Frog (Philautus tinniens), Travancore Bush Frog (Philautus travancoricus), Kudremukh Bush Frog (Philautus tuberohumerus), Plain-coloured Bush Frog (Philautus wynaadensis), Nicobarese Tree Frog (Polypedates insularis), False Hour-glass Tree Frog (Polypedates pseudocruciger), Cherrapunji Bush Frog (Chiromantis cherrapunjiae = Chirixalus cherrapunjiae), Doria’s Asian Tree Frog (Chiromantis doriae = Chirixalus doriae), Dudhwa Tree Frog (Chiromantis dudhwaensis = Chirixalus dudhwaensis), Hornbill Bubble Tree Frog (Chiromantis shyamrupus = Chirixalus shyamrupus), Assam Asian Tree Frog (Chiromantis simus = Chirixalus simus), Annandale’s Tree Frog (Chiromantis vittatus = Chirixalus vittatus), Green Tree Frog ( variabilis), Abor Bug-eyed Frog (Nyctixalus moloch, Kurixalus verrucosus = verrucosus), Loei Flying Frog (Aquixalus bisacculus = Rhacophorus bisacculus), Long-snouted Bush Frog (Aquixalus naso = Polyedates naso), Arodi Bubble-nest Frog (Philautus andersoni), Taro Flying Frog (Polypedates gongshanensis), Nicobarese Whipping Frog (Polypedates insularis), Java Whipping Frog (Polypedates leucomystax), Chunam Frog (Polypedates maculatus), 26 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

Mammoth Tree Frog (Polypedates pseudocruciger), Terai Whipping Frog (Polypedates taeniatus), Philippine Flying Frog (Rhacophorus appendiculatus), Twin-spotted Flying Frog (Rhacophorus bipunctatus), Kalakad Gliding Frog or Langbian Flying Frog (Rhacophorus calcadensis), Boulenger’s Small Flying Frog (Rhacophorus lateralis), Malabar Flying Frog (Rhacophorus malabaricus), Large Flying Frog (Rhacophorus maximus), Red- webbed Tree Frog (Rhacophorus namdaphaensis), Anaimalai Flying Frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus), Warty Flying Frog (Rhacophorus tuberculatus), Medog Flying Frog (Rhacophorus translineatus), Phongsaly Flying Frog (Rhacophorus kio) and Hill Garden Bug-eyed Frog (Theloderma asperum). Family Sooglossidae Purple Frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) ORDER – Family Caeciliidae Pink Blind (Gegeneophis carnosus), Amboli Caecilian (Gegeneophis danieli), Nadkarni’s Caecilian (Gegeneophis nadkarnii), Madhavi’s Caecilian (Gegeneophis madhavai), Fuller’s Caecilian (Gegeneophis fulleri), Krishna Caecilian (Gegeneophis krishni), Forest Caecilian (Gegeneophis ramaswamii), Seshachari’s Caecilian (Gegeneophis seshachari), Battersby’s Caecilian (Indotyphlus battersbyi) and Caecilian (Indotyphlus maharashtraensis). Family Ichthyophiidae Yellow-striped Caecilian (Ichthyophis beddomei), Bombay Caecilian (Ichthyophis bombayensis), Garo Hill Caecilian (Ichthyophis garoensis), Humphrey’s Caecilian (Ichthyophis humphreyi), Husain’s Caecilian (Ichthyophis husaini), Long-headed Caecilian (Ichthyophis longicephalus), Kerala Caecilian (Ichthyophis malabarensis), Caecilian (Ichthyophis peninsularis), Sikkimese Caecilian (Ichthyophis sikkimensis), Ceylon Caecilian (Ichthyophis subterrestris), Three-colored Caecilian (Ichthyophis tricolor), Kerala Wild Fauna of India 27

Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus interruptus), Malabar Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus malabaricus), Menon’s Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus menoni), Narayan’s Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus narayani) and Red Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus oxyurus). ORDER – Urodela Family Salamandridae Himalayan Newt (Tylototriton verrucosus). ORDER – Gymnophiona Family Chikilidae Chikilidae is a group of extremely dedicated burrowers. They exhibit an intriguing and highly specialized reproductive behaviour. The mother builds underground nests for her eggs and coils around them. The embryos hatch in about 2 to 3 months. The eggs undergo direct development, feeding on the yolk reserves and come out as miniature adults without an intervening free-swimming larval stage. The only described species, Chikila fulleri (formerly Herpele fulleri).

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