2.1 Cultural Heritage Tourism

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AN EXPERIENCESCAPE APPROACH TO TOURIST EXPERIENCES OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE – THE CASE OF MACAU

CHEN ZHAOYU

PhD

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

2018

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University School of Hotel and Tourism Management

An experiencescape approach to tourist experiences of intangible cultural heritage - the case of Macau

CHEN ZHAOYU

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

April 2018

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

______CHEN ZHAOYU

ABSTRACT

If destinations are to become and remain competitive in the global tourism industry, destination management organizations (DMOs) should understand the experiences that tourists are seeking when engaging with key attractions (Willson & McIntosh, 2007). Attractions which are reflective of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) provide an avenue for authentic experiences and may offer positioning, which reflects the cultural diversity of a place and its people. At the same time, it offers new experiences to meet tourists’ needs. Experiencescapes are spaces of pleasure, enjoyment and entertainment, which are sought by both producers and consumers. The examination of experiencescapes and the roles that different stakeholders play within them can lead to meaningful tourist experiences.

This study examines perspectives towards Macau’s tourist experiencescapes with a particular reference to the ICH dimension. An experiencescape approach has been adopted because Macau is a World Heritage City with strengths in cultural tourism, which can potentially contribute to the economy. The study investigates how ICH in a tourism-dependent World Heritage City provides a resource for enhancing tourist experiencescapes. It also explores processes of constructing tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH. A qualitative approach is applied to explore the various components of tourist experiencescapes that are associated with ICH in Macau. Using three typical ICH events (A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon, Feast of Na Tcha) in the research scope, this study investigated tourist participants on their evolving event experience process in three continuous stages (pre-event, on-site, post- event stages). Various stakeholders’ subjective perspectives were collected. Given the complexity of ICH experiencescapes, the proposed framework is confined to outlining tourist perspectives of their evolving event experience in a

i dynamic process. Detailed elaborations of other stakeholder perspectives were highlighted within their sphere.

Various managerial implications were eventually raised to the key stakeholders for better delivering the ICH event experiences to tourists, particularly the DMO in Macau. The results of this study provide a holistic view of the construction of tourist experiencescapes in the ICH context in Macau. The study offers a preliminary step towards the application of experiencescapes in the field of ICH and encourages the further exploration of this concept in other destination contexts or similar contexts.

Keywords: experiencescapes, intangible cultural heritage, cultural heritage tourism, DMO, Macau

ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks for the finishing touches on my thesis. It has been a period of intense learning for me, not only in the research process, but also on my personal research skills. This thesis presents the lessons learned in school and it is a good test to check my comprehensive learning outcomes in my educational path. I am a lucky person who always meets the nicest people around. I would like to reflect on the countless people who have supported and helped me every step throughout my PhD study.

First, I would like to offer my sincere gratitude to my PhD supervisors, Dr. Wantanee Suntikul and Prof. Brian King of the School of Hotel & Tourism Management at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University for their valuable guidance throughout my thesis with their patience and knowledge.

I would also like to thank the organizers, performers and representatives from MGTO and IC and those anonymous tourists who were involved in the interview for data collection. Without their passionate participation and input, the survey could not have been successfully conducted. I also recognize the support from those research helpers who assisted me greatly in conducting the survey onsite.

I would particularly like to single out Associate Professor Dr. Lee Ho Yin at The University of Hong Kong (HKU) who has offered me wise counsel. He always has time to listen to my confusion about the research. I am grateful to have him for his unconditional support. With a special mention to my alma mater – the Institute For Tourism Studies in Macau (IFT), where I have fond attachment. Thanks for those IFT teaching and research staff who always give generous assistance to my research.

I have special friends to thank, my previous colleagues in HKU where I met amazing people while having learnt much from them in many ways. They encouraged, supported and took care of me all the time from the beginning. I

iii have nothing but heartfelt appreciation and deep respect for them. I am also grateful to my HKhICON friends who gave me the moral support along the way.

Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my parents for providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study. I am also grateful to my friends who have always trusted me from the very start of my PhD journey.

This accomplishment would not have been possible without all support from the above, especially their moral support. All of you are my most valuable treasure worth remembering my whole life.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v LIST OF TABLES ...... x LIST OF FIGURES...... xii CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background to the study ...... 1 1.1.1 Background of Macau ...... 5 1.1.2 Experiencescapes ...... 7 1.2 Problem statement ...... 10 1.3 Research questions ...... 15 1.4 Research objectives ...... 16 1.5 Significance of study ...... 16 1.6 Scope of research ...... 19 1.7 Limitations ...... 21 1.8 Structure of study ...... 22 CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 24 2.1 Cultural heritage tourism ...... 24 2.1.1 Cultural heritage ...... 24 2.1.2 Cultural heritage tourism...... 25 2.1.3 Relationship between cultural heritage and tourism ...... 28 2.1.4 Balancing the interests of tourism and cultural heritage ...... 29 2.1.5 Trends in tourism and cultural heritage ...... 32 2.1.6 Issues in cultural heritage and tourism ...... 34 2.2 Intangible cultural heritage (ICH) ...... 35 2.2.1 Issue of ICH in general ...... 37 2.2.2 Issues of ICH in Macau ...... 40 2.3 Experiencescapes ...... 42 2.3.1 Experience ...... 42

v 2.3.2 Scapes ...... 44 2.3.3 Emergence and development of experiencescapes ...... 45 2.3.4 Studies on frameworks or interconnected relationship ...... 53 2.3.5 Experiencescape or servicescape?...... 55 2.3.6 Research applications of experiencescapes ...... 58 2.3.7 A cultural heritage perspective on experiencescapes ...... 69 2.3.8 Descriptive and indicative approaches to experiencescape ...... 75 2.4 Conceptual framework ...... 78 2.4.1 Proposed framework ...... 79 2.5 Chapter summary ...... 89 CHAPTER THREE – THE MACAU CONTEXT ...... 91 3.1 Macau as a cultural heritage tourism destination ...... 91 3.1.1 Single economic market on gaming ...... 91 3.1.2 Threats to the sustainability of gaming ...... 93 3.1.3 The alleviation of economic dependency ...... 94 3.1.4 The economic contribution of tourism ...... 97 3.1.5 Cultural tourism products in Macau ...... 101 3.2 ICH in Macau ...... 104 3.3 The issue of ICH in Macau ...... 109 3.3.1 Cultural heritage in Macau ...... 109 3.3.2 Lack of attention to ICH ...... 111 3.3.3 Perspectives on the transformation of ICH ...... 113 3.3.4 Cultural heritage in Macau – recent literature...... 116 3.3.5 Cultural heritage and tourism – implementation challenges ...... 119 3.4 Chapter summary ...... 120 CHAPTER FOUR – METHODOLOGY ...... 122 4.1 Purposive sampling ...... 123 4.2 Target ICH festivals ...... 128 4.2.1 A-Ma Festival ...... 130 4.2.2 Feast of the Drunken Dragon ...... 132 4.2.3 Feast of Na Tcha ...... 133 4.3 Semi-structured interviews ...... 136

vi 4.3.1 Tourists ...... 139 4.3.2 Non-government organizations (NGOs) and performers ...... 151 4.3.3 Local communities ...... 153 4.3.4 Government authorities ...... 157 4.3.5 Inductive approach ...... 163 4.4 Data collection procedures ...... 164 4.5 Content analysis ...... 165 4.6 Analytic induction ...... 168 4.7 Research reflexivity ...... 168 4.8 Pilot test ...... 169 4.8.1 Pilot test summary ...... 170 4.8.2 Adjustments to interview questions ...... 171 4.9 Preparation work ...... 177 4.10 Formal data collection ...... 177 4.11 Data analysis procedures ...... 178 4.12 Chapter summary ...... 184 CHAPTER FIVE – TOURIST PERSPECTIVES OF THE ICH EXPERIENCESCAPE ...... 185 5.1 The interviewees ...... 185 5.2 Pre-event experience ...... 189 5.2.1 Spontaneous event participation ...... 190 5.2.2 Previous similar event experience ...... 194 5.3 On-site experience ...... 197 5.3.1 Participation ...... 198 5.3.2 Social interactions ...... 201 5.3.3 Psychological states and processes ...... 202 5.4 Post-event experience ...... 216 5.4.1 Memorable events ...... 218 5.4.2 The image of Macau...... 219 5.4.3 Behavioral intentions ...... 221 5.5 Chapter summary ...... 224

vii CHAPTER SIX – STAKEHOLDER PERSPECTIVES ON THE ICH EXPERIENCESCAPE ...... 226 6.1 Stakeholders other than tourists ...... 227 6.2 Organizer perspectives ...... 229 6.2.1 Cultural preservation ...... 230 6.2.2 Event preparation ...... 236 6.2.3 On-site performances ...... 239 6.2.4 Expected outcomes...... 240 6.3 Performer perspectives ...... 244 6.3.1 Cultural preservation ...... 245 6.3.2 Preparing for the performance ...... 247 6.3.3 On-site performances ...... 249 6.3.4 Expected outcomes...... 250 6.4 The local community perspective ...... 254 6.4.1 Lively atmosphere ...... 255 6.4.2 Cultural appreciation ...... 255 6.4.3 Benefits for tourism development ...... 256 6.5 Government perspectives ...... 258 6.5.1 The MGTO perspective...... 259 6.5.2 The IC perspective ...... 265 6.6 Chapter summary ...... 273 CHAPTER SEVEN – DISCUSSION ...... 275 7.1 The ICH experiencescape from the tourist perspective ...... 275 7.1.1 Pre-event experience ...... 275 7.1.2 On-site experience ...... 277 7.1.3 The post-event experience...... 280 7.1.4 Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescape from the tourist perspective ...... 281 7.2 Other perspectives of the ICH experiencescape ...... 283 7.3 Chapter summary ...... 285 CHAPTER EIGHT – CONCLUSIONS ...... 287 8.1 Major findings ...... 288

viii 8.1.1 Refinement of the Conceptual Framework ...... 289 8.1.2 Revisiting research objectives and research questions...... 292 8.2 Significance of the study ...... 300 8.2.1 Theoretical implications ...... 300 8.2.2 Methodological implications ...... 303 8.2.3 Managerial implications ...... 304 8.3 Limitations and recommendations for future research ...... 309 8.4 Concluding statement ...... 312 APPENDICES ...... 314 Appendix 1. Guidelines to research helpers ...... 315 Appendix 2a. Interview questions to tourists ...... 317 Appendix 2b. Interview transcript excerpt ...... 322 Appendix 3a. Interview questions to organizers & performers ...... 333 Appendix 3b. Interview transcript excerpt ...... 335 Appendix 4a. Interview questions to local retailers ...... 342 Appendix 4b. Interview transcript excerpt ...... 343 Appendix 5a. Interview questions to MGTO & IC ...... 346 Appendix 5b. Interview transcript excerpt ...... 349 REFERENCES ...... 372

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1. Macau's ICH items (including listed and not listed) ...... 21 Table 2.1. Experiencescapes in the tourism context – relevant studies...... 77 Table 3.1. Primary purpose for visiting Macau from 2010-2016 ...... 100 Table 3.2. Inscription year on the items in the representative list at global, national and local scales ...... 107 Table 3.3. Criteria of listed intangible cultural heritage items at global, national and local scales ...... 108 Table 4.1. 2017 MGTO promotional events on Macau local ICH ...... 124 Table 4.2. Nature of the three ICH events ...... 136 Table 4.3. Design of interview plan ...... 163 Table 4.4. Summary on approaches and techniques for constructing a research design ...... 167 Table 4.5. A summary of the rationale in designed interview questions ...... 173 Table 4.6. Adjustments of interview questions to tourists ...... 175 Table 4.7. Updated interview questions for tourists ...... 176 Table 4.8. Example of coding of transcript excerpt – Open coding ...... 174 Table 4.9. Example of coding of transcript excerpt – Latent content analysis176

Table 5.1. Number of tourist interviewees to the surveyed festivals ...... 185 Table 5.2. Gender and age distribution of the tourist interviewees ...... 186 Table 5.3. Origin of interviewees ...... 187 Table 5.4. Educational level of tourist interviewees ...... 187 Table 5.5. Time of visit of tourist interviewees...... 187 Table 5.6. Summary of demographic information of each tourist interviewee ...... 188 Table 5.7. Tourist psychological states to the ICH events and the relevant attributes ...... 203 Table 5.8. Attributes in post-event experience ...... 217

x Table 6.1. Distributions of stakeholder informants (other than tourists) ...... 228 Table 6.2. Overview of government perspectives ...... 259 Table 8.1. Stakeholders’ involvement across the three stages ...... 296 Table 8.2. Summary of key findings addressing research objectives and research questions ...... 299

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. A cultural tourist typology ...... 26 Figure 2.2. Elements of place as locale ...... 58 Figure 2.3. The tourist on-site co-creation experience: a conceptual framework ...... 62 Figure 2.4. The experience production and consumption for value creation .... 66 Figure 2.5. A spiral model for experience innovation and design in the experiencescapes ...... 67 Figure 2.6. Tourist experience of intangible cultural heritage model of influences and outcomes ...... 73 Figure 2.7. Conceptual framework on tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH ...... 89 Figure 3.1. Tourism consumption from 2010 to 2012 ...... 98 Figure 3.2. Tourist arrivals to Macau from 1999 to 2017 ...... 98 Figure 4.1. Photo of A-Ma Festival ...... 131 Figure 4.2. Photo of Feast of Drunken Dragon ...... 133 Figure 4.3. Photo of Feast of Na Tcha ...... 135 Figure 4.4. Primary purpose for visiting Macau ...... 142 Figure 4.5. Place of residence of tourist survey in Q4 2016 ...... 143 Figure 4.6. Location maps of traditional local shops in the area of Ruins of St. Paul’s ...... 157 Figure 5.1. Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (pre-event experience) ...... 190 Figure 5.2. Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (on-site experience) ...... 198 Figure 5.3. Dress-up performers in Feast of Na Tcha ...... 206 Figure 5.4. Setting of A-Ma Festival...... 207

xii Figure 5.5. Bamboo structured performance stage ...... 207 Figure 5.6. Night view of the Cantonese performance stage ...... 213 Figure 5.7. Cantonese Opera performers ...... 213 Figure 5.8. Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (post-event experience) ...... 217 Figure 5.9. Summary on interview findings with tourists ...... 225 Figure 6.1. Overview of the organizer perspectives...... 230 Figure 6.2. ICH inscription status displayed in the decoration ...... 231 Figure 6.3. Donors’ names written in a traditional way and stuck on the wall of performance stage ...... 237 Figure 6.4. Distribution of the longevity rice ...... 243 Figure 6.5. Overview of performer perspectives...... 245 Figure 7.1. Conceptual framework of tourist experience of ICH related events ...... 282 Figure 8.1. Revisiting the conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes .. 290

xiii CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

The contents of this introductory chapter include the scope and background of research, problem statement, research objectives and questions, contribution of the study, limitations and structure of thesis. The first part introduces the background of the study, in terms of the study area, and some general practical issues raised on the study context. This study is about cultural heritage, in particular intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH). The key concept and significance of experiencescapes is also covered as to set the fundamental basis for the research. The second part identifies a problem statement, which aims to emphasize the issues and raise the needs of this research. The third part is to address the key questions and to set the research focus. The research scope is outlined then, and the significance of study is highlighted to emphasize the contribution of the research to the field. Finally, an overview on the structure of the thesis together with a brief explanation on the flow of the thought is introduced.

1.1 Background to the study

The premise of this research is to seek the perspectives of both the supply and the demand sides in considering how ICH can prospectively enhance the tourism experience in Macau. The supply side includes the perspectives of the government authorities, of tourism operators, of organizers, of local communities while the demand is from the tourist perspective. The study aims to examine perspectives towards Macau’s tourist experiencescapes with particular reference to the ICH dimension, within which to explore how tourists’ experience associated with ICH can help enhance their overall cultural heritage experience in Macau. In particular for Macau, as a World Heritage City, with strengths in cultural tourism which can potentially contribute to the economy.

1 Tourists desire to know more about the historic and cultural knowledge of the place. Culture starts to acquire a large proportion in tourist activities (Lois- Gonzalez & Santos-Solla, 2014). Culture is seen as the medium to connect heritage and tourism, which is also the central axis of economic and social development strategies (Smidt-Jensen, 2007). The cultural perspective of experience is located entirely in the minds of individuals (O’Dell, 2007). In heritage studies, culture is seen as a valuable resource to be protected in heritage studies (UNESCO, 2012), while within the tourism industry, culture is a resource, and efforts are made to make it accessible to a wide range of audience (Donald, 2006; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998; Silberberg, 1995; Wirth & Freestone, 2009), and to make it economically viable to stimulate tourists’ interest in a historical and regional heritage (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998; Smith, 2016).

Since tourists are seeking meaningful and unique cultural experience in the current trends, they tend to get close to the local people, and find the hidden treasures of the place and are free to pursue a flexible and spontaneous experience in a destination (Wolfram & Burnill, 2013). The physical aspect of cultural heritage is no longer enough in providing a desirable experience (Smith, 2016; Wolfram & Burnill, 2013). The consumption of cultural resources has expanded from fixed tangible heritage towards mobile intangible forms of culture, such as events, festivals, dance and music (Richards, 2007). The marketing of the destination tends to promote the experiential and intangible aspects of the destination, like the atmosphere or sense of place which allows tourists to have more chances to co-produce the experience by themselves (Richards, 2001; Smith, 2016).

ICH obtains an important position in boosting tourism and assembling the heritage in telling a full story of a place (Bille, 2012). ICH elements like festivals are a strategy for making places appealing for the tourism industry (Aoyama, 2009). Tourists have been found to be more motivated by the intangible aspects of heritage than the tangible ones (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett,

2 2006; Smith & Robinson, 2006). A survey from the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) also found that tourists are gradually seeking more lively cultural experiences, which are exactly what ICH can bring (UNWTO, 2008). The evidence shows that around 78% of American tourists joined ICH events during their travel (Turgeon & Divers, 2010). Having an “experience” is a new source of value for customers to obtain a unique individual experience while engaging in the service environment. This is what the companies currently attempt to provide to make themselves distinguishable and set apart from simply providing goods and services (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Tourism has become a phenomenon in the “experience economy” where tourists and destinations are linked together to co-create value and experience through interactions (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004b). Tourists can receive experiential learning when travelling to a destination where they can have different social interactions and can compare the cultural practices encountered with their own behavior patterns (Boydell, 1976). Even for those tourists who are economically less advantaged, learning from experiences will result from their participation during their trip (Minnaert, Maitland, & Miller, 2009).

The importance of ICH is not only reflected from tourists’ behavioral patterns, but it also receives increasing recognition on a global scale. On 17 October, 2003, at the General Conference, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) adopted a Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in a recognition of the significance of safeguarding ICH. As defined by UNESCO, the importance of ICH is not only its cultural manifestation but also the social and economic value of the transmission of the culture and tradition for communities (UNESCO, 2016b). In September 2006, the Macau government formally enforced the application of the Convention in Macau (IC, 2015b). In 2014, the Macau Cultural Heritage Protection Law was enforced, among which, the importance and necessity of protecting ICH was highlighted (Choi, 2014). Attractions which are reflective of intangible cultural heritage (ICH) provide an avenue for authentic

3 experiences and may offer positioning which reflects the cultural diversity of a place and its people (Engelhardt, 2008; Okumus, Okumus, & McKercher, 2007). Meanwhile, the development of ICH can arouse emotion and affective feeling of people (Samuelsen & Norway, 2010). It can help provide distinctive cultural experience for a destination to attract tourists (Jimura, 2011; Matteucci, 2015; Scheyvens, 2002).

The issue of the balance of cultural tourism and heritage draws different scholars’ attentions. Conservationists wish to protect local culture, while tourism marketers are concerned with utilizing the cultural heritage resources (Rio Tinto, 2011). Tourism can be the viable source to generate profits for protecting heritage assets, but can also be a factor that threatens the survival of heritage (Throsby, 2009). The sustainability is becoming a solution to balance the interests between heritage and tourism through integrating their dominant value into a compound one (Smith, 2016). Government attempts to use the World Heritage listing as a prerequisite condition for tourism and economic development, however, the response from government to deal with the rising negative impacts of cultural heritage tourism has been passive (Imon, 2013). The challenge is on the planning, management and governance of the coherence of the goals, space, time, legality, administration and social integration (Loulanski & Loulanski, 2011).

In terms of ICH, the key issues of safeguarding ICH is the threat of disappearing along with time (UNESCO, 2011). In reality, the traditional customs and practices are facing difficulties on sustainability both economically, culturally and socially, especially when such ICH is in danger of transmission, the involvement in tourism development is recognized as a way to sustain its traditions, if properly managed (i.e. Patuá (Macanese language) in Macau1) (Wong, 2014).

1 Patuá is Macanese language, which used to be the language in communicating between the colonizer and the colonized in Macau and later being solely spoken by the Macanese (Amaro, 1994). It is a Luso–Asian Creole since Macau was founded by the Portuguese in the 16th

4 ICH is gradually becoming a tourist resource; however, few studies have addressed the tourism/ICH relationship, due to the fact that ICH is oriented to a specific cultural context, which is not easy to generalize (e.g. an ethnic group’s custom). While, the investigation of tourist experience in participation in ICH can contribute to understanding the relationship between tourism and ICH and their management implications (López-Guzmán & Santa-Cruz, 2016b).

Even though the research scope is on intangible cultural heritage, the intangible aspect of cultural heritage needs the tangible aspect to manifest in practice (Munjeri, 2004), and only by such a combined intangible-tangible manifestation can that tourist experience become a reality. Tangible culture needs to be supported by intangible value; and intangible culture needs to rely on the tangible to be visualized (Bouchenaki, 2003; Munjeri, 2004; Wang, 2008). For instance, tourists who participate in a festival performed on a World Heritage Site can enjoy both the intangible culture while enjoying an extraordinary tangible heritage (López-Guzmán & Santa-Cruz, 2016a). In particular, the Historic Centre of Macau was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005, and seen in this context, the appealing power of ICH is closely connected to the tourists’ perception of real or imagined culture of the local community and place (Hsu & Song, 2013).

1.1.1 Background of Macau

Macau is a tiny territory covering a total area of 30.4 square kilometers and a high population density of 648,500 in 2017 (Statistics and Census Service (DSEC), 2017). Concerning the land area, it is the second smallest independent economy in the world after Monaco (Chan, 2000). For over four hundred years,

century, which is now believed to be on the way to extinction (Wong, 2014). In 2012, it was listed as one of the ten official intangible cultural heritage items.

5 from 1557 to 1999, under the colonization of the Portuguese, 2 Macau was developed as a trading port for the trade that brought about a continuous cultural exchange between Chinese and the West. The gaming industry is one of the pillar industries that has significantly contributed to the economic development in Macau, even now. When Macau was open for trading after the Opium War, the Macau government levied a gambling tax to raise revenue to help balance the budget (Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau (DICJ), 2018). The gambling business gradually developed in monopoly operation and became the most reliable source of government revenue and secure employment (Chan, 2000; Pannell & Loughlin, 2015). The gaming industry was the only economic dependency in Macau, especially in 2002, when the casino gaming was liberalized and modernized for developing the tourist industry. The government foresees threats to the sustainability of traditional economic dependence and realizes the issue on gaming business economic dependence. Non-gaming activities start to promote to serve the market, such as the hotels, food & beverage, entertainment and retail (Lam, 2002; Pannell & Loughlin, 2015). It is also another consideration in improving Macau’s image and reputation as solely for the gaming industry (McCartney, 2005). Key policy measures are being implemented by the government to alleviate the economic dependency, by diversifying its economic structure step by step since Macau was handed over to China in 1999. Macau is shifting from a gaming city to a cultural heritage tourism destination (Macau Government Special Administration Region (Macau SARG), 2004; Macau SARG, 2016). In 2005, the Historic Centre of Macau was successfully inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as it demonstrates a continued co-existence of eastern and western cultures (in particular for Portuguese culture) in not only its architectural and urban infrastructures, but also in retaining the spirit of the historic and cultural assets (UNESCO, 2005). After Macau was returned to China in 1999, the former Portuguese enclave retained many historic streets and

2 The term “colonization” was changed to “administration” after Portugal’s 1974 democratic revolution, when the country decided to give up all its colonial possessions. In 1979, Portugal formally acknowledged the PRC’s sovereignty over Macau (Chan, 2003, pp. 498-501).

6 heritage buildings of Portuguese and Chinese origins, as stated in the introductory text of Macau’s World Heritage inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage Centre website (UNESCO, 2005):

With its historic street, residential, religious and public Portuguese and Chinese buildings, the Historic Centre of Macau provides a unique testimony to the meeting of aesthetic, cultural, architectural and technological influences from East and West.

Apart from the tangible influence, Portuguese culture is also inflected in the cultural practices in the current context of Macau – such as Portuguese cuisine and Portuguese folk dance (Vong & Lam, 2009). Portuguese is included as one of the official languages in Macau (Taylor, 2009). Portuguese language had much effect on most of the legislation (Ghai, 2000). Since the Historic Centre of Macau had been inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 2005, Macau has become a major international tourist attraction and a popular stopover included in the itinerary for tourists travelling to Hong Kong and other nearby Chinese cities (Cheng & Wan, 2008; Lew & McKercher, 2002; McKercher, 2001; McKercher & Lau, 2008). Apart from the primary World Heritage areas, Macau contains many other cultural tourism products promoted as cultural attractions. Such attractions include: museums and galleries of local historical and modern themes; gardens and parks that are distinctive Macau cultural landscapes that combine nature with designed elements; as well as traditional and modern cultural events, such as, traditional festival possessions and the modern opera performances.

1.1.2 Experiencescapes

With the impact on globalization, the differentiation of the attractions, services and facilities among destinations is not obvious. If destinations are to become and remain competitive in the turbulent global tourism industry, they should understand the experiences that tourists are seeking when engaging with key

7 attractions (Chui et al., 2010; Willson & McIntosh, 2007). The greater the experience is offered, the greater the added value that can be attached to the experience (Meethan, 2015). Experience “is highly personal, subjectively perceived, intangible, ever fleeting and continuously on-going … [which] located in the minds of individuals” (O’Dell, 2005a, p. 15). However, it is insufficient to view the tourist experience in isolation. When experiences are packaged and commodified for sale in the global market, they should take account of various forms of cultural expression such as song, dance, music and art (O’Dell, 2007). Experience itself is “anchored in space” which it has brought about (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015, p. 56).

The term “experiencescapes” O’Dell (2005), is used in the present research as a means of mapping the “landscapes of tourist experience”. The choice reflects growing consumer interest in the search for new experiences and the importance attached to the spaces in which such experiences are consumed. The choice is also a recognition of cultural and socioeconomic changes taking place in contemporary society. An experiencescape is “not only organized by producers (ranging from place marketers and city planners to local private enterprises) but is also actively sought out by consumers. They are spaces of pleasure, enjoyment and entertainment” (O’Dell, 2005a, p. 16). The application of experiencescapes is mainly dealing with the questions from a supply-demand relationship such as “what are the characteristics of the place, what are the types of experience gained, what senses are involved, what stories/information are conveyed” (Cederholm, 2012, p. 96).

Experiencescapes are closely related to the experience-based value creation (Samuelsen & Norway, 2010). Experiencescapes are not static, but involve a process where the suppliers continuously construct the space of experience, while customers interact with the suppliers and the surrounding environment in an on-going process. Even within the same entity, experiencescapes evolve through time in an extension of the on-going process of bringing new life to the structure. One example is the revitalization of old factories into new creative art

8 spaces (Willim, 2005) and the introduction of the new symbols for the city (Christersdotter, 2005). The research focuses on the concept of experiencescape in preference to experience because of various elements: physical and social environments and the products and services that are involved in the experience environment are central to arousing tourist emotions, mindfulness, and engagement and personal meanings. These factors cannot be separated by exclusively investigating experience. It is also necessary to examine the surrounding environment and other influential factors (e.g. culture and social elements) (Willson & McIntosh, 2007). The construction of experiencescapes is seen as a potential means of attracting tourists. The study of experiencescapes is applicable because experience is closely associated with the economy and generates more than goods and services. Furthermore, the producing of experience is located central to the tourist destination (Dissart & Marcouiller, 2012), it becomes a motivation to the destination to manage its resources to meet tourists’ needs for new experience (Hall & Page, 2006). The development of experiencescapes reflects processes of producing experiences. In such cases, tourists mediate the result as influencers of tourism experience (Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell, 2005a).

As a supply-demand oriented concept, experiencescapes is an analytical term to understand how experience is packaged, produced, consumed and staged by both companies and consumers (Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell, 2005b). It can also be used as a practical tool for formulating tourism marketing strategy for destination development to identify the improvement potential on experience offerings (Cederholm, 2012; Samuelsen & Norway, 2010). Therefore, the construction of experiencescapes is seen as a process of creating a way to attract tourists (EK, 2005). Sufficient experiencescapes can stimulate the creation of individual experiences (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009). Therefore, it forms the basis of this research to focus not only on tourists’ perspective, but also on suppliers’ perspective on cultural offerings of ICH, in order to enhance quality tourism experiences. Also, in terms of the holistic approach in studying experiencescapes, it needs to cover all stages of experience to understand the

9 “blueprint” of tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH. The details of this conceptual framework will be discussed in Chapter 2.

1.2 Problem statement

The bulk of Macau’s tourism market is derived from Chinese tourists, the number of whom had greatly increased to 22.2 million (including regular commuters as Macau has for commuters from Zhuhai) in 2017 since 20023 (DSEC, 2002, 2018). Given that their average length of stay was only 1.3 days (DSEC, 2018), a key issue for Macau tourism development is to extend the average length of stay of a tourist visiting Macau. The short-stay tourists visit one or two landmarks in the Historic Centre of Macau for only 2-3 hours (Lee & Rii, 2016). The current condition of cultural heritage tourism in Macau is that not too many tourists come to Macau for its heritage (Table 3.1) (Dewar, du Cros, & Li, 2012; Macau Business, 2016a). There is a shortage of attractions, poor management, maintenance and service delivery on sites in general (Wan & Cheng, 2011; Wan & Pinheiro, 2005). Although the government of Macau engages in a wide range of marketing activities (e.g. Macau World Heritage Year), it is still not effective enough to enhance the quality of tourist experience (Cheng & Wan, 2008). Therefore, sufficient or new tourism attractions become critical in enhancing the availability of heritage resources for tourism development (Vong, 2005). Laing, Wheeler, Reeves, and Frost (2014) identified the issues of cultural assets in the process of struggling to attract tourists (e.g. lacking the necessary interpretation, facilities and supporting amenities, experiential deficiencies, poor marketing and promotion). As such, tourist’s understanding of Macau’s cultural heritage is heavily influenced by the government’s promotion, like brochures distributed by the Macau Government Tourism Office (MGTO), and information provided by licensed tour guides

3 In 2002, the gaming industry in Macau was liberalized and the visa restriction entering from Mainland China to Macau was eased. It also pushed an increasing number of tourist arrivals (Wong & McKercher, 2012).

10 (Imon, DiStefano, & Lee, 2008). The tourism interpretation of Macau’s cultural heritage tends to skew towards the perceived preferences of Chinese tourists (Wong, 2013). According to studies (for example, Wong, 2013), tour-guide interpretations even by local well-educated licensed guides have failed to tell the colonial history embedded in Macau’s cultural heritage. The consequence of this distortion in interpretation is the undermining of ICH, as the intangible aspect of cultural heritage is far more vulnerable than the tangible aspect – the former lacks comprehensive protection by explicit legislations and policies, while the latter is more clearly protected by international charters, heritage protection laws and policies (du Cros, 2009).

Fortunately, there is an emerging interest by government authorities in the presentation of ICH to enhance Macau’s cultural appeal, and this can be seen in the promotion efforts of MGTO since 2008, in such ICH items as Macanese cuisine (Jackson, 2003) and local festivals (China Daily, 2005). The importance of ICH on a global scale has also been advanced by the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO. The focus of the Convention indeed provides valuable guidance to conservation practice. In 2013, MGTO outlined “Six Work Highlight” (referring to six main tasks) to posit Macau as a “World Centre of Tourism and Leisure”. One of the highlights is to develop cultural tourism products and to promote events and festivals (MGTO, 2013). The objective of such tasks is to rebrand the city’s image from a gaming city to a cultural destination so as to attract a wide range of tourists (Sou, Vinnicombe, & Leung, 2016). According to Felsenstein and Fleischer (2003), traditional cultural heritage festivals are being promoted by destination marketing organizations (DMOs) as tourism attractions. These festivals are significant for cultural tourism promotion (Copley & Robson, 1996), particularly in the employment of ICH as the main vehicle to attract cultural tourists because the execution of the activities will inevitably cover all five UNESCO categories of ICH (including oral traditions and expressions; performing arts; social practices, rituals and festive events; knowledge and practices; traditional craftsmanship). In addition, by their local and community-

11 based nature, traditional cultural heritage festivals can be readily employed as a way to showcase cultural and place identity (de Bres & Davis, 2001).

When Macau returned to China from Portuguese administration in 1999, there was a period when Macau people found their way of life adapted to Chinese culture; the pressure was no longer to push how to protect the tangible heritage; instead, it was the issue on protecting intangible cultural heritage as a showcase of the way of life in Macau (Armstrong, 2014). For instance, a lot of the Portuguese community left Macau and, as a result, Macanese culture and cuisine was in threat of disappearing after 1999 (Jackson, 2003). The official ICH list items have not received enough attention among locals. The protection of those items has become a challenge (Wong, 2014).

In the 2007 annual report, the chief executive, Mr. Ho Hau Wah, pointed out the importance and necessity of integrating cultural elements into the development and promotion of local cultural industries (Government Information Bureau, 2006). Furthermore, in 2011, the “12th Five-Year Plan” (2012-2017) also highlighted the importance of cultural industry and work focusing on promoting cultural consumption in order to expand the domestic demand and stimulate the national economy (National Development and Reform Commission, 2011). It also became a guidance document for the Macau government to put efforts into promoting Macau to attract a diverse tourism market. As such, the development of ICH at a place can have the double benefits of tapping into the international tourist market and empowering local communities to protect their own heritage through pride (Getz, 1989). To stimulate and promote the ICH in Macau was also proposed in the government’s Five-year Development Plan of Macau and a part of the government’s long-term plan, according to Deland Leong, head of the Department of Cultural Heritage in IC (Macau Business, 2016c). Current efforts promoting the performing arts by the government are inadequate, although the promotional efforts have been addressed in the political agenda (Sou et al., 2016). The accessibility of performance to tourists is limited, hence,

12 the infrastructure is also required to support that. Therefore, a framework for coordinating the ICH product development is needed (Sou et al., 2016).

In heritage studies, there is very little research considering the relationship between the tourist and their visited space (Poria, Reichel, & Biran, 2006, p. 162), until the phenomenon of dramatic growth of tourist visitation to World Heritage Sites is noticed. The concern is raised as to how to have a tourism management plan on World Heritage Sites (Jimura, 2011). Most studies applied in tangible context of attraction (Pedersen, 2002), which rarely position the intangible elements in strong influential factors (Timothy & Nyaupane, 2009). The tourism field fails to recognize the value of local ICH in the tourism production (George, 2010). Insufficient attention has been given by the government to intrinsic elements, to the nature of cultural heritage and to the associated intangible culture (Bonn, Sacha, Mo, Hayes, & Cave, 2007; Wong, 2014). Although ICH has become the main focus in the experiencescapes studies, the intangible elements are included in most culture context studies (Smith & Akagawa, 2008), as ICH closely reflects the culture and links to identity, people and place (Deacon, Dondolo, Mrubata, & Prosalendis, 2004). ICH is becoming an inseparable part of studying the tourist experience, where tourists involve their psychological understanding to the context, and fulfill the tourists’ needs on new and authentic experience (Matteucci, 2015). The increasing commodification of ICH in fact can offer a unique cultural product to attract a larger tourist market in modern times; inevitably, the conservation concerns raised due to the fact ICH is involved in a commercial tourism context when it needs to be reconstructed in a more economic and commercial function (Imon, 2013; Rodzi, Zaki, & Subli, 2013).

Studies and practices on cultural heritage tourism and heritage conservation in Macau mainly deal with the issues on the World Heritage Site - the tangible cultural heritage (Macau Business, 2016b, 2016c; Vong & Ung, 2012). Not all ICH listed items receive the same attention in tourism context, even within heritage conservation (Matheson, 2008). Current studies on ICH in Macau only

13 cover a few topics, such as food festivals and customs and beliefs (Vong & Lam, 2009). Investigations were conducted to examine the factors affecting the level of tourist’s satisfaction and loyalty of food festival (Wan & Chan, 2013), reflections of tourist market segmentation (i.e. Chinese female tourists) on experience of local food in Macau and the trip influence to themselves (Zhang & Hitchcock, 2017), as well as resident’s attitudes and support for the festival development (Li & Wan, 2017).

In particular there is a gap in the tourism literature about the experiencescapes’ affect on tourist responses to particular situations and how the tourism sector can provide positive tourist experience through shaping the experiencescapes (Mossberg, 2007). There are no clear practical guidelines or solid frameworks for applying the experiencescape concept. Although a visualized structure of experiencescapes can be built around the current conceptualized explanations, they fail to validate the applicability of the structure in practice. Previous studies on tourist experiencescapes have largely emphasized on-site experiences (Campos, Mendes, do Valle, & Scott, 2018; Matteucci, 2015) or pre-trip experience (Jensen, 2005). They have not provided a continuous extension by considering the entire process of experiencescapes through all three stages (pre- trip, on-site and post-trip). When the nature of the tourist experience is considered, it is not appropriate to reach separate understandings when in reality the pre-trip, on-site and post-trip elements come together jointly to explain the complete story (Aho, 2001; Chen & Chen, 2010; Gelter, 2010; Pabel & Prideaux, 2016). Therefore, this study attempts to fill the gap by advancing the experiencescape framework through all relevant stages. Moreover, there has been little previous research examining the interface between tourism and ICH. Nevertheless, studies on cultural tourism reinforce the importance of presenting intangible elements of culture for promotion as tourism activities (du Cros & McKercher, 2015; Vidal González, 2008).

14 1.3 Research questions

An in-depth literature review revealed that the concept of experiencescapes has not yet been fully explored as a means of explaining the tourist experience. The main research question is as follows,

How are Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) experiencescapes constructed (through the interaction between different stakeholders and tourists)?

When tourists visit an international tourism city which is known for its cultural heritage like Macau, Florence, Beijing, Nara or Kyoto, they may become involved in the local cultural activities as embedded with intangible cultural capitals, such as joining any local festivals, events or enjoying any local food. The research first needs to acknowledge those tourists’ preferences and confirm their participation in any ICH-based activities in Macau, and then extend to investigate tourist experiencescapes in the particular context they have encountered. Since tourists have emerging interest in more distinctive cultural attractions and diverse experience in destination, it provides the opportunity to foster tourism development through the promotion of ICH as a unique cultural experience.

In order to answer the above main research question, the sub-questions are:

1. How are experiencescapes being constructed in three stages (pre-trip, on-site and post-trip stages)? 2. How are different stakeholders involved in different stages of constructing tourist experiences? 3. What are the implications of the construction of ICH experiencescapes in tourism?

15 1.4 Research objectives

The study aims to explore processes of constructing tourist experiencescapes in order to understand how ICH can enhance tourist experiencescapes throughout all stages of the tourists’ travel process. The concrete objectives are:

1. to identify the construction of ICH experiencescapes from stakeholders’ perspective at three stages - pre-trip, on-site, and post-trip; 2. to understand how stakeholder efforts contribute collectively to the construction of ICH experiencescapes; and 3. to recommend how DMOs and service providers (e.g. organizers and performers) can contribute to the formation of tourist experiencescapes in the context of ICH.

The study proposes a conceptual framework for the construction of ICH tourist experiencescapes and discusses implications on the future creation and management of experiencescapes by considering ICH as an important element of tourism product to enhance tourist experience.

1.5 Significance of study

Approaching the ICH tourist experience through the medium of experiencescapes offers the potential to provide a holistic view of an entire process of the tourist experience (pre-trip, on-site, post-trip stages); deconstruct the various characteristics of experience; and evaluate the tourism supplier perspective on the effectiveness of promoting ICH at different stages of tourist experience. Experiencescapes are continuously evolving and more than individuals, but creating a multi-effect with involvement of many factors in a dynamic process, as well as considering the social environment where individuals connect with each other (O’Dell, 2005b).

Macau as a postcolonial city with a blended nature of a hybrid culture with east meets west, its cultural diversity is not only reflected through its architecture,

16 but also the cultural activities and lifestyle. These cultural offerings are what tourists are looking for in the attributes of the mixed culture. ICH enables tourists to look beyond the built heritage to gain a better understanding of the place in a comprehensive way. Therefore, the significance of ICH and tourists’ pursuit of ICH facilitate the destination to create a memorable experience (Wong, McKercher, & Li, 2016). Noting the importance of preserving and promoting ICH, as has been recognized by UNESCO in its guided convention, this thesis plays a pioneering role in applying the experiencescape concept to the promotion of ICH in a World Heritage city. It also has potential practical implications for other destinations where ICH sits at the core of cultural promotion. Besides, not all ICH items receive the same attention in a tourism context. Current case studies focus on the well-known ICH items like the Feast of Drunken Dragon (Aoyama, 2015; Matteucci, 2015; Vong & Lam, 2009). It depends on the promotional efforts by the tourism sector, if such ICH items are perceived as valuable to attract tourists. It does not mean the other ICH items are not interesting. Apart from the current studies that focus on single item of ICH (Matteucci, 2015; Vong & Lam, 2009; Wong, 2014), this study will cover a wide range of ICH in the study scope.

There is little research examining the interface between tourism and ICH (Vidal González, 2008). Current studies like the one conducted by UNWTO, listed several ways to transform ICH assets into cultural product (UNWTO, 2012) - to create the primary attraction of ICH; to combine with other attractions for accumulated effects to attract tourists; to create cultural space for living interpretation; to use routes to connect the different ICH items in an itinerary; or to revitalize festivals and events. All these measures point to the direction of creating new experience and cultural space for appreciating the ICH. However, the current studies on experiencescapes in ICH have not yet fully discovered, in particular, lack of practical application in an explanatory study. Looking at the current studies on experiencescapes, they mainly stay at the stage of describing the term of experiencescapes as a background context (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015; Fagence, 2014; Kastenholz, Carneiro, Marques, & Lima, 2012; Sthapit, 2013),

17 with little effort on its constituents in an indicative manner (Benckendorff & Pearce, 2012; Jernsand, Kraff, & Mossberg, 2015). Further efforts are needed to explore how experiencescapes are created and how the different components of experiencescapes interact and influence tourists’ psychological feeling and their behavioral response (Campos et al., 2018). It is critical to look into the realistic, imaginative and experiential characteristics within the process of creating experience (Mossberg, 2007).

Tourists look for experiential destinations with personal, social and cultural meanings (Morgan, 2007). In order to create a memorable and meaningful experience in the minds of tourists, it is necessary to understand how the overall experiencescapes formed and the role of different stakeholders in affecting experiencescapes in a theoretical and practical way (Lin, 2004; Sotiriadis & Gursoy, 2016). Experiencescapes can be used as the analytical tool to understand how tourism marketers or tourism operators and tourists are involved in the process of forming the space of experience. The factors that are going to identify the tourist experiencescapes have great management implications in the tourism field. In the context of Macau’s ICH in addressing the current issues mentioned above, it can help the government allocate the appropriate promotion resources to meet tourists’ needs, and formulate plans, design and market strategies of different packaged experiences corresponding to the market segments (Chui et al., 2010). The findings will also provide a valuable insight on the interaction among the tourism marketers, service providers and tourists in managing, creating and delivering better tourist experience within the context of experiencescapes (Ritchie & Hudson, 2009). Therefore, a holistic approach is applied through employing Macau as an example, to see how both supply side in constructing the space for ICH experience and demand side of consuming ICH experience together form landscapes of experience – experiencescapes, in the entire stage from pre-trip to post-trip experience.

18 1.6 Scope of research

The focus of this thesis is on experiencescapes of Macau’s ICH. With the development and competition of media and technology, there is increasing accessibility of information about these products. As such, this has led to information overload, and more creative and experience-orientated promotion is necessary to direct the attention of targeted tourists to the intended choices. This calls into question the core function of traditional cultural heritage, which was not tourist-oriented (Smith, 2016). To achieve tourism development for traditional cultural heritage, a balance of entertainment and conservation has to be considered in order to market cultural heritage as more of a tourist attraction – as activities specifically created for tourist consumption (Calver & Page, 2013). This means that marketing of traditional cultural heritage (which ICH falls under) to tourists should not be limited to museum exhibitions or promoted as community-organized activities (such as local temple-based festivals), as being practiced currently – such approaches have many inherent limitations in reaching a wider tourism market. A more holistic approach would be to link the tourism marketing of traditional cultural heritage with economic development, cultural enterprise and comprehensive tourism education (such as thematic publicity campaigns) – these approaches are not commonly practiced (Kurin, 2004).

Tourists’ curiosity and quest for new experience and pleasures are the motivations for them to visit tourist destinations and join tourist activities (Urry, 1995). More recently, the studies of cultural heritage have shifted from a tangible approach to an intangible approach (Dolff-Bonekämper, 2008; Garden, 2006; Graham, 2002). This new emphasis can, and should, tie in with the study of cultural heritage places to become attractive tourist destinations – by shifting from the interpretation of the visible tangible fabric to the interpretation of the invisible and participatory intangible elements embedded within the fabric. It is by the experiential involvement of the embedded cultural heritage, rather than the superficial sightseeing of the place, that tourists can be provided with the

19 added value of tourist experience (Moles, 2009; Smith, 2006). In other words, a tourist’s time and immersion are the keys to understanding and enjoying Macau’s cultural heritage sites as tourist destinations (Imon et al., 2008).

The following table provides an overview of the current Macau’s ICH listed items, as well as some other typical examples of ICH manifestations, which are included in the ICH inventory of Macau (Table 1.1). This approach offers the prospective of an open dialogue about the current Macau ICH list and its potential effectiveness in disseminating the culture of Macau. It will also provide a means of assessing whether the government’s promotional efforts are aligned with tourist perceptions and preferences.

20 Table 1.1. Macau's ICH items (including listed and not listed) (Source: Macau’s ICH official listed item and the author)

List items of Macau's ICH ICH categories ICH Examples in Macau's ICH list Year of Listing selected for this research list Oral traditions and Listed Patuá (Macanese language) Theatre 2012 expressions Not listed Cantonese and Portuguese names of -- street, food items, social greetings Performing arts Listed Cantonese Opera 2006 Cantonese Naamyam 2009 Taoist Ritual Music in Macau 2009 Not listed Macau's Portuguese Folk Dance -- Social practices, Listed Feast of the Drunken Dragon 2009 rituals and festive Herbal Tea 2006 events Macanese Cuisine & Recipes 2012 Not listed Procession of the Passion of Our -- Lord the God Jesus The Procession of Our Lady of -- Fatima Knowledge and Listed A-Ma Belief and Customs 2012 practices Na Tcha Belief and Customs 2012 Not listed Belief and Customs of Tou Tei -- Belief and Customs of Chu Tai Sin -- Traditional Listed Woodwork – Macau Religious 2007 craftsmanship Figure Carving Not listed The Craft of Bamboo Scaffolding --

1.7 Limitations

The research aims to cover the ICH items shown in the above table in the explanatory study, however, the discovery of the ICH depends on tourist perception or consumption behavior if they have known about or participated in those ICH related events or activities. This research chooses three typical ICH events which each encompass most of the ICH domains, including the performing arts, social practices, rituals and festive events, knowledge and practices. The rationale of the scope of study is explained in Chapter Four. The future investigation of ICH in Macau may be complete to cover other categories.

21 Besides, there are a wide range of events and festivals being promoted by the Macau government, although they may not represent solely Macau’s ICH, those items are potential attractions for tourists, such as the Macau Arts Festival. If the future research could cover all those events, it would ensure a comprehensive research on tourist experiencescapes on intangible elements of attractions in Macau. However, since this research focuses on the local ICH of Macau, it does not include those grand events in common interests of mass tourists. This outlines the limitations of the research. A more elaborate discussion of the limitations and their impacts on the research analysis will be discussed in detail in the concluding chapter of this thesis.

1.8 Structure of study

This Chapter 1 outlines the main structure of the research, including the background of the topic and study context, problems and issues, and the key concept of experiencescapes in brief. Importance of cultural heritage for tourism is introduced. Issues in cultural heritage (especially on ICH) and tourism both in general and especially in Macau are also covered. The importance of experiencescapes that helps with the issues is illustrated then. The significance of the research is also strengthened.

Then, in Chapter 2 will give a complete literature review and theoretical justification on the background and application of experiencescapes. After a review of the concepts and practices, the framework will be summarized at the end as a guidance to the research, and move to the next section.

Chapter 3 focuses on the main context of Macau, since it is the main study scope; it will first review the background of Macau in terms of the changing socio-cultural dimension along time. The intent is to form a fundamental knowledge of Macau in understanding its context before the discussion of issues of cultural heritage. Then it comes to the main body of the review of ICH

22 in terms of background, government promotion and issues associated with the current condition of Macau.

Chapter 4 introduces the methodology that will apply in this research. The methodology will be explained in two parts: the first part will explain the basis of the theoretical model in constructing the method for data collection; the second part will explain the data collection method and the rationales involved.

Starting from Chapter 5, the focus is on the presentation and analysis of the data collected. Chapter 5 presents the interview findings with tourist interviewees, while Chapter 6 mainly introduces the perspectives from other key stakeholders. The analysis results will be summarized in these two chapters, and will lead to the next chapter for a detailed discussion of the analysis to draw conclusions.

Chapter 7 establishes the research findings based on the analysis from the previous chapters. The chapter will explain how these findings can be applied in tourism development practice, and who might benefit from the application of such findings, in terms of specific government, non-governmental organizations and tourism operators in Macau.

Chapter 8 is the concluding chapter, which will elaborate on such matters as the significant findings of the research, the limitations involved, and future research that will help to complement this research.

23 CHAPTER TWO - LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter starts with the background of cultural heritage tourism as to review the current trends and issues of cultural heritage in tourism, including both tangible and intangible cultural elements. It provides a fundamental basis for the research context before proceeding to concepts and framework. Addressing by the issues, the concept of experiencescapes is introduced on how it is relevant to the research, what the past research has done in the experiencescapes, how it applies in this research in helping understand the context, solve the issues and answer the questions. The conceptual framework is summarized at the end of the chapter to consolidate the literature review as covered in the main discussion in this chapter.

2.1 Cultural heritage tourism

2.1.1 Cultural heritage

As it is defined by UNESCO in the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage cultural heritage includes monuments, groups of buildings and sites which are of outstanding universal value from the history, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view (UNESCO, 1972). Landscapes, urban areas and historic environment have been subsequently included in the scope of cultural heritage out of respect for their importance in the history and current relevance to society at large. These different contexts are also integrated within the overall approach to heritage management (Messenger & Smith, 2010). Tangible heritage is however of limited importance in many cultures. Immaterial culture and expression has the same value in the preservation of knowledge endowed cultural identities. There has been increasing recognition of intangible cultural heritage, accepting that cultural diversity is important for enriching human culture. The historic and

24 artistic values of the tangible heritage is no longer considered alone. In addition, the importance of immaterial heritage has been developed and interpreted as a new step in accepting the cultural diversity of a society and in furthering the extension of which enriches the unique cultural aspects of human beings (Vecco, 2010). As declared in The Nara Document on Authenticity, it has been advocated that each society has its own distinct expression of culture in both tangible and the intangible forms (UNESCO, 1994). Moreover, intangible cultural heritage may help to define and express tangible cultural heritage and transform it into living archives of cultural value (Appadurai, 1996; Dunin, 2015; Lau, 2016). In the framework of heritage, the discourse of intangible cultural heritage has its effects in designating social value of people (Bille, 2012; Smith, 2006). Intangible cultural heritage acts as an essential component of human culture which ensures the realization of its long-lasting specificities of cultural human rights (Halbwachs, 1992; Lenzerini, 2011). The inscription of UNESCO’s Intangible Heritage Status has also been recognized as a way to showcase the traditions to broader audience (more than just locals) and also for the benefits to generate economic interest and boom the tourism industry of a place (Bille, 2012; Kirschenblatt-Gimblett, 2004).

2.1.2 Cultural heritage tourism

The nuances among cultural tourism, heritage tourism, or cultural heritage tourism are slight and they are used interchangeably (Kaminski, Benson, & Arnold, 2014). They all refer to a form of special interest tourism, an experiential type of tourism where tourists are seeking an authentic “other” and cultural aspects of the destination (Ritchie, Carr, & Cooper, 2003). Cultural heritage tourists are active participants who are willing to experience cultural attractions, including historical monuments, local festivals and events and national parks (Wickens, 2005). There is also a group of scholars who are interested in learning the behaviors and interests of cultural tourists (Ayres, 2002; Csapó, 2012; Dolnicar, 2002; Girard & Nijkamp, 2009; Hughes, 2002;

25 Smith & Robinson, 2006). However, it is different to define the categorization and characteristics of cultural tourists within the context of cultural tourism (Foo & Rossetto, 1998; Hughes, 2002; Silberberg, 1995). A typical study was frequently cited because of its contribution to the typology of cultural tourists by McKercher and du Cros (2002). They attempted to narrow down cultural tourists into five segments in the measurement criterion. These two classifying factors are the centrality of cultural tourism in the decision to visit a destination and depth of experience (Figure 2.1). In practice, McKercher (2002) tested the model in the study context of Hong Kong and found that the majority of the cultural tourists (82%) are incidental, casual and serendipitous ones who seek rather a fairly shallow and easy to consume experience.

Figure 2.1. A cultural tourist typology (Source: McKercher & du Cros, 2002, p. 140) Their model has also been applied by others in different contexts for use as a framework to estimate economic impacts (Croes & Semrad, 2015) or to examine cultural tourists’ perceptions of marketing (Kantanen & Tikkanen, 2006) or to classify tourist segments into groups for certain research interests

26 (Duarte Alonso, 2015; McKercher, Mei, & Tse, 2006). Using the Chinese cultural tourism market as a sample, Chen and Huang (2018) raised an improved typology approach of McKercher & du Cros’s model with a balanced segmentation of cultural tourists and considered sociodemographic features in differentiating types of cultural tourists. Particular types of cultural tourists also attract interest from scholars (Cary, 2004; Huang et al., 2014). It has been noted that various types of cultural tourists engage in different tourism activities and have differing levels of enjoyment (Dolnicar, 2002). The current tourism supply is emphasized to extend in both space and time (Fariselli, 2011), which means to extend with new sights and enhance tourists’ emotional and intellectual participation in order to make the experience memorable (Isaac, 2008). The emphasis on the intangible dimension of a tourism experience is raised (Girard & Torrieri, 2009). A visit to the destination is not limited to economic exchange, but it extends to a learning of the local know-how, traditions and practices. The traditional tourism services are also integrated with new series, which focus on building capacity of destination appeal through diversification of the tourism offerings (Günlü, Pırnar, & Yağcı, 2009).

The centrality of intangible assets in determining the attractiveness of a destination is recognized. The nature behind cultural heritage tourism is not to produce the events, but to produce the spirit of the place (International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), 2008). It suggests to increase the understanding, enjoyment, exchange and learning of the values, beliefs, culture, traditions which are the expressions of cultural identity of a place (Lenzerini, 2011). In order to realize this, it goes beyond the purely physical dimensions, but concerns the intangible capital which represents a continuous linkage between past and present and captures the connection between humans and the environment (Girard & Torrieri, 2009, pp. 224-225). Therefore, the recognition of the intangibles as foundation of tangible values becomes the premise of building the spirit of a cultural destination (Girard & Torrieri, 2009, p. 241). As such, it provides a new approach for cultural heritage tourism development. Since the importance of ICH is emphasized in tourism development, the

27 following section will give an overview of ICH and the issues in its development.

2.1.3 Relationship between cultural heritage and tourism

Cultural tourism used to be considered only in selective forms of arts and heritage. Later, literature debated whether it is only high or elite culture in consumption. Gradually, forms of everyday activities started to be included in cultural tourism, such as shopping, food and drinks and events (Smith, 2016). Interests in heritage have also shifted from elitist assets to the resource of ordinary people (community's value; ethnic and racial minorities, indigenous people) (Timothy, 2005). Significance of heritage has shifted away from the dominance on tangible forms of heritage to intangible forms of culture and practices (Smith, 2016). The cultural heritage markers as related to the meanings of tangible and consumable products, have become part of tourism consumption (Timothy, 2005).

Culture is the medium to connect heritage and tourism. One of the most notable trends is that niche products have been developed as a fragmentation of cultural tourism (Novelli, 2005), for example art tourism, heritage tourism, film tourism, creative tourism and indigenous tourism (Smith, 2016). By the large typology expansions of cultural tourism, it becomes a large growing segment of global tourism (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2009).

Culture can be represented in various forms including physical and material, tangible and intangible (UNESCO, 2011). Its meanings are defined differently across disciplines or fields in their own uses (Hannerz, 1992; Kirshenblatt- Gimblett, 1998; Mukerji & Schudson, 1991; Thomas, 1994). In heritage studies, culture is a valuable resource to be protected (UNESCO, 2012); in the tourism field, culture is a resource which is encouraged to make it accessible to a wide range of audience and make it an entertainment product to consume (Donald,

28 2006; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998; Silberberg, 1995; Wirth & Freestone, 2009). It is inevitable to encounter conflict of interest; however, communication, collaboration and compromise make it possible for sustainable development with the joint efforts from different fields (Gunn, 1988b; Smith, 2016; Throsby, 2009).

Tourism makes heritage economically viable as to convert heritage as locations into a destination to stimulate tourists’ growing interests in a history and regional heritage (Timothy & Boyd, 2003). Through that, the society recognizes the diversity and significance of the culture not only to the past, but a lasting effect on the present and future (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998; Smith, 2016).

The process of the relationship between the heritage place and tourism is that, the commercial factors/potentials associated with a historical site make it transform into a cultural tourism site (Wickens, 2005). As also suggested by the goal of sustainable cultural heritage tourism, identify the value of heritage and potential for tourism development, and then manage it to ensure sustainability through tourism; in such a way, the benefit can also contribute to heritage conservation (Nared & Visković, 2014).

2.1.4 Balancing the interests of tourism and cultural heritage

Tourism destinations do change in order to keep track of the needs of visitors. However, heritage places are static, as excessive changes may cause the attraction to lose its appeal and value (Butler, 1996). The issue of the balance of cultural tourism and heritage is increasing different parties’ interests. Conservationists wish to protect local culture, while tourism marketers utilize the cultural heritage resources (Rio Tinto, 2011). Inscription on the World Heritage list is considered a global brand for the potential tourism development and revitalization of underdeveloped places. However, the convention of protecting world heritage sites may not be intended for tourism promotion. Accordingly, the contrasting interests or conflicts between heritage and tourism

29 related to long-term development strategies are raised (Vargas, 2018). Consequently, UNESCO is aware of the possible long-term tourism issues associated with successful world heritage inscription. Hence, an assessment of a sustainable development plan is included in the nomination process to eliminate the potential threats of tourism development (Schmutz & Elliott, 2016).

The issues on the conflicts of heritage and tourism mainly deal with the marketing principles, the philosophy of sustainability, the requirement of conservation of heritage and the realization of tourism features (Nared & Visković, 2014, p. 94). Tourism can be the viable source to generate profits for protecting heritage assets, but can also be a factor that threatens the survival of the heritage (Throsby, 2009), the traditional meanings of a place, which may reshape the locals’ sense of place (Weaver & Lawton, 2002) and their attitudes and support to the tourism development (Lai & Hitchcock, 2017). The impacts of tourism on heritage are multidimensional with both positive and negative impacts, including physical, environmental, economic, socio-cultural, direct and indirect impacts (Mathieson & Wall, 1982; Swarbrooke, 1999; Vargas, 2018). The development of tourism involves cultural heritage in a broad sense. The positive impacts possible include: inspire and encourage artistic expression; enable active participation; provide personal experience and satisfaction; enable personal identification (Nared & Visković, 2014); boost the image of the place; strengthen the local pride in their culture and history and contribute to the local economy through development of a cultural tourism commercial zone (Cui, 2008). Correspondingly, the possible negative impact includes the deconstruction of a destination’s image, loss of cultural diversity and gentrification (Jimura, 2011; Staiff & Bushell, 2013).

Global heritage tourism management needs to consider the locals’ needs, their quality of life, economic benefits and minimizing gentrification effects (Evans, 2001; Timothy & Boyd, 2003). Otherwise, it may cause sociocultural impacts on the locals. The local community’s participation in the planning process and their possible collaboration with decision makers for sustainable development

30 remains an important consideration (Vargas, 2018). The physical impacts to heritage include the excessive visitor pressures (inappropriate behaviors, pollutions) which cause physical damage to historic environments (Strange, 1997). These issues are more likely to occur in developing world rather than developed countries since those common problems exist in the developing world in funding, role of community and empowerment (Timothy & Boyd, 2006). Heritage issues are discussed with tourism management and marketing issues (Boyd & Timothy, 2006), conservation and policy (Kavoura, 2001), tourists’ understanding of the World Heritage Sites status (Moscardo, Green, & Greenwood, 2001) and destination branding (Dewar, du Cros, & Li, 2012; Ryan & Silvanto, 2009).

Tourism consumption is blamed as one of the greatest threats to heritage, which leads to a reconstruction or destruction effect on heritage to purely serve economic experience. In the long term, the loss of other socio-cultural, environment values cannot be compensated through the economic value. A meta-study on the current studies that address the issues of the interplay of heritage and tourism as well as the rising conflict between the two fields summarizes 15 synthesis factors4 as needed to consider for a more efficient theoretical framework in achieving sustainable integration (Loulanski & Loulanski, 2011, pp. 845-848). Such suggestions can be considered in integrated strategies, policies, theory and practice. The potential opportunities of developing tourism with ICH resources have emerged from various perspectives (UNWTO, 2012). From the perspective of tourism sectors, ICH is the resource to enhance the destination cultural diversity, as such, to make it a tourism offering can enlarge the current market to the destination. From the perspective of heritage sectors, tourism makes ICH visible and being known by

4 These factors include local involvement; education and training; balance of authenticity and interpretation; shift toward sustainability-centered tourism management and practice; integrated planning and management; incorporation of heritage and tourism in the sustainable development framework and policy; controlled/balanced growth of tourism development; integrated governance and stakeholder participation; market and product diversification; sufficient and diversified funding; international governance and support; “heritage capital” approach; site management; destination management; theoretical and methodological knowledge base (Loulanski & Loulanski, 2011, pp. 845-848).

31 outsiders who are not originally from that culture. It also promotes the younger generations to transmit ICH. The premise of cooperation between tourism and ICH as concerned by heritage sectors is to mitigate the negative impacts to ICH itself and communities. From the perspective of academia, joint programmes between heritage and tourism in educating the importance of heritage and delivering the effective message of heritage to tourists are encouraged. One such example is the Cultural Heritage Specialist Guide Training and Certification Programme for UNESCO World Heritage Sites (UNWTO, 2012, pp. 9-14). At the managerial level, the trend of connecting tourism and ICH is manifested. For example, in the Ministry of Tourism in Brazil and Togo’s tourism administration, ICH assets are considered in the promotional materials or marketing campaigns. Although the focus is based on the potential value of ICH to become a tourism product, it shows the fact that ICH assets are concerned as important resources that are of interest to the public and tourists (ibid, 2012). Therefore, these perspectives will be covered in this study to focus on the connection between tourism and ICH, especially to know the different perspectives negotiated in constructing tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH.

2.1.5 Trends in tourism and cultural heritage

As Timothy and Boyd (2006) summarized the recent trends in heritage and tourism in the 21st century mainly focus on the following areas, namely: 1) concern on authenticity, whether tourists are satisfied with the current interpretation of the heritage to them (Wang, 1999); 2) the linkage between heritage and other sectors (McKercher & du Cros, 2002); 3) heritage setting as retailing opportunities to create a pleasant atmosphere for tourists (Orbasli, 2000); 4) cross-border cooperation, stakeholder participation such as with different agencies, owners, service providers, in the planning process tourism’s support for heritage conservation (Gunn, 1988a); 5) defining and measuring personal heritage and individual identity (Timothy, 1997).

32 An important development trend for tourists today is that tourists may spontaneously encounter something meaningful to them which is unexpected or not included in their original plan (Richards, 2001). The marketing of the destination also tends to promote the experiential and intangible aspects of the destination, like the atmosphere or sense of place, which allows tourists to have more chances to co-produce the experience by themselves. According to Wolfram and Burnill (2013), those tourists are so called “tactical tourists” who expect to get close to the local people, and find the hidden treasures of the place and be free to pursue a flexible and spontaneous tourist experience in a destination, through which they can actively be involved in shaping their own experience. Tourists have shifted from the traditional way of relying on a guidebook to independent travel with an increased desire of seeking authentic and deep experience in the new areas where local people go. They become undistinguishable from the locals (Maitland, 2007; Maitland & Newman, 2009; Smith, 2016).

Moscardo (1999, pp. 55-108) identified five key tourist attraction measures to encourage mindful tourism and to communicate effectively with the tourists. These five measures are: help tourists find their way around; make connection to tourists and involve them; offer variety; tell a good story that makes sense; know and respect tourists (as cited in Timothy & Boyd, 2003, p. 176). The new tourism in the 21st century suggests that tourism motivation is also diverse, with culture starting to acquire a large proportion of tourist activities, as tourists desire to know more about the historic and cultural knowledge of the place (Lois-Gonzalez & Santos-Solla, 2014).

Cultural heritage is emphasizing the importance of its intrinsic value as obtained by the cultural assets, while tourism in cultural heritage focuses on the extrinsic value - the economic value as generated by cultural heritage (Throsby, 2002), although they have their domain values, it is suggested that cultural heritage and tourism can integrate as a compound value with a balance of the different dimensions for sustainable development (Thorsby, 2006). However,

33 the practical measures on how to achieve that are not yet adequately validated at scales ranging from global to local. The great challenge lies to the application of the principles in reality. The basic principle of achieving this, is to apply preventive measures to mitigate the unsustainable practices. In nature, it is the issue of planning, management and government of the coherence of the goals, space, time, legality, administration and social integration (Loulanski & Loulanski, 2011).

2.1.6 Issues in cultural heritage and tourism

The conflict of heritage and tourism is also raised in the concerns on the impacts of World Heritage Labeling. World heritage inscription is a strong brand image that demonstrates the outstanding universal values of heritage properties, facilitates the enhancement of public awareness and enhances the potential to attract visitors. These benefits act as a marketing tool in effectively building the brand of a particular site (Hall & Piggin, 2003). The government uses the World Heritage listing as a label of legitimization to boost cultural tourism and as a prerequisite condition for economic development (Dunin, 2015; Turgeon & Divers, 2010). It becomes an effective way of recovering the economy in less developed countries (e.g. Luang Prabang) (Imon, 2013). However, government is passive to respond to the raising issues due to factors like construction projects that affect the landscape, and the pressure brought on by uncontrolled visitation and gentrification problems. Consequencely, the overcrowding (Taylor, Frost, & Laing, 2016), authenticity and commercial issues related to world heritage sites have emerged (Xie & Wall, 2003). The concept of brand innovation advocates a ‘new means’ to protect and reinforce an existing brand value (Hall & Williams, 2008, p. 195). When world heritage sites have matured (similar to Macau), they require brand innovation that involves the introduction of new elements.

34 Although World Heritage Labeling contributes to the growth of visitation, it also pushes the pressure on sites (Baxter & Chippindale, 2005). Problems of tourism impacts on heritage can only be addressed when the issues appear (Imon, 2013). The protection of heritage is seen as a way to upgrade tourism and economic development, other than to retain the intrinsic value of heritage assets (Imon, 2013). The inspiration of World Heritage raises the management issues of conservation, access, visitor management, interpretation, local communities and their relationship to the heritage and local inhabitants (Kovacs, 2004; Smith, 2016). As recognized as a cultural heritage, it obtains a broad significance in terms of world history as a global term; it can be included in the itinerary as an iconic attraction as well. However, the issues and concerns associated with the labeling are (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2005): awareness of the significance of the place; consider sustainability of the place; tourism plays a significant role in debate in support of its excavation, presentation and interpretation; attract the tourists as much as possible for awareness; tourist’s negative impacts on the heritage; and balance of needs within community.

2.2 Intangible cultural heritage (ICH)

In the face of growing globalization, ICH becomes a vital element to determine and maintain the cultural diversity of a place and the people (Engelhardt, 2008; Okumus et al., 2007). As a recognition of the significance of safeguarding ICH, at the General Conference on 17 October, 2003, UNESCO adopted a Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, according to the Article 1, the purposes are:

a) to safeguard the intangible cultural heritage; b) to ensure respect for the intangible cultural heritage of the communities, groups and individuals concerned;

35 c) to raise awareness at the local, national and international levels of the importance of the intangible cultural heritage, and of ensuring mutual appreciation thereof; d) to provide for international cooperation and assistance (UNESCO, 2003).

According to the Convention, intangible cultural heritage (Article 2) is defined as “transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity” (UNESCO, 2003). There are several key messages expressed in the Convention, which address the key characteristics of ICH. ICH is a shared expression of living culture and tradition representing both the traditional and contemporary practices, which provides us with the route to find the sense of identity and a link from the past to the present and future. It is in a community-based culture, through which the culture and tradition pass down from generation to generation. The importance of ICH is not only on its cultural manifestation but also on the social and economic value of the transmission of the culture and tradition for communities or particular social groups (UNESCO, 2016b).

As such, UNESCO defines five broad domains of intangible cultural heritage, which include: 1) oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage; 2) performing arts; 3) social practices, rituals and festive events; 4) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; 5) traditional craftsmanship. In fact, there is another implicit aspect, which is also considered, but may not be officially listed, which is cultural space that is closely linked to the above domains (UNESCO, 2011).

Due to globalization and manifestation of post-modernism, de-differentiation happened in a number of ways (Smith, 2016). The distinction between the destinations is unclear. Even the distinction between a home and a holiday is blurred (Franklin & Crang, 2001). The fierce competition on destination

36 marketing forces the destinations to find their own ways to be distinctive. Business focuses on the intangible quality of the products as to arouse the emotion and affective feeling of customers (Samuelsen & Norway, 2010).

Interests in culture and heritage and their consumption have been switched from the elite appreciation to ordinary people (Kim, Cheng, & O’Leary, 2007). Cultural heritage tourism has also changed from an elitist activity to popularize arts (Prentice, 2001). As such, it directs two major trends, a growing interest in culture and a growth of culture supply (Richards, 2001), cultural diversity (Smith, 2016) and ICH experience (Lau, 2016). In addition, with the rise of technology and easier access to media, the new forms of cultural expressions are emerging. Traditional cultural forms are being re-interpreted in diverse directions to attract wider audiences. The consumption of cultural resources has expanded from fixed tangible heritage towards mobile intangible forms of culture, such as events, festivals, dance and music (Richards, 2007).

The following section will briefly introduce the current issue of ICH in general.

2.2.1 Issue of ICH in general

There are several issues of safeguarding ICH on the global scale. Although there are different listing systems at local, national and international levels, they do not successfully transform into an effective recognition among the public on their awareness of the importance of ICH. The attention on the non-listing ICH item also needs to be increased. Therefore, it is argued whether the effectiveness of the ICH listing is enough for ICH protection. The common issue still exists of lacking of resource to protect ICH. The current practice in Hong Kong is trying to use a priority list taken from the current local ICH representative list to gradually realize the awareness of importance of ICH by the public step-by-step (Lau, 2016).

Living history and practices as intangible heritage is difficult to consume by tourism. Since some intangible culture is secretive to the indigenous people, it

37 cannot be easily released to outsiders (du Cros & McKercher, 2015). Besides, the reproduction of living history is also argued on authenticity issues, if not presented properly (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 1998; Smith, 2016). The different perceptions of heritage authenticity and interpretation probably affect the tourist satisfaction and engagement in tourism related activities of those sites (Xu, Cui, Ballantyne, & Packer, 2013).

The key issue of safeguarding ICH is that it is under the threat of disappearing. ICH in fact fights with time. UNESCO has identified several threats corresponding to the broad domains. In terms of performing arts, the forms are under the threat of standardization and disappearing. Even among those popular items, only certain expressions remain. Oral traditions have suffered with rapid urbanization, large-scale migration, industrialization and environmental change (UNESCO, 2017). The development of technology and mass media also replaces the traditional forms of oral expression. The deterioration and permanent loss of old ways of recording (e.g. books, archives) bring a great challenge to document those items related to the ICH. However, the digitalization in such a way allows the documents to be recorded and archived. The social practices such as the congregation at the Jemaa el-Fna Square in Marrakesh, due to the heavy traffic and the air pollution, are slowly disappearing. Globalization leads the culture to become less and less distinct, which is seen as a threat to cultural identity, so traditional knowledge and practices that closely reflect on the community’s culture are threatened because of such phenomenon. Rapid urbanization threatens the natural environment and knowledge associated with it. The external factors like climate change and continued deforestation put the species in danger, which are sometimes related to the traditional craftsmanship and herbal medicine due to the difficulty in the continuity of the growth of the local plant species (UNESCO, 2011). Although authenticity and commodification are concerned (López-Guzmán & Santa-Cruz, 2016a), there are different arguments on that, even staged authenticity can make successful cultural tourism development and it makes the art form survival possible (Aoyama, 2009). Commoditization is an irresistible aftereffect of

38 tourism development (Wong, McKercher, & Li, 2016), but it also makes the heritage experience personalized as being perceived by individuals. Heritage is then reconstructed with new meanings which conform to the contemporary needs (Hall & Tucker, 2004).

Tourism does not always bring negative impacts on traditional culture. Traditional culture is also demand-sensitive and needs to transform for tourism development (Mugerauer, 2004). The development of ICH for tourism is seen as a town rebuilding tool to help boost the economy, such as brings employment opportunity to craftspeople who make crafts for a living (Turgeon & Divers, 2010). Another critical view argued that, tourism considers the economic value of heritage, but not all value of heritage can be experienced in economic forms (Mason, 1999). Cultural value also needs to be considered (Thorsby, 2006). The protection of cultural value of heritage is a way to create meaningful experience as a unique form of place and culture as to attract tourists. It can also be considered as a focus for tourism development (Cheng & Wan, 2008; Imon, 2013). Therefore, a quality tourist experience can realize both the heritage management objectives, as well as the needs of tourism development (Silva & Chapagain, 2013). The challenge lies in whether heritage and tourism can find a common ground for cooperation (Imon, 2013). The nature of cultural/heritage tourism is to develop culture and preserve diversity (Engelhardt, 2008).

George (2010) also raised the negative impacts of commodification of ICH for tourism development. He observed that the transformation of cultural assets to tourism commodity does not necessarily benefit local people. For instance, he used the example of tour packages in Nova Scotia; tour operators brought tourists to local people for site-seeing, photo taking and video recording, but all economic benefits as generated from the tourism development do not compensate the local communities, instead, they all go to the pockets of tour operators. Even tour operators use the local images in their promotions. As a

39 consequence, local people’s benefits and culture are sacrificed within tourism development.

Joseph (2001) also argued that the traditional rituals in Pushkar, India, where traditional performance of Puja was transformed from the ritual of local pilgrims to a touristic performance and changed in both length and medium of performance. While, inappropriate tourist behavior such as taking photos of the pilgrimage also demonstrates the irrespective manner to traditions. The traditional ethnic arts and crafts also shifted from catering to Indian pilgrims to tourism products. Such different forms of ICH are commodified as being criticized as a loss of the traditional culture.

2.2.2 Issues of ICH in Macau

Since Macau was handed over to China in 1999, the influence of ‘Chinesification’ has been increasing, thereby emphasizing the impact of Chinese culture on the local history and in shaping cultural tourism products (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). MGTO is responsible for Macau’s tourism promotion and management. It has put its efforts into building up Macau as a multicultural destination - tangible and intangible, Portuguese language, Cantonese language, cuisine, Buddhism and Taoism, which could be seen from its tourism promotion slogan “Experience Macau. Experience “Enchanting”, “Fascinating”, “Surprising”, “Tasteful” (Kong, du Cros, & Ong, 2015). The Cultural Affairs Bureau (IC, formerly known as the Cultural Institute of Macau) is responsible for legislation, management and promotion of cultural development in Macau, within which, there is the Cultural Heritage Protection Division, which is responsible for restoring, protecting and revitalizing the cultural heritage in Macau (IC, 2016a).

For traditional cultural attractions involving ICH, MGTO organizes a wide range of traditional Chinese celebrations and western festivals throughout the year (MGTO, 2016a). Macau has a rich range of cultural heritage in which the

40 intangible heritage is expressed through the interfaces of Chinese and Portuguese, including festivals, religious belief systems, culinary practices and ways of life (Imon, 2008). Macau has an ICH list that highlights the items that are representative of Macau’s distinctive cultural identity at the global, national and local levels (Table 3.2). For example, Cantonese Opera, an item on Macau’s ICH List and China’s national-level ICH List, is also included as an item on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity due to its representativeness among the Cantonese Communities worldwide. Other items on Macau’s and China’s ICH List include Herbal Tea, Woodwork – Macau Religious Figure Carving, Cantonese Naamyam, Taoist Ritual Music and the Feast of the Drunken Dragon. There are ICH items that are exclusively listed at the local level of Macau, such as the Mazu Belief and Customs, Na Tcha Belief and Customs, Macanese Gastronomy and Macanese Theatre (Macau Museum, 2016). Such success of nomination reveals a diverse and rich ICH in Macau, which also indicates the collaboration efforts among the government departments, civil society, experts and academics (IC, 2014).

The significant achievement contributes to the emerging of a new element of local attractions in promoting Macau tourism development. In 2008, a Provisional Measures on the Nomination of Macau’s ICH was announced with a clarification of the nature, objectives, categories, standards of nomination and suggestions on the preservation measures on the items, which gives a clear guidance for the recognition, preservation and management of the potential representative items to be nominated on the list (IC, 2008). In 2014, the Macau Cultural Heritage Protection Law was enforced. Sections on ICH are highlighted in a particular chapter including 12 articles addressing the details of the objectives of protecting the ICH, scope of ICH, special obligations as well as regulations on ICH inventory and corresponding measures of protection (Choi, 2014; Macau SARG, 2014). These efforts of Macau’s legislation on the protecting the ICH demonstrate an increased awareness of the government authorities of the significant culture and traditions in Macau.

41 In April, 2016, the first International Exposition of Intangible Cultural Heritage and Ancient Art Macau China was held successfully in Macau. It represents a good start of connection and exchange between Macau and China in protecting and promoting the ICH and also indicates growth efforts of Macau in promoting its ICH to the world (China Foundation For Cultural Heritage Conservation, 2016). However, ICH as such recognized cultural asset as still under discovery in the tourism context. The current situation of ICH in Macau is that there is a growing trend to transform the traditional performance arts for tourist activities, which is also debated on both positive and negative evaluation of such changes (Imon, 2014; Sedana, 2002; Vong & Lam, 2009). Tourists mainly travel to Macau for shopping. There is lack of appeal of events, festivals and cuisine, and other intangible aspects of culture in Macau (IFT Tourism Research Centre (ITRC), 2017). Besides, current efforts to promote the performing arts by the government are inadequate (Sou et al., 2016). The local awareness of the importance of ICH also needs to strengthen (Vong, 2015). Given the direct relevance of these Macau-specific issues to this research, Chapter 3 will provide an in-depth exploration and analysis of the relevant issues.

2.3 Experiencescapes

Before having a discussion about experiencescapes, it is better to review the experience and earliest introductory concept of –scapes, as an understanding of the background to elaborate on the reason why –scape is applied in this study.

2.3.1 Experience

Tourism is embedded in the larger cultural and economic context of people’s everyday life. Attractions and entertainment facilities are dramatically constructed in cities to attract tourists and also to serve locals. The

42 differentiation of the attractions, services and facilities among destinations is not obvious. The focus is therefore on the highlights of experience since experience is perceived differently by tourists. It forces the destinations to understand tourist experience-seeking behaviors towards a variety of attractions to become and remain competitive in the turbulent global tourism industry (Bagdare, 2016; Chui et al., 2010; Willson & McIntosh, 2007). The greater the experience offered, the greater the added value can be attached to the experience (Meethan, 2015).

Experience as defined by O’Dell (2005a, p. 15) “is highly personal, subjectively perceived, intangible, ever fleeting and continuously on-going … [which] located in the minds of individuals.” It can be commodified and located in settings ranging from ordinary places to well-known tourist attractions. Experience itself is “anchored in space” (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015, p. 56).

Experience is a complex concept and application. Quinlan Cutler and Carmichael (2010, p. 9) identified the influential realm of tourist experience in three main factors, 1) physical aspects which involve spatial characteristics and place-based elements of the destination; 2) social aspects which refer to the social influences on experience including social settings, personal relationships, interactions with the personnel and other tourists; and 3) product or service aspects on available products or services that tourists encounter. Physical environment is a fundamental aspect as it can facilitate activities and provide for social interactions (Mossberg, 2007). Social interaction is considered an influence in tourist’s perceived experience quality (Andereck, Bricker, Kerstetter, & Nickerson, 2006).

A consumption of experience has to be based in the material – a physical place or arena, but not limited to any single place. The place of production and consumption of experience can be different. Experience is located in the minds of individuals as perceived in a subjective way (Bagdare, 2016). It is continuously changing. However, the spaces and materiality of experience allow it to be staged and consumed in a way to understand consumer behaviors

43 when consumers are involved in the process and flow of generating their experience (O’Dell, 2005a, pp. 15-19).

2.3.2 Scapes

Consumers are looking for the space in which they can consume experience, but it is uncertain on the function of the space - if it can generate positive experience. From an anthropological point of view as suggested by Arjun Appadurai, experience can be imagined (Appadurai, 1996). As explained, the suffix –“scapes” are metaphorical landscapes, which are not limited to physical worlds in specific geographies, but also can be imagined worlds as situated in the imaginations of individuals and groups. It can be affected by different actors (history, politics, society, culture, economy) in forms like financescapes, technoscapes, ideoscapes, mediascapes and destinationscape (Appadurai, 1996, p. 33). Urry (2002) suggested an involvement of various sensescapes in tourism studies. For instance, studies on smellscapes focus on smell experiences as reflecting certain features of the place that attract tourists (Dann, 2002), and tastescapes in experiencing the ethnic cuisine culture (Hjalager & Richards, 2002). As such, the appropriate space can be created to facilitate the consumer’s subjective consumption of the imagined experience.

Experiences are then like spaces which enable the consumers to imagine the things they cannot see or touch (O’Dell, 2005a). Therefore, as extended on the idea, the notion of experiencescapes is produced for consumption, which can take the forms of physical and imagined environment. Tourist experience takes place within the experiencescapes through which tourists can perceive the physical and imagined environment (Mossberg, 2007). Imagined environment is associated with our semantic responses and reveals the process of mental structures involving clusters of attributes that shape our views of the world (Lowenthal & Riel, 1972, p. 206). It reflects that we are involved in an imagined world, we perceive what we view in a mental transformation process

44 (Franklin & Tversky, 1990, p. 64). The scapes are visualized as imagined worlds (Appadurai, 1996). For instance, the imagined environment can be a film, in which people can recognize the imaginary story, not real, but they still immerse with emotional feeling in the imagined environment. In a tourism context, the construction of the nostalgic environment is an example of imagined environment, because the past historical occasions cannot be vividly imitated. It depends on people’s own imagination to construct the scenes (Gyimóthy, 2005). ICH is difficult to present even in a museum context. It requires an environment within which the artefact can be provided in its context of the customs to be understood by people. It may require considerable imagination or other technical aids to display as to facilitate the environment of imagination (Burden, 2007). Therefore, it reflects the psychological response of the people who sort out the resources given and transform them into their personal imagination of the product and experience. In some studies on experiencescapes, the tourist psychological states and process are the results coming from their involvement with the imagined environment (Campos et al., 2018).

2.3.3 Emergence and development of experiencescapes

In the 1960s, the concept of vacationscape was a climate of construction on pursuing large things in abundance. Starting in the 1980s, we asked ourselves, “whether it should be done” to address any potential negative impacts on development (Gunn, 1988b, p. 197). In Gunn’s discussion, vacationscape is a complex tourism system that requires complementary functions benefiting from one to another. It points out the nature of negotiation of preservation versus development on either pushing forward the progress of tourism development or resource protection. As the definition suggested, vacationscape is “the art and practice of integrated design and development for travel, and it demands a greater commitment toward better quality” (Gunn, 1988b, p. 195).

45 The issue is that when governments, planners or designers create the settings and facilities for tourists to consume, tourist’s perspective is often neglected. Similarly, when the tourism involves various parties, arguments or conflicts break out as the neglect of interest of the other parties (Gunn, 1988b).

Vacationscape is an application that advocates a greater integration of planning and management, which calls for a high-power directive that involves multitude of decision makers as to achieve a greater value. The value can be economic, social and personal gain. The implication to the government is to understand the market and to provide what they need and desire. Designers as integrators who are responsible to mitigate the negative impacts imposed on locals in social, environmental and economic effects (Gunn, 1988b, pp. 195-197).

As Pine and Gilmore (1999) said, we are now entering a new emerging economy in which experience is increasingly dominant and obtains a central position. The growing interest in searching for new experience is not only an important aspect of tourism, but also a continuous pattern of people to engage in other leisure activities and consumption practices in their everyday lives. New experience is adding value to the goods and services. Starting from the growing interest in studying experience, it calls for a deeper concern on how the experience is produced and consumed.

Tom O’Dell is an ethnologist and a scholar in service management (in specialization of logistics, retails and tourism) who is interested in tourism and experience economy. The origin of this concept – experiencescapes is the effort of a scholar’s network in Sweden and Denmark in interdisciplinary backgrounds of anthropology, business administration, cultural geography and tourism. The aim of this development is to have a better understanding of the relationship between tourism, the realm of experience and everyday life. These scholars intend to work in a focus on how experience is being produced, packaged, consumed and staged in a more specific theoretical and empirical manner. Tom O’Dell (2005a) is the lead to create the idea of experiencescapes.

46 He has the most inspirations from two scholars – Henri Lefebvre (1991), who is a philosopher and sociologist; the other, anthropologist Arjun Appadurai (1996).

First of all, O’Dell (2005a) has a critical analysis on the nature and significance of the experience economy. He points out the phenomenon of the process of culturalization is growing fast. That, the economy has been culturalized. Meanwhile, the culture has also been economically infected. Such phenomenon can be reflected in the example of the old industrial production. It has been transformed into more aesthetic functions as art galleries, exhibition and amusement centers. Similarly, distinction between tourism, leisure, work and play is blurred in the contemporary world. They tend to blend into one another. The complex interplay between the economic structures of daily life and ongoing socio-cultural development shapes our attitudes toward consumption habits as well as influences on the values, expectations and behaviors of how we experience and perceive things in both our daily life and during the travelling time.

Another important feature of experience as observed by O’Dell is that it is difficult to completely represent the essence of experience, it can only rely on the materials or spaces to define and frame the experience. Through that way, we can analyze the cognitive, social and cultural process of producing the experience, and understand the flow of how the ideas and feelings of transnational communities of people are organized. As such, O’Dell referred to the past works by Lefebvre (1991) and Appadurai (1996) to confirm the materiality of experiences and the spaces associated with it.

As Lefebvre (1991) pointed out the nature of space in several reflections, the physical attributes of the space can be created, measured, observed and described by architects, urban planners, social scientists and artists. The space then is being perceived, conceived and lived in by us. It also has another feature that the space can be planned and manipulated as it obtains certain influential power that affects us when we connect to the space, in particular the power of domination. People recreate the world in the way they decide their wills and

47 ideas over space and give new meanings to it. People in contact with the space delve in the realm of imagination. The space is then presented in a complex manner that is no longer dominated by the physical element, but also by the cognitive, social, even political elements. As such, O’Dell interpreted it in tourism context that the tourism industry is one of such spaces where tourism marketers or tourism organizations reserve cultural tools to create experience packages appealing to tourists. They promote the image of destination and stimulate tourist imagination of the destination. Tourists are highly dependent upon what the tourism marketers tell them about the place. Through the messages they get, they understand the cultural settings they may encounter in the destination before they travel to the place. These relied messages or called mediators are also part of the tourist experience. In market production, the spaces in which experience is designed and consumed are referred to as the landscapes of experience, in other word, experiencescapes. The concept will be elaborated in detail in the next section.

Later in Appadurai’s work (1996), he emphasized the importance of imagined worlds of scapes in social practices. Scapes is a visualized way of an imagined world where people imagine their surroundings (including livelihoods and setting) that present to them. It affects the way people think about themselves and their perception of the local settings. The result of the imaginations leads to the real consequence like people’s positive or negative feelings associated with the imagined worlds. Experiencescapes can be part of this phenomenon. Since Appadurai hadn’t fully discovered the issue of spatial production, O’Dell expected to understand the process of the production and consumption of experiencescapes by considering the characteristics as mentioned by Lefebvre and Appadurai. These two scholars’ conceptual works create an analytical background that helped O’Dell to play with experiencescapes as various factors are involved in the creation of experience, including the power relations, demand-supply interplay, political interests, cultural identities and other factors that may influence the creation of experiencescapes. Experiencescapes can be in various forms ranging from specific context at micro level to the entire

48 region. The challenge of experiencescapes as elusive, complex and intangible stimulates O’Dell’s interest in learning such phenomenon.

The spaces or landscapes of experience are defined as experiencescapes:

… that are not only organized by producers [ranging] (from place marketers and city planners to local private enterprises) but is also actively sought out by consumers. They are spaces of pleasure, enjoyment and entertainment, as well as the meeting grounds in which diverse groups (potentially competing as well as overlapping interests and ideologies) move about and come in contact with one another. (O’Dell, 2005a, p. 16)

The term experiencescapes is a consumption marketing concept, which can be applied in many consumption practices where people continuously engaged in everyday life. It is raised by the growing interest of consumers searching for new experience and reflects the cultural and socioeconomic change in modern society (O’Dell, 2005a).

The physical material attributes can be created, observed, described and measured to visualize the specific ends desired. The imagined environment is thought of as another aspect of space where people can come in contact and generate their implicit feelings, expressions and ideas over space (Appadurai, 1996). It provides a useful conceptual tool to analyze physical and cognitive aspects of consumption and production in the service economy (Hall, 2005). Experiencescapes are not limited to physical environment, but can also be based in virtual environment, for example, the tourist promotion web. Jensen (2005) investigated the pictures on the web pages of tourism organizations and agencies in Copenhagen on the role the Internet plays in creating the experiencescapes to attract tourists and business. As the concept suggested, in such a way, experiencescapes are more about the imagined world for tourists to expect in the image of the destination (Jensen, 2005).

49 Hird and Kvistgaard’s (2010) book Experiencescape. Tourism, Cultural Heritage and Experiences – A Crossfield written in Danish, provides the key ideas which have been summarized and transcribed by Cederholm (2012). It highlights the intersection between tourism market, experience and cultural heritage, as “tourism is presented as the market, cultural heritage is the content, and the experience is the medium that highlights the attraction of the place” (Cederholm, 2012, p. 96). Experiencescapes are specific “places for experiences” or “places to experience” that are generated historically, culturally and economically (Cederholm, 2012, p. 95). In their analysis, experiencescapes focus on the psychological- and individualistic-oriented experience. In other words, experiencescapes are “physical and mental context, which provide certain frames for the individual’s possibilities to gain experiences, and which contribute to convey the value-set of a destination.” (Hird & Kvistgaard, 2010, p. 60, as cited in Cederholm, 2012, p. 96). The application of experiencescapes is mainly dealing with the questions from a supply-demand relationship such as “what are the characteristics of the place, what are the types of experience gained, what senses are involved and what stories/information are conveyed” (Cederholm, 2012, p. 96).

Tourism is about the production and consumption of experiences out of the regular environment a consumer lives in (Mossberg, 2007). Experiencescapes in the tourism field reveal a phenomenon that experience is being produced, packaged, consumed and staged for tourism purposes (O’Dell, 2005a). Experiencescapes can also be applied in accommodation services (i.e. Danish Inn) on how the guests perceived the managers’ designed experiencescapes in their nostalgic consumption (Gyimóthy, 2005; Mody, Suess, & Lehto, 2017). As Cooper and Hall (2008, p. 115) added, experiencescapes “are landscapes of produced experience … physical spaces of market production and consumption in which experiences are staged and consumed.” In their point of view, a typical example of the application of experiencescapes is to effectively utilize destination resources for the existing rural landscapes being transformed into

50 packaged experiencescapes (Cooper & Hall, 2008). The construction of experiencescapes is seen as a way to attract tourists (EK, 2005).

The arena of experiencescapes where the consumption happened allows for different tourists to consume simultaneously (Mossberg, 2007). The physical environment can not only be seen as a facilitator to the interaction with the service settings, but also allows the interactions among tourists or between tourists and the personnel (Zeithaml & Bitner, 2003). The environment is a critical factor to the consumer’s perception of the people, product and service (Bitner, 1992; Zeithaml & Bitner, 2003). The experience is also affected by both personal instinct feelings and the reaction mood when consumers interact with the environment (Mossberg, 2007; Pine & Gilmore, 1999; Wang, 2002). Companies cannot directly give an experience to the customer. They can only provide certain circumstances and environment that helps consumers generate experience. A meaningful experience relies on how the company can provide the desirable environment which helps enhance the immersion of customers’ emotional feelings (Hansen & Mossberg, 2017; Mossberg, 2007) or touched emotionally (Boswijk, Thijssen, & Peelen, 2005). The understanding of the space of the experience – experiencescapes, can provide information on the constituents of the space and create an experience out of the space through deconstructing the basic elements of the space and reconstructing the experience beyond the physical place (Hill, 2014). The significance of studying the experiencescapes is that since experience is connected to the economy, it generates much more than the goods and services (O’Dell, 2005a). This is what the current consumers are seeking (Hill, 2014).

The sensory stimuli of physical environment and imagined environment which include the design, structure and atmosphere are emphasized as sources for experience creation that arouse customer emotion and allow an emotional connection in realizing an achievement on personal meanings (Baker, Grewal, & Levy, 1992; Grewal, Levy, & Kumar, 2009; Penn, 2005; Pine & Gilmore, 1999; Puccinelli et al., 2009; Verhoef et al., 2009). The development of

51 experiencescapes reflects a process of producing experiences (Räikkönen & Grénman, 2017). In such cases, tourists mediate the result as influencers of on- site tourism experiences (Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell, 2005a). The producing of experience is located central to the tourist destination (Dissart & Marcouiller, 2012), it becomes a motivation to the destination to manage its resources to meet the needs of tourists who are searching for experience (Hall & Page, 2006). Andersson (2007) reflects such process logically through an explanation of the tourists’ consumption sets. Tourists’ consumption sets include goods, services, time and skills. Goods and services are provided for the purpose of generating experience. Tourists have their needs like basic needs, social needs and intellectual needs for novelty, which reflect the expected experience they would like to gain. Finally, the generated tourist experience leads to the value for tourists while reflecting on their arousal level to the goods and services. Therefore, tourists are the people who decide their experience by sorting the resource they need according to the consumption sets. Tourism product is intangible since tourists are actually purchasing an experience. People achieve intangible goals in personal feelings (e.g. excitement, relaxation, happiness) through the experience (Amelung, 2009). The consumption process also affects the production of experience, when destination considers market demand (Andersson, 2007). In fact, it is difficult to separate production and consumption, in particular for service or intangible culture, such as events or festivals. When it is the time to produce service, it is the exact moment that tourists are consuming that service (Amelung, 2009).

“Experiencescapes” is an analytical term to understand how experience is packaged, produced and consumed by both companies and consumers (Mossberg, 2007). Hansen and Mossberg (2017) examined the role of tour guides in stimulating the creation of individual meanings of tourists within the experiencescape. Experiencescapes also can be used as a practical tool for destination development (Cederholm, 2012). Experiencescapes can be interpreted as experience environment, which can be seen as a moderator that facilitates the involvement and communication of both companies and

52 customers in a service context and stimulates the creation of experience (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004b). However, the concept of experience environment is not commonly referred as a terminology in tourism studies. In a broad sense, it comprises all people and things that surround human beings (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009, p. 319). If more specific, as referred by Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004a), is a space for the communication between companies and customers. It is still unclear in defining the role and characteristics of experience environment in practices. Despite the definition, the importance of experience environment is confirmed, as similar to experiencescapes, a sufficient experience environment can stimulate the creation of individual experiences (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009; O’Leary & Fesenmaier, 2017). This research will apply experiencescapes instead, since the experiencescapes have covered the characteristics of experience environment and are more concise in the discussion for clarification.

The complexity and interactive experience constructs the experiencescapes. Campos et al. (2018) reinterpreted Quinlan Cutler and Carmichael’s (2010) influential factors as experiencescapes influencers as physical, social and organizational (related to the quality of products and service) component of the experiencescapes. In Jernsand et al.’s study (2015), all these factors are being examined during the prototyped exercise of the waste collection points and signage systems in a fishing village. The tourists also embodied the factors in the experiencescapes either with a weak or strong relationship (Svabo, Larsen, Haldrup, & Berenholdt, 2013). The scope of experiencescapes can range from a smaller entity as a restaurant to a larger area of a theme park or an entire city (Bitner, 1992).

2.3.4 Studies on frameworks or interconnected relationship

There are many ways to identify the factors influencing tourism experience from marketing approach (Mossberg, 2007), social psychological perspectives

53 (Woods & Moscardo, 2003) or the combination of elements in different approaches (Moscardo, 2008; Quinlan Cutler & Carmichael, 2010). The framework for tourist experience ranges from simple (Moscardo, 2008) to complex (Ryan, 2010). Before the establishment of the framework, scholars used to start with influential factors as the foundations for building up frameworks.

2.3.4.1 Influential factors

Tourist experience takes place within the experiencescapes. Ooi (2005) introduced four primary arenas of tourism mediators as interplaying within the experiencescapes, which are intended to draw tourists’ attention. They are: 1) seduction of other tourism products, which means to create themed brand combing a wide range of products; 2) social embeddedness of tourism, which refers to the social, cultural, political and economic background of the product; it reflects the contrasts between the business and culture, old and modern; 3) the lure of physical environment, which refers to the attractive stimuli to address the emotional reactions; and 4) searching for the expected, refers to the tourist’s perception and imagination of the cultural tourism product (Ooi, 2005, pp. 58- 64).

Instead of using tourism mediators, Mossberg (2007) identified several components or influential factors for the experiencescapes, which include: physical surroundings, products and souvenirs, social surroundings and other customers. Tourists are being affected by the physical environment, products and souvenirs. At the same time, they form perceived experience through the interaction with the personnel and other tourists. Besides, both functional and emotional attributes of the components affect the experiencescapes. What is more, the theme of a story helps connect various services and products together for tourists to perceive the theme and link the theme to create their own meaningful experiences, such as the theme parks, guided tours, resort

54 complexes and heritage precincts. Mossberg’s research is conceptual based study with no empirical studies to confirm the relationship.

2.3.5 Experiencescape or servicescape?

In marketing, the notion of scape refers to how a consumer experiences the physical environment. Along with the development of various forms of scapes, it has extended to not only the retail environment, but also the aesthetic experience and social interaction (Hall, 2008). Servicescapes are one of the widely used concepts built upon the research in marketing in 1990s, in particular related to retailing. Servicescapes are located in the central position of marketing and explain the environment-users relationship in service organization. In the early beginning, it applies to the tangible commodities that facilitate the service to enhance atmosphere for consumption (Bitner, 1992). It focuses more on the business in a micro view, attention is paid to the details of the internal layout, such as lighting, color, signage and temperature. Studies are conducted to test how the effect of physical environment influences customer behaviors. For instance, in women’s fashion retailing, Sweeney and Wyber (2002) studied how the tempo and type of music affect women’s perceptions of service quality and behavioral outcomes. Later, servicescapes extended to the ambient conditions, spatial layout and functionality and artifacts, which is context-specific focus. The managerial implications of servicescapes are more applicable for firms to improve their organizational and marketing goals. In terms of the generalization, it is difficult to realize, since it focuses more at the micro level (ibid, 1992). The roles of producers in servicescapes are environmental space managers, facility planners and employees at the functional level, for instance, the application of servicescapes in the case of dining places like Starbucks (Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008).

Given the complexity of the service relationship, servicescapes gradually extended from focusing on internal physical environment to external

55 environment and servicescapes started to involve concept of place experience (Ardley, Taylor, McLintock, Martin, & Leonard, 2012; Clarke & Schmidt, 1995) and social atmospherics in creating the space for people who can share a common lifestyle in consumption (Tombs & McColl-Kennedy, 2003). The concept has also been criticized on its accuracy in application to the current service application. Therefore, concepts like brandscape and consumptionscape are raised (Hall, 2008; Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008). However, servicescapes still focus on the producers’ efforts to design the physical settings (Ardley et al., 2012). Consumers use the resources as provided in the servicescapes to create their own personal experience, meaning and purpose (Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008).

Servicescapes are designated in commercial places aiming to shape consumption behaviors through the settings (Arnould & Price, 1993; Dong & Siu, 2013). Compared to the servicescapes as applied mainly in the hospitality field, experiencescapes have had more prominence in tourism. The term experiencescapes was introduced later in 2005 and can be applied in marketing, but not limited to that. In the marketing field, it focuses on the area where experience is the main consumption in the service sector (Hall, 2008; Sekhon & Roy, 2015). Experiencescapes are mostly used in destination development (Cooper & Hall, 2008). As indicated from the definition by O’Dell (2005a), the producer of experiencescapes can also be a city planner.

Experiencescapes concept is an extension of the servicescapes concept since tourists are involved in global consumption, where the experiencescapes embrace the entire experience environment, while servicescapes are about the design of the physical environment to facilitate the positive service encounter between suppliers and customers (Bitner, 1992; Mossberg, 2007).

Experiencescapes connect various servicescapes within specific locations. Cooper and Hall (2008) explained this through putting it into a broad context (Figure 2.2). Destination is the core of tourism. It is complex ranging from country level to local level, from towns to specific sites or attractions, since

56 different marketers and researchers define it in different ways. One of the meanings of destination is that place is locale which can be referred to as broad as urban settings or as specific as heritage precincts. It can be landscapes, servicescapes and experiencescapes. The landscapes are the broadest concept defining destination. The idea of landscapes expresses that image of place from an outsider’s point of view. The experience of landscapes is determined by the “cultural background of the customer, environmental, political and cultural processes that lead to the creation of particular landscapes” (Cooper & Hall, 2008, p. 113). The landscapes can be reflected by the government in the regulations forming the shape of landscapes, such as the land-use regulation (ibid, 2008). Servicescapes are the physical environments that occur during the delivery of service. It exists in multi-locations no matter where the location is, as long as service occurs. The destination is the combination of different servicescapes of various business relationships. Studies on servicescapes tend to use it to understand the interactions between tourists, service providers, personnel, physical surroundings and facilities on how these relationships affect tourist satisfaction and tourist repeat visitation behaviors (Reimer & Kuehn, 2005). Experiencescapes reflect the production and consumption of experience, which are not simply about service quality, but also on the experience quality. Experiencescapes serve to connect different servicescapes within a particular location and act as a consequence of destination development (Cooper & Hall, 2008). Experiencescapes and servicescapes both affect tourists in choosing the destination and also their repeat visitation behaviors. The two scapes help create the destination marketing strategies and management implications (Chui et al., 2010).

Current studies sometimes crossover the two concepts. The study of servicescapes in mentioning the experiencescapes highlights the common ground of the two, as the creation of which both require and are affected by the physical environment (Jensen, 2015). In the rural tourist experience, compatible experiencescapes are referred to as connected to the design of servicescapes and

57 emotion-stimulating sensescapes which aim to make the experience pleasant, diversified and meaningful (Kastenholz et al., 2012).

Figure 2.2. Elements of place as locale (Source: Cooper and Hall, 2008, p. 114)

Studies have confirmed that the physical environment contributes to the hedonistic appeals to tourists in generating tourism experiences, in particular for leisure activities, for example, an appealing environment setting of a national park (Reimer & Kuehn, 2005). There is a gap in tourism literature about the experiencescapes on how it affects tourist responses to particular situations and how the tourism sector can provide positive tourist experience through shaping the experiencescape (Mossberg, 2007).

2.3.6 Research applications of experiencescapes

Current studies on experiencescapes are not many and they cover different segments of research context. Most of the studies apply experiencescapes as a

58 conceptual background only. Few have considered it in the main research scheme. However, even in a small proportion of the contents, studies have consistently agreed in the statement on the nature and characteristics of experiencescapes and frequently mentioned as standing points. The following content will introduce the different contexts of studying experiencescapes, some of which may not directly relate to tourism, but can help provide a scenario to understand how the scholars address this concept and put it into practice. Finally, a summary table is provided as an overview of current research context on experiencescapes, which also indicates the research gaps (Table 2.1). As such, the significance of this research is emphasized as essential to cover the topic of ICH as to fill in the research gaps.

Current studies on experiencescapes within tourism context can be divided into two streams. One is studying the experiencescapes in a theoretical basis, which aims to develop either a model or framework on applying experiencescapes in empirical applications (Campos et al., 2018; Jernsand et al., 2015). However, it rarely achieves that, because those studies are not continued for empirical test and only mention in the implications that call for future research to fill the gap (Campos et al., 2018). The other stream is staying in a conceptual or understandable basis focusing on the nature and meaning of experiencescapes, which seems a weak application and experiencescapes act as a fragment piece to supplement the studies.

As a conceptual exploration of the experiencescapes, research by Campos et al. (2018) summarized a psychology-focused framework of on-site co-creation experience that covers the component of experiencescapes in a theoretical way (Figure 2.3). They summarized the findings of current studies on co-creation tourism experience in a theoretical perspective, but without empirical studies to verify the model. However, the model proposed by Campos et al. (2015) failed to address the whole process of tourist experience by considering the pre-trip and post-trip stage. Besides, the role of suppliers is not elaborated in detail on

59 how they help construct the space of experience. As such, it draws for the necessity for this study to fill in the gaps of that framework.

In Campos et al.’s understanding (2015), experiencescapes outline the experience environment into two parts - the experiencescapes influencers and tourist experience. The experiencescapes influencers as introduced before, which are also argued as experience influencers, focus on the three main aspects - “physical environment”, “social environment”, and “organizational dynamics and features of service delivery”. The third influencer is also referred to as “product/service attributes”. Collectively these factors affect on-site tourist experience. The details of each influencer are listed below.

1. Physical environment: physical settings (natural and human made), spatial characteristics and geographical features. 2. Social environment: social settings, personal relationships, interactions with personnel, and with other tourists and host/guest relationships. 3. Organizational dynamics and features of service delivery/product/service attributes: staff availability, technical and functional quality, service quality, leisure activities and tourist- related products.

However, the experiencescapes influencers are doubtful, as O’Dell (2005a) referred in the explanation of experiencescapes, does not restrict the influencers to certain elements, but uses the cultural setting as a general summary on how suppliers can work for a cultural setting for people to be involved in. In terms of the influencers of cultural setting, it is not limited to the three components, but varies from each study context and depends on the parties involved in the production of experiencescapes. For instance, the political impacts may also affect how the power authorities define and deliver the space of experience to people.

The other component in Campos et al.’s (2015) model is tourist experience. There are many variables affecting tourist’s on-site experience. As summarized

60 in the previous findings by Campos et al. (2015), active participation and social interaction are two domains that affect tourist psychological feelings associated with the experience. Active participation as referred by Campos et al. is “ideas of active bodily involvement; physical, intellectual and cognitive activity and gazing” (Perkins & Thorns, 2001, p. 186), which means the physical, emotional or mental engagement to the experience (Bertella, 2014), as the participative experiences contribute to long standing memories of the tourists (Larsen, 2007), as well as strengthen personal and collective identity (Lugosi & Walls, 2013). The social interaction then reflects the tourists’ connection and interaction with others (Andrades & Dimanche, 2014). It is not limited to personal interactions, but also can be the tourists’ interaction with the experiencescapes (the physical environment, social environment and products and services) (Tan, Kung, & Luh, 2013). However, as Campos et al. (2015) pointed out, further investigation is needed to analyze the mutual influence on how these two dimensions interact with each other and how these two dimensions indicate tourists’ willingness in co-creating experience (Campos et al., 2018), because participation and interaction reflect tourist preference for destination activities (Andrades & Dimanche, 2014) and they also affect tourist behavior (Surra & Ridley, 1991). In other words, these two dimensions influence tourists’ perspective in creating the experiencescapes on the demand side. Another gap as identified is the comparison of different tourists on their responses in participation and reactions.

Both active participation and social interaction arouse tourists’ psychologically complex phenomena associated with the on-site experience (Campos et al., 2018). Such psychological feelings include: sensations, perceptions, thoughts, images, attention, feelings and emotions along with their involvement in the experience environment (Larsen, 2007). These are internal factors as result from tourists’ psychological reflections as associated with the on-site tourist experience. As Campos et al. (2015) also raised, empirical research is needed to address the process of how cause-effect relationship is created among active participation, social interaction and the psychological reflections of tourists, such as expectations, perceptions and emotions (Campos et al., 2018).

61 The co-efforts of experiencescape influencers and tourist experience achieve the ultimate goal of creating memorable experiences (Bharwani & Jauhari, 2013; Scott, Gao, & Ma, 2017), the process on how such cause-effect relationship is formed calls for further empirical study (Campos et al., 2018). However, this framework focuses only on the on-site experience, and is mainly discussed from the tourists’ perspective. In terms of different typology of tourists, it is limited in this research. In general, this conceptual framework provides an outline of the relationship between experiencescapes, co-creation tourist experience and the outcome of generating memorable experience.

Figure 2.3. The tourist on-site co-creation experience: a conceptual framework (Source: Campos et al., 2015, p. 24)

Co-creation is a widely used concept by tourism scholars (e.g. Minkiewicz, Evans, & Bridson, 2014; Pine & Gilmore, 1999; Suntikul & Jachna, 2016; Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, 2008). In an experience economy, suppliers are encouraged to create meaningful experiences to be distinguishable enough to compete for customers under fierce competition (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Customers are no longer being simply satisfied with the physical products; they start to gain increasing bargaining power to decide what to consume (Binkhorst

62 & Den Dekker, 2009). C onsumers are also facing ever-increasing pressure in their choices of products or services (Codeluppi, 2007). Consumers are looking for personal, authentic, unique and memorable experience in a self-determined way for consumption (Florida, 2002; Payne, Storbacka, Pennie, & Knox, 2009; Richards & Wilson, 2006). Through the process of consumption, individuals construct and create a meaningful value for themselves (Boswijk, Thijssen, & Peelen, 2007; Giddens, 1991). Since co-creation experience is one of the key components in Campos et al.’s (2015) framework, a review of the co-creation experience is necessary to cover in the later conceptual framework. Co-creation experience reflects an outcome of the interaction between the customers and suppliers to co-create their own experience (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004a; Ramaswamy & Gouillart, 2010). In the process of constructing experiencescapes, it also reflects the way different stakeholders jointly create the space for the enjoyment of experience (Sotiriadis & Gursoy, 2016). Staged experiences are being considered as too artificial and superficial in consumption (Binkhorst, 2006; Boswijk et al., 2007), while those authentic experiences combined with intangible and memorable elements are praised (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009). Therefore, it encourages the destinations, on one hand, to seek unique resources like culture, to distinguish themselves from other tourism products (Richards & Wilson, 2006); on the other hand, to create a more engaging experience with tourists (Hume, Sullivan, Liesch, & Winzar, 2006). Therefore, co-creation experience is also an experience-oriented concept dealing with the relationship of supply and demand. Tourists are recognized as involved in a commercial exchange relationship where tourism services and products are transacted (Mossberg, 2007). Value co-creation is closely associated with tourist’s participation, including the participant’s motivation and his/her role and style in the participation process (Ramaswamy & Gouillart, 2010). It is the source of an individual to generate his/her own personal meanings within an experiencescape where the stakeholders’ interaction occurs (Ramaswamy, 2009). Personal meaning and value result from a co-creation experience (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004a). At the same time, from the

63 destination perspectives, they also generate benefits from the process of value co-creation as they can show how it can improve the service capability and customization capabilities for competitive advantages (Spena, Carida, Colurcio, & Melia, 2012; Zhang & Chen, 2008).

Tourism is one phenomenon in experience economy. It is said that co-creation can add value to both tourists and destinations themselves through their link with the sectors in the experience environment (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004b). Co-creation experience is applied as a principle in experience economy (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009). It is an effect of creating individual experience through its interaction with an experience environment at a specific place and time (Andrades & Dimanche, 2014). Since there is a growing interest in applying value co-creation concept in tourism studies, it also extends to apply this concept in heritage resources (Ardley et al., 2012). Minkiewicz, Evans, and Bridson (2014) proposed three dimensions of co-creation experience - personalization, engagement and co- production as to apply especially in the heritage sector. Suntikul and Jachna (2016) extended the study to investigating the activities that are concerned by tourists on a heritage site – Historic Centre of Macau, as well as considering the whole physical environment.

One of the fundamental principles of co-creation also suggested that co-creation experience is not only influenced by current experience, but also affected by previous experience and the needs of the customers (Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, 2008). As a dynamic process, value co-creation is initiated by the suppliers to create meanings for customers (Piller, Ihl, & Vossen, 2010). It continues to change as affected by customer involvement and reaction in the process of creating ultimate experience. For service suppliers, a better value proposition can stimulate the active involvement and participation of customers (Randall, Gravier, & Prybutok, 2011). Mossberg (2007) also suggests tourist experience is influenced by the experiencescapes – a space of generating experience through the interplay with physical and social surroundings (O’Dell, 2005a),

64 where a variety of factors may be involved, including not only the product and service, but also the personnel (Arnould & Price, 1993; La Salle & Britton, 2003) and physical and imagined environment (Wakefield & Blodgett, 1996). These value propositions are what the service suppliers can adjust as experiencescapes influencers.

2.3.6.1 Experiencescapes in consumption

Value is socially constructed and experienced; it does not relate to the product or service itself, but rather relate to how it is experienced (Typaldos, 2016). Therefore, functionality of the product is not the focus, but rather the consumer’s perception of the experience (Jensen, 2005). There is a growing demand for experience-based value creation within the tourism industry (Samuelsen & Norway, 2010).

Samuelsen and Norway (2010, p. 11) developed a model of experience-based value creation by considering both the production and consumption stages (Figure 2.4). Experiencescapes/Experience spaces are included in the consumption stage. The differentiation of experiencescapes and experience spaces is not explicit because both of them connect the tangible and intangible elements of the product or service. However, experiencescapes are ideologically afflicted environments, the space of which are mobile in character (O’Dell, 2005a). The typical examples of experiencescapes are boat trip, surfing, hiking, which are more suitable for studying ICH, such as festivals or events. The experience spaces emphasize the front stage of operation where experience occurs, which refers to outdoor environment or conditions (Mossberg, 2007). It could be concluded that experiencescapes contain experience spaces. Samuelsen and Norway (2010) also identified value driver of experiencescapes, which was the interplay between social, cultural and material elements where experience derived from. The implication to the destination management is on how to design, stage and use the experiencescapes to identify the improvement potential on experience offerings.

Figure 2.4. The experience production and consumption for value creation (Source: Samuelsen and Norway, 2010, p. 11)

2.3.6.2 Experience innovation and design

Experiencescapes are also discussed in the new emerging study on experience innovation (Jernsand et al., 2015), as experience innovation also dealt with physical and social environment in the innovation process. Experience innovation is regarded as a spiral process within the experiencescapes (Jernsand et al., 2015). Jernsand et al. (2015) examined the experience innovation through a case study in Dunga beach, Kisumu, Kenya and applied a participatory approach (both tourists, guides, residents) with methods on prototypes, test tour and evaluation to examine the experience innovation process. Finally, they came up with a visualized process model for experience innovation and design within the experiencescapes (Jernsand et al., 2015, p. 114) (Figure 2.5). Although the model is simple and a starting point in learning the experience innovation and design, it is the first study in experiencescapes that ever combined the process of research in the framework.

Figure 2.5. A spiral model for experience innovation and design in the experiencescapes (Source: Jernsand et al., 2015, p. 114)

2.3.6.3 Urban and industry development

Experiencescapes are also discussed as an urban tourism strategy for destination development. The following illustrations may have contrasting effects that demonstrate the different outcomes of creating experiencescapes. One example is Singapore’s Little India Historic District, which represents a complex collisions of various communities’ interactions (i.e. Indian and Chinese merchants, tourists, local residents and migrant workers) (Chang, 1999), however, due to the urban redevelopment, the district has become a tourist spot. There are three dimensions of changes to the district. The traditional retail outlets declined; the area is transforming from a residence to a retail attraction; and Indian cultural identity is also affected (Chang, 2000).

Another example is the industrial landscapes. The industrial landscapes were significant in the period when human beings had successfully manufactured machines and construction to conquer to nature. Along with modernism, the old

67 industrial buildings and factories were empty. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the industrial landscapes became experiencescapes where tourists visited, and soon became a new theme of representation (Willim, 2005). Arenas like themed waterfronts or former industrial precincts are being transformed into packaged experiencescapes for tourism.

Pennings (2015) demonstrated how experiencescapes are combined with urban development through illustrating a successful example of art museums in Tasmania. Experiencescapes are multi-functional experience environments, including museums, international hotels, restaurants, shopping zones and other leisure platforms in the same area, which offer a great opportunity for a variety of immersive sensory experiences. The area becomes a popular tourist attraction that brings a large number of visitors and generates economic benefits. Such application of experiencescapes with urban development efforts shows how the entire environment is being transformed in a way that experience is becoming an important economic and cultural offering.

Experiencescapes are also applied in the accommodations, as well as entertainment and service arenas. Although the entertainment and service arenas are not directly related to the tourism industry, as tourism is also about practices in the service field, which can be used as a reference in understanding the experiencescapes in a practical sense. Therefore, the following case studies review briefly how the different scholars address the experiencescapes in the different context for empirical studies.

Gyimóthy (2005) illustrated the examples of Denmark Inns, experiencescapes are being considered as commercial landscapes of social interactions. The study showed the attitudes of inn’s owners to a changing thematic emphasis on the marketing efforts of building the inns from national symbols to romantic objects of consumption for leisure tourists. The experiencescapes are decorated to be an atmosphere of low, stabile and harmonious to attract tourists against the modern fast speed lifestyle and environment. However, Gyimóthy (2005) failed to elaborate the process on how the owners create the space for

68 consumption and on the elements needed to create the experiencescapes. However, the study emphasized maintaining the space as an imagined world that invites tourists to create their own experience. Therefore, it only focuses on how the guests perceived the owners’ designed experiencescapes in the nostalgic consumption.

In entertainment arenas (e.g. big bowl entertaiment activity center in United States), experiencescapes are studied as to create a friendly atmosphere to evoke consumers’ emotions and feelings. It is applied in a scenario where experiencescapes are mechanisms of employers as an incentive tool to stimulate employee’s enjoyment and pleasure, in order to inspire them to work more efficiently in the working environment (O’Dell, 2005b).

In the study of bookshop, Hill (2014) analyzed the bookshop as an experiencescape where customers engaged in the process of purchasing a book. The experience is live, sensual and tangible through the involvement of the elements of layout of the shop, staff who help the customers, and soundscape which creates the atmosphere and clientele and image of the shop, as well as the language issues specifically applied in bookshop as interpreted as the intangible quality brought to the customers.

2.3.7 A cultural heritage perspective on experiencescapes

At the early beginning of inventing the concept - experiencescapes, O’Dell (2005) does not confirm the scope of application of experiencescapes. In his publication in 2007, he attempted to highlight the importance of culture in experiencescapes, where the market for experiences has a cultural base. Tourist experience should be understood in a much broader sense. When experiences are packaged and commodified for sale in the global market, they should take account of various forms of cultural expression such as song, dance, music and art (O’Dell, 2007). In fact, culture is also the central axis of economic and

69 social development strategies (Smidt-Jensen, 2007). Cultural perspective of experience is situated entirely in the minds of individuals (O’Dell, 2007).

Regarding the application of experiencescapes in cultural heritage (including both tangible and intangible cultural heritage), there is little research on examining the interface between tourism and ICH (du Cros & McKercher, 2015; Vidal González, 2008). Not all ICH items receive the same attentions in tourism context, even within heritage conservation (Matheson, 2008; Wa, 2013; Wanda George, 2010). The following context will elaborate some cases applying experiencescapes into the cultural heritage context in both tangible and intangible focus.

2.3.7.1 Tangible focus

Laing et al. (2014) identified the issues of cultural assets in a struggling process to attract tourists. Therefore, they conducted research to assess if the value of heritage assets can transform into a better tourism experience. Among all five tested heritage assets, there is only one ICH item, therefore, the results from that research are not ICH specified, but more of the characteristics of tangible heritage. The results showed that heritage assets are experiential deficiencies in transforming their value to attract tourists. A high experiential value of heritage assets does not necessarily correlate to a peak tourist experience. Moderate or high experiential value of heritage assets only act as supporting experience (Quan & Wang, 2004). In Laing et al.’s study (2014), experiencescapes are not mentioned and applied in the main context. Instead, the features of experience within experiencescapes are highlighted as conceptual background knowledge. That is, experience is personal, subjectively perceived and affected by the individual’s mood and feelings as well as the influence by cultural and social background. Laing et al.’s research (2014) did not include the opinions of tourists, but mainly the views of managerial side of the heritage assets, the role of tourists in creating cultural heritage experience is ignored. However, since

70 tourists play vital roles in determining the experiencescapes, it can also explain why the study failed to apply experiencescapes.

Willson and McIntosh (2007) identified three key experiential themes on heritage tourist experience including visual appeal, personal reflection and engaging experience in a context of tourism townscape. They mentioned that there is lack of research on how heritage buildings fit into tourists' narratives of the experiencescapes of a region. The context of experiencescapes was discussed in a relatively explanatory manner, to emphasize the importance on how tourists can interpret the experiencescapes where the architecture can fit. It is because architectural elements of heritage buildings can arouse tourists’ emotion together with the townscape. Experiencescapes in this case are seen as “an experiential space filled with emotion, mindfulness, engagement and personal meaning” (Willson and McIntosh, 2007, p. 88). The charm of heritage buildings lies into the aesthetic value as something pleasing the eye (Scruton, 1979), which tourists can use their own imagination to experience.

Such examples can also be found in the revitalization works of transforming the old factory into an experiencescape as art space – the case of Norrkoping in Sweden. Norrkoping used to be textile industry and then transformed into the worker’s museum. Another typical example is the recycled factory of BALTIC, the former industrial flourmill, which is now the art gallery and arts center in Gateshead UK. The art gallery makes the past industrial environments rejuvenated into a new attractive area through the advent of digital equipment as applied in art performance with sounds and images. As such, it creates an imaginative space for people to experience a sense of aesthetic detachment (Willim, 2005, pp. 46-47).

In modern settings, the experiencescapes can be applied in a landmark, the spectacular building - Turning Torso in Malmö on the Swedish side of the Ö resund strait. It is not only a physical structure, but also a social convergent point for tourists and local inhabitants, and plays as a marketing material that makes the region recovered to be a living city. The building is with multi-

71 functions for living, offices, restaurants and showrooms, where people can view the regional landscape. It is an experiencescape of transnational metropolitan region for place marketing (EK, 2005, pp. 84-86). All these examples introduced above provide a wide range of application of experiencescapes into both historical context and modernity.

2.3.7.2 Intangible focus

Poria et al. (2006) illustrated how ICH can provide a source of identity and become existential tourism. However, it does not consider on how the ICH can enhance experience. Vidal González (2008) further investigated the relationship between existential intangible tourism and personal identity using the example of Japanese Flamenco5 tourism, but still, experience is not considered in the topic, not to say, experiencescapes. Until 2015, Matteucci (2015) used the case of ICH on flamenco, he created a model on factors affecting ICH in a cause- and-effect relationship to address the influential factors and the outcomes (Figure 2.6). He applied in-depth interview, photo-elicitation and participant observation to 20 informants who joined the flamenco course and sorted out informants’ responses into different factors affecting their experience with intangible heritage of flamenco. He applied ground theory to create the framework of tourist experience of ICH. This case study is worth mentioning, because it covers the spiritual dimensions of the tourists’ sensecapes as involving in their experience of this performing art. Although experiencescapes are only covered as an introductory concept, the external factors as found in his framework are shared the same as Campos et al.’s (2015), who confirms those factors as experiencescapes influencers. Compared to Campos et al.’s framework (2015), they shared the components on the on-site experience in common; as the outcomes of psychological state/process in Campos et al.’s

5 Flamenco originally was a cultural heritage of Andalusian, and later transformed as an export commodity to other countries. It is a form of dance and music. When it arrived in Japan in the late 1920s, it becomes a popular form of entertainment among Japanese audience (Aoyama, 2015).

72 model can be interpreted the same as the different psychological feelings including motivation, expectation, imaginary, perceptions and memory in Matteucci’s. Although Matteucci (2015) does not mention the active participation and social interactions in particular, the “on-site activity” becomes a general term expressing all possible activities involved in the on-site experience, among which active participation and social interaction are possibly included. What makes Matteucci’s framework (2015) distinctive from Campos et al.’s (2015) is the outcome of the experience, in particular in the case of Matteucci’s framework (2015) as applied in ICH context. Since it involves ICH in the study context, the outcomes are more on the spiritual achievements of the individuals, such as self-discovery, meaning, self-identity and eudemonic well- being. However, Campos et al.’s (2015) framework only includes experience memorability as an outcome.

Figure 2.6. Tourist experience of intangible cultural heritage model of influences and outcomes (Source: Matteucci, 2015, p. 252)

73 Experiencescapes provide spaces where people can meet and get to know culture and experience it. Ekerljung (2015) demonstrated that in order to sustain minority languages and cultures, festival is a way to make it available for outsiders to experience that culture. As such, festival is a tool to revitalize and sustain a minority language. In essence, it is not festival itself which creates value for the culture, it is the participants of the festival, the management or experienced producers who provide the context, all together, create the value of the culture and tourist experience. This can be interpreted as experiencescapes. Like previous studies as introduced, the concept of experiencescapes are not elaborated and discussed in the main context, but the nature of experiencescapes is highlighted strongly in the clarification on the issue.

The characteristics of experiencescapes of festival areas are described as referred by Samuelsen and Norway (2010) as: “limited area; short experience creation with high throughput; facilitation for larger groups and flows of customers; sites built and used for single type of core activities by different types of groups; easy access and low friction of distance; and elements and total experience space mostly publicly owned” (p. 19). These features can be considered when investigating the ICH in festival forms as to see how the festive organizers and tourists create the experiencescapes together.

Similarly, in the outdoor activities, like event settings, Benckendorff and Pearce (2012) studied the event experiencescapes in the discipline of psychology. It is not only about the physical settings influencing the participant’s behaviors, but also a variety of other aspects, including cognitive, conative, and affective responses to the setting, theme, programming, personal interactions, and provision of services and tangible goods. It seems complicated, but at the same time, it involves as many multi-sensory elements as possible in the experience environment (Eide & Mossberg, 2013; Prebensen, 2014; Räikkönen & Grénman, 2017). These findings give the insight for this study to also look into the events that involve as many multi-sensory elements as possible for a full investigation of elements of ICH. As such, it can provide a comprehensive

74 review on how experiencescapes created through different considerations involving participants’ senses. Such events can be the performing arts like dances, rituals or food festivals, as these events involve the sounds, sights and tastes, which give more opportunities for participants to involve their senses in the experience.

2.3.8 Descriptive and indicative approaches to experiencescape

In summary, Fagence (2014) explained the scape-based forms in two manners: one application of scape is descriptive of a set of circumstance; the other one is indicative of an analytical/interpretive framework for study. In the case of experiencescapes, both applications exist. Obviously, the former application in the current studies of experiencescapes is more than the latter. The scholar who invents experiencescapes suggested to develop experiencescapes as an analytical tool, more than static in a descriptive manner (O’Dell, 2005a). However, Fagence (2014) also pointed out that some terms may be limited to descriptive stage at the moment, but they have the potential to be reconstructed to make an on-going contribution to improve the scope and depth of understanding of tourism-related issues. A growing attention is drawn to the experiential and sensory stimuli associated with scapes (Campos, Mendes, do Valle, & Scott, 2017). Many scapes are included in the scope of emotional geographies. As discussed in the concept of experiencescapes, the imagined perspective of experiencescapes indicates that emotion is involved in the efforts of formulating experiencescapes (O’Dell, 2005a).

Many researchers have only mentioned the term experiencescapes. Those studies have little practical significance in the context of the mainstream study of experiencescapes (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015; Sthapit, 2013). For example, Xie (2015) studied industrial heritage tourism as expressed in the importance of the industrial heritage to be transformed into tourism consumption to produce experiencescapes in a theoretical way, but the study does not mention the

75 practical ways to achieve that. In Smidt-Jensen’s topic (2007) on urban development strategies, experiencescapes are only limited as an urban cultural policy for former industrial complexes to be developed as cultural clusters, but it does not cover the concept in a practical sense for application (e.g. how to create the experiencescapes). The concept is also discussed as related to the place branding (Hall, 2008), but still stays at the theoretical stage.

In other cases, the term of experiencescapes is not mentioned, but the characteristics of experiencescapes are slightly mentioned in their studies in the form of experience (Lugosi & Walls, 2013). Those studies cite O’Dell’s source to state such characteristics more or less the same as follows. Experience is subjective, intangible, personal and unique to the individual (Weiler, Moore, & Moyle, 2013). It is becoming a highly memorable, special and emotional response of people (Scott et al., 2017; Weiler et al., 2013).

The following table summarizes the above discussions on current studies that involve experiencescapes in tourism context (Table 2.1). However, these studies are not solely about experiencescapes, but also with other different tourism related topics, such as tourist experience and destination branding. It aims to give an overview on the current studies in discovering the concept of experiencescapes. The most valuable insight of this summary is to see how the scholars put this concept - experiencescapes in the discussion, as well as their focus perspectives of studying experiencescapes. As such, this study can find the current research trends of experiencescapes and address those areas that are not yet covered. At the same time, it uses current studies on experiencescapes that have been done so far as references to make this thesis be more focused.

76 Table 2.1. Experiencescapes in the tourism context – relevant studies (Source: author)

Position of Authors Topic Context Perspective Approach experiencescapes Agapito, Mendes, & tangible and sensescapes descriptive tourists qualitative Valle (2013) intangible Benckendorff & Pearce servicescape; psychology intangible indicative participants qualitative (2012) of events Čomić & Kalmić tourist experience tangible descriptive tourists qualitative (2015) minority languages and tourists and Ekerljung (2015) intangible descriptive qualitative cultures management tangible and Fagence (2014) Scape -based forms descriptive -- conceptual basis intangible place branding; Hall (2008) tangible descriptive visitors qualitative servicescape Hansen & Mossberg tourist experience tangible descriptive tour guide qualitative (2017) Jensen (2015) servicescape tangible descriptive customers qualitative Jernsand, Kraff, experience innovation tourists, guides tangible indicative qualitative Mossberg (2015) and design and residents Kastenholz, Carneiro, Marques, & Lima rural tourism experience tangible descriptive tourists, residents qualitative (2012) Laing, Wheeler, experiential value of tangible (main) and Reeves, & Frost descriptive management qualitative heritage intangible (2014) tourists, Lugosi & Walls (2013) destination experience tangible descriptive conceptual basis management tourism multi-sensory Matteucci (2015) intangible indicative tourists qualitative dance experience nature-based tourism Margaryan (2016) tangible descriptive service providers quantitative experience Mody, Suess, & Lehto accommodation tangible indicative customers quantitative (2017) tangible and O'Dell (2007) tourist experience descriptive tourists qualitative intangible Pennings (2015) urban development tangible descriptive management qualitative experience-based value Samuelsen & Norway tangible and creation; experience indicative management conceptual basis (2010) intangible space/experiencescape Smidt-Jensen (2007) urban cultural policy tangible descriptive management qualitative memorable tourism Sthapit (2013) tangible descriptive tourists quantitative experience scale (MTEs)

Typaldos (2016) customer experience intangible descriptive customers qualitative

existential tourism and Vidal González (2008) intangible descriptive tourists qualitative identity Weiler, Moore, & national park experience tangible descriptive management qualitative Moyle (2013) Willson & McIntosh heritage building tourist tangible descriptive tourists qualitative (2007) experience Xie (2015) industrial heritage tangible descriptive tourists qualitative

77 2.4 Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework attempts to identify, present and make explanatory claims to the key factors related to the phenomenon in a logical structure for investigation. It helps tease out the relationship and linkages as cause-effect, or means-end or how-why (Pearce, 2012). Based on the review of the concepts, a framework is proposed to provide a general outline on the study to discover tourist experiencescapes associated with local ICH in Macau. The following conceptual framework elaborates the key components of the research. Experiencescapes are the overarching concept to study its components of tourists’ space of experience. It can be used as the analytical tool to understand how government authorities, NGOs/institutes/professionals, tourism business operators, local communities and tourists involve in the different stages of forming the space of experience.

According to O’Dell’s statement (2005) on the characteristics of experiencescapes, it is the landscape of experience production and consumption. Tourist experience is anchored in space. It highlights the key components of experiencescapes. Cederholm (2012) further concluded that experiencescapes are a supply-demand relationship creating the place and space of experience, and stimulating the senses of people who join in the space. The supply side focuses on the experience production, where various players including, but not limited to marketers, planners, private enterprises who jointly provide and affect the space of experience. The demand side is on the experience consumption, where the tourists/consumers/participants enjoy the experience involved in that space.

There is lack of commonly used framework of experiencescapes. The current conceptual frameworks on experiencescapes are fragmented (Jernsand et al., 2015; Samuelsen & Norway, 2010). Comparatively, research by Campos et al. (2018) summarized conceptual framework in a psychology-focused framework of on-site co-creation experience as relatively complete (Figure 2.3). They summarized the findings of current studies on co-creation tourism experience in

78 a theoretical perspective, but without empirical studies to verify the model. Furthermore, the model proposed by Campos et al. (2015) failed to address the whole process of tourist experience by considering the pre-trip and post-trip stages. As referring to the domains of experiencescapes and the processes of experience, it needs to be studied in a holistic approach. Besides, the role of suppliers is not elaborated in detail on whom they are and how they construct the space of experience.

2.4.1 Proposed framework

After reviewing the previous studies on the concepts, frameworks and various applications of experiencescapes, the study will outline a framework corresponding to the research objectives and research questions in visualizing the structure of experiencescapes in order to apply the study context of ICH in Macau (Figure 2.7).

According to O’Dell (2005) and Cederholm (2012), experiencescapes have prerequisite conditions of happening – a market, a content and a medium/theme. The tourist experiencescapes help us have a better understanding of the relationship between tourism, the realm of experience and everyday life. The market is tourism where there are service providers and consumers, including the government authorities, NGOs/institutes/professionals, tourism business operators, local communities and tourists themselves. The content is the various manifestations of experience, such as smells, sounds and views. These different elements are involved in the tourism market. The medium or theme helps connect various services and products together for tourists to perceive the theme and link it to create their own experience. In this study, the medium or theme is the ICH, which acts as the specific context that is involved in the market and makes the content.

79 2.4.1.1 Process of experience

Experience is involved in a continuously changing process located in the minds of people (O’Dell, 2005a). People are then engaging in a continuous pattern searching for new experience (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Tourist experience can be studied in different stages (Aho, 2001) which helps us understand how tourists are involved in the flow of generating their own experience (O’Dell, 2005a). As the main study context of ICH, ICH also reflects a continuous linkage between the past and present and transformation to the future, and it captures the connection between humans and the environment in a continuous process of evolution (Girard & Torrieri, 2009). Most studies learnt experience at the destination (Morgan, Lugosi, & Ritchie, 2010). In fact, experience begins in the planning process before travelling and continues after the trip when tourists return (Clawson & Knetsch, 1966). Therefore, in order to create ICH experience for and with tourists and examine how the tourist experiencescapes work, it is better to provide a holistic picture by considering the tourist’s travel process (i.e. pre-trip, on-site/during and post-trip experience) (Morgan et al., 2010). This is also one of the weaknesses of the current framework on experiencescapes proposed by Campos et al. (2015) (Figure 2.3). That framework did not consider the pre-trip and post-trip stages of experience. Besides, the supplier contributions to the experiencescape during the pre- and post-trip stages is unknown. The importance of suppliers in influencing tourist’s pre-trip planning behaviors was highlighted in the destination management (Li, Cheng, Kim, & Petrick, 2008; Prebensen, 2014). Therefore, this study will fill in the gaps by considering the entire process of tourist experience in the construction of experiencescapes. As the research on the Historic Centre of Macau in 2012 suggested that the coordinated marketing, visitor service and interpretive plans of Macau are closely related to a better World Heritage Site brand image which deals with pre-trip, on-site and post-trip stages (Dewar et al., 2012). Furthermore, tourist experience is a highly emotional reflection on tourist consumption of products or services (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). The understanding of tourist emotional reflections and other psychological

80 states can better frame the experience into the space and package that experience in a way to serve tourists’ specific needs. Experience has an on- going evolution towards the creation of satisfactory experience (Ryan, 1995), quality experience (Chen & Chen, 2010; Jennings, 2006) and memorable experience (Kim & Ritchie, 2013; Tung & Ritchie, 2011). The need to examine the psychological process of tourists during the pre-trip experience to post-trip experience is also raised in the study of tourism framework (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2001). As such, the in-depth studies on the decision making process, emotions, on-site experience, satisfaction and consequent behavior are necessary in understanding the tourist psychological states (Crouch, Perdue, Timmermans, & Uysal, 2004).

There are different approaches to study the phases of the experiences, including antecedents, intervening variables, behavior and outcome (Ryan, 2010); anticipation, travel to site, on-site activity, return travel and recollection (Clawson & Knetsch, 1966); definitional, immediate and post-hoc satisfaction approaches (Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987); or multi-phases (Aho, 2001; Borrie & Roggenbuck, 2001). No matter which approach is applied, the experience exists during the different processes of travelling, basically, before a trip takes place, on-site experience and return from the trip by remembering long after the travel (Morgan et al., 2010). These three domain phases of experience are commonly practiced in the studies of tourist experience and tourist behavior in understanding pre-visit decision-making, on-site experience, experience evaluations and post-visit behavioral intention (Chen & Tsai, 2007). Therefore, this study will apply the approach to explore how the experiencescape is shaped through the three main phases of experience – pre-trip, on-site and post-trip experience.

Current studies on experiencescapes do not consider the analysis of experiencescapes in different stages, however, from the practices as reviewed in this study, they mainly focus on on-site experience (Campos et al., 2018; Chui et al., 2010; Gyimóthy, 2005; Willim, 2005), or pre-site experience on the

81 effectiveness of web page in the construction of experiencescapes (Jensen, 2005). Campos et al. (2015) outlined the structure of experiencescapes, however, it only emphasized the on-site tourist experience. Few studies have considered the entire process of travelling in one study. The proposed framework will also consider the pre-trip experience and post-trip experience including both the insights from the stage when tourists have not yet travelled to the destination to the stage when tourists return.

2.4.1.2 On-site experience

In terms of on-site experience, there are many factors affecting tourist on-site experience. As summarized in the previous findings in the experiencescape framework by Campos et al. (2015), active participation and social interaction are two domains affecting tourists’ psychological feelings associated with the experience. Active participation refers to the physical, emotional or mental engagement to the experience (Bertella, 2014), as the participative experiences contribute to long standing memories of the tourists (Larsen, 2007), as well as strengthening personal and collective identity (Lugosi & Walls, 2013). The social interaction then reflects the tourists’ connection and interaction with others (Andrades & Dimanche, 2014). It is not limited to personal interactions, but also can be the tourist interaction with the experiencescapes (the physical environment, social environment and products and services) (Tan et al., 2013). Participation and interaction reflect tourist preference for destination activities (Andrades & Dimanche, 2014) and they also affect tourists’ behavior (Surra & Ridley, 1991). In other words, these two dimensions influence tourists’ perspective in creating the experiencescapes on the demand side.

82 from tourist psychological reflections as associated with the on-site tourism experience. As Campos et al. (2015) concerned that, empirical research is needed to address the process on how cause-effect relationship is created among active participation, social interaction and the psychological reflections of tourists, such as expectations, perceptions and emotions.

2.4.1.3 Pre-trip experience and post-trip experience

People are constantly engaged during their trip and produce their own experience in a physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual manner. No similar experiences have been noted in these interviews because experience is influenced by the environment and one’s intrinsic feeling, which is occasionally different from one another because of the involvement level. Therefore, a holistic analysis of tourist experience from the pre-trip, on-site and post-trip stages should be conducted (Taylor et al., 2016). In the pre-trip experience stage, according to Um and Crompton (1990, p. 436), before travelling, tourists are involved in a cognitive evolution process to make their destination choice. The commonly used factors in the pre-trip experience, are always organized around the social psychological factors of individuals and marketing factors as influenced by destination. Woodside and Lysonski (1989) also raised the model of tourist destination decision-making process. The components include traveler variables, marketing variables and destination awareness. Traveler variables refer to previous destination experience and demographic feature of tourists; marketing variables as product design, pricing and promotion; destination awareness refers to the awareness of the destination attributes. The other decision process models also suggested components in other categories, such as demographics psychological/value factors, reference group influence, and marketing influence and choice set (Woodside & MacDonald, 1994). Cognitive appraisal of the destination image also occurred during the pre-trip stage (Beerli & Martín, 2004; Dann, 1996), as well as motivation in determining the needs and wants which tourists wish to obtain from the destination (Gartner, 2008),

83 and pre-visit expectation as driven by the secondary sources before travelling (Pocock, 1992). All these components are evidently associated with experience and become part of it in tourism studies. Although these different components are frequently used influential factors in the pre-trip experience, it still cannot confirm the common application of any set of factors to recognize the components of pre-trip experience until the approval of empirical study in certain context.

The same concern was raised in the post-trip experience; the post-trip experience is closely related to tourist satisfaction to evaluate the destination attributes (Anderson, Fornell, & Lehman, 1994; Bultena & Klessig, 2018; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991) and their behavioral intention to revisit the place and willingness to recommend to others (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Kim, Duncan, & Chung, 2015; Kozak, 2001; Yoon & Uysal, 2005), as well as destination image, which outlines the outcomes of the tourist post-trip experience (Chi & Qu, 2008; Lin, Chen, & Liu, 2003). However, each of them has its own independent influencing mechanism (Bigné, Sánchez, & Sánchez, 2001), even though empirical studies may confirm the casual relationship do exist among them (Chi & Qu, 2008; Lee, 2009). For instance, a study of the Macau food festival suggested an interrelationship existed among the festival image, satisfaction and behavioral intention or loyalty as associated with post-trip experience (Wan & Chan, 2013). Satisfaction and loyalty are also considered in the model of festivalscapes in the study by Lee, Lee, Lee, and Babin (2008). Since there is lack of empirical study to confirm the structure as situated in the study context of experiencescapes, whether it is about the pre-trip or post-trip experience. Therefore, the proposed conceptual framework will leave the space for the research findings to tell the story in their own respectful views of confirming the framework structure. Since the pre- and post-trip experiences are complex and may prompt a wide range of research topics extending to motivation, anticipation, expectation and satisfaction, they are too broad to investigate in their totality. In the present study the ICH context is examined as it relates to the pre- and post-trip experiences.

2.4.1.4 Supply-demand relationship

Co-creation experience is an experience-oriented concept dealing with the relationship between supply and demand. It is the source of an individual to generate his/her own personal meanings within an experiencescape where individuals can interact with the company and other customers (Ramaswamy, 2009). Co-creation experience reflects an outcome of the interaction between the customers and service providers to co-create their own experience (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004a; Ramaswamy & Gouillart, 2010). The detailed literature on co-creation experience can be found in section 2.3.6. The construction of the experiencescape is the joint effort of different stakeholders considering both the supply and the demand perspectives (Sotiriadis & Gursoy, 2016).

2.4.1.5 Different stakeholders

Experiencescapes is about production and consumption of experience. It reflects a flow of cognitive, social and cultural process of producing and generating tourist experience, through which suppliers provide the environment of experience, and tourists consume through their interaction with the environment and generate the value for themselves (O’Dell, 2005a). In terms of the process of production of experience, experiencescapes is the meeting ground of diverse stakeholders (government authorities, tourism business operators, tourists) (Sotiriadis & Gursoy, 2016). As stated by O’Dell (2007), experience needs to be understood in a broader sense through which culture plays an important role in experiencescapes. Each stakeholder has its own ideology and interests and reflects its own economic, social and cultural development strategy (Smidt-Jensen, 2007). Those ideologies and interests may overlap or compete with each other. For instance, the government authorities are with broad objectives to develop tourism market and expand to attract diverse tourists. The tourism business operators (e.g. travel agencies) are to

85 generate economic benefits for the business. They all have their impacts on the experience environment. The different responses from the stakeholders will be reflected in the data collection and their interfaces with the environment will also be addressed.

According to UNWTO’s first comprehensive baseline research on tourism development related to ICH, several key stakeholders are involved in ICH tourism development (UNWTO, 2012). It gives a reference for this study to look into those stakeholders’ role in the construction of tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH. They include: public sector tourism organizations, especially the tourism administrations, which are responsible for the legislation, policies and programmes in promoting tourism development. In the case of Macau, they refer to the government authorities, who are responsible for culture and tourism development (i.e. MGTO and IC). The detailed introduction of the role of the government authorities will be introduced in the methodology; private sector tourism organizations, such as tour operators, guides, food and beverage sectors, which provide the tourism service. In the case of Macau, they refer to the tourism business operators like restaurants; non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as trusts, foundations and project-based organizations, which initiate partnerships and provide advice for tourism and cultural development. Destination management organizations (DMOs) are concerned with the marketing framework of the destination and facilitate partnerships with the private sectors. It has four major managerial functions, including strategic planning, product development, representation of interests and marketing (Stickdorn & Zehrer, 2009). In the case of Macau, MGTO is both the public sector tourism organization and plays the role of DMO; local communities who are active decision makers in tourism development and have social connection with tourists. Li and Wan (2017) determined that once the locals have a profound degree of emotional solidarity with the tourists, the former becomes considerably supportive of festival development. Lai and Hitchcock (2017) further analyzed the dimensions of emotional solidarity (i.e. welcoming nature, sympathetic understanding and

86 contributions to community) and confirmed their roles in affecting the positive local attitudes towards tourism development. In the cases of Macau, they can be referred to as the local retailers, since they are the persons who have most chance of getting close to the tourists when they encounter business relationships with tourists. Locals who live near a historic environment possibly obtain a stronger sense of the place compared with others (Davies, Whimster, & Clayton, 2009). ICH creators and bearers who are the key producers and performers of ICH are also the tradition bearers, custodians and the living human treasures who hold the knowledge of the cultural expression that is of great interest to the tourists, and they continue practicing the traditions and make the ICH sustained. Macau has over 4,000 local community associations. These associations represent a long history and strong community base that gather local people with a common interest (Lee, 2011). Because of the nature of these ICH creators and bearers, they normally belong to an organization, typically, a NGO where a group of interested or skillful performers join together to organize an event, if it is a performing art. Therefore, their perceptions will also be investigated together with the NGOs. By organizing events, the local community can actively engage in the planning, organizing and managing process, thereby enabling them to obtain a sense of pride and ownership of their own culture (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017; Li & Wan, 2017; McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018). In the case of ICH, the creators and bearers and NGOs consistently engage in local practices even in the absence of tourists. The creators and bearers and NGOs hold community attachment to such tradition, particularly for those community-based festivals. The involvement of tourists can facilitate the development of emotional attachment amongst locals, thereby motivating the locals to support tourism activities (Lai & Hitchcock, 2017).

The space of experience, whether on-site or off-site, the cultural spaces contain the different stakeholders who interact and interplay with each other in creating experiencescapes. Their roles and efforts in constructing tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH in different travel processes are to

87 be interpreted in a framework to address specifically the context of Macau after data collection.

The study is not restricted to the tourists in any specific type, however, in order to better organize the results in the data collection, as well as considering the approach to the research targets to get enough reliable data for analysis. The target tourists will focus on the free independent travelers (FIT) who come to Macau with any leisure related purpose apart from gaming. This type of tourist is regarded as enthusiastic and desiring to experience new ways of life, in particular, have interest in local cultures (Gadling, 2010). Therefore, this type of tourist is also the most possible target who may go to the selected sites as explained in the methodology chapter. This also conforms to the current research trends of tourism studies in Macau mainly on leisure tourists (IFT Tourism Research Centre (ITRC), 2017). The reason for excluding the tourists who come to Macau solely for gaming is that, in respect to the nature of this research to explore tourists’ perceptions on experiencescapes, and also by considering the essential of participation of other stakeholders in providing the experience environment, the leisure environment of multi-dimensional elements as combined in the outdoor activities is much better than the casino in learning the experience in a significant way. Besides, the overnight tourists are preferred in the study, since Macau is a city where most of its visitors are same day tourists from border city – Zhuhai. This group can include workers who travel on a daily basis between Macau and Zhuhai, or frequent border crossers, long- term students, long-term patients, foreign diplomats, consular staff, military personnel and their dependents, as defined by UNWTO (UNWTO, 2010). The concerns of excluding the same day tourists are because of the difficulty in distinguishing the tourists from visiting hours. For instance, they may stay in Macau for only one hour, but are not eligible or have the capability to provide rich information as required in a qualitative study; and also leaving enough time for tourists to enjoy the local culture is essential to provide more chances for them to experience the local environment in all around and leave space for their interaction with other people. Furthermore, as determined by the nature of ICH

88 related events and activities, those events and activities normally last for long hours, which in another way, restricts tourists who join them to stay a longer time to engage. As such, the overnight tourists are more suitable to join the study and give responses in a respective way. The detail of approaching the leisure tourists will be elaborated in the methodology.

Figure 2.7. Conceptual framework on tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH (adopted from Campos et al., 2015)

2.5 Chapter summary

This chapter introduced an extensive research studies that illustrate the concepts and practices of experiencescapes, since it is the overarching concept that will be used in this research. In general, the experiencescapes are an emerging concept and practice that is not only applied in the tourism context, but also in addressing the other consumption practices. Its application in tourism also varies from tangible to intangible. Although ICH has yet to become the main focus in the experiencescapes studies, the intangible elements are included in most culture studies (Vidal González, 2008). In the empirical studies, only few have covered the particular context of ICH, such as the dance performance of flamenco. At least, it provides an insight in applying the experiencescapes in a

89 model to address the tourist’s perspective on their process and perceptions of forming experiencescapes, as well as on the outcomes of their experience. At the end, an outlined framework is introduced based on the domains as highlighted in the concept, framework and current applications of experiencescapes as reviewed in the whole chapter.

90 CHAPTER THREE – THE MACAU CONTEXT

3.1 Macau as a cultural heritage tourism destination

Macau is shifting from a gaming city to a cultural heritage tourism destination. In describing the evolution of cultural tourism in Macau, the following contents will address the issue of it simply relying on its traditional economic dependence and will identify tourist travelling patterns in Macau. Macau attracted 32.6 million tourists in 2017, nearly half of them were same-day travelers (15.4 million) (DSEC, 2017a). Due to such high concentrations of tourist flow, their contribution to the city’s economy is quite significant. Tourists themselves also play a critical component in shaping the experience of Macau. Therefore, Macau as a world known tourism destination is worth investigating in testing the experiencescapes concept.

3.1.1 Single economic market on gaming

Macau is a tiny territory that covers a total area of 30.4 square kilometers and has a high population density of 648, 500 (DSEC, 2017). It is the second smallest independent economy in the world after Monaco in respect of land area (Chan, 2000). For over four hundred years, from 1557 to 1999, under the colonization of the Portuguese, Macau was developed as a trading port for international trade that brought about a continuous cultural exchange between the Chinese and the West (Chan, 2003). With the rapid growth of Hong Kong as another financial and trading center in Asia, Macau, overshadowed by its close neighbor, had to find a way to survive by exploiting the potential of the gaming industry, especially since the Portuguese government had legalized gaming activities in Macau from the 1850s (Godinho, 2014; Ung & Vong, 2010). With the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, gambling in China has been outlawed. With the return of Macau, and its

91 designation as a special administration region with its own autonomy, the Central government has still allowed it to keep the legislation from Portuguese time (Bontje, 2013), which leads to the fact that Macau is becoming the only place in China where casino gambling is legal (Pannell & Loughlin, 2015). Gambling has a long history in Macau, tracing back to the 1840s. After the Opium War, Hong Kong and Macau were both open for trading. In order to survive, the Macau government levied a gambling tax to raise revenue to help balance the budget (Chan, 2000; Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau (DICJ), 2018). The gambling business gradually developed into a monopoly operation, which allowed the government to have better control of gambling development and the revenue generated from it. This revenue contributed to all major infrastructure development (Chan, 2000). Gambling associated with casinos and hotels became the most reliable source of government revenue and secure employment (Pannell & Loughlin, 2015; Tan, 1999). In the early 1990s, there was a dramatic growth of tourism activities in the Asia Pacific region mostly due to visitation from neighboring countries (Cave, 1999); however, the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997 had a serious influence on interruption of tourism because of the large difference in costs between the tourist’s country and the destination country (Cave, 1999). Many Asian countries suffered, including Hong Kong and Macau. There was a short period of time when tourists were stimulated to travel to these cities to have a last glimpse of colonialized places; however, due to the lack of clear Central government rule at that time, the number of visiting tourists dropped (Henderson, 2001). As a consequence, Macau suffered an economic downturn and lost much of the tourism which came to Macau for gambling. With this, public security also became an issue and the government realized there was a problem with economic dependence on the gambling business. Non-gambling facilities needed to be constructed to attract tourists (Chan, 2000).

When Chinese government sovereignty resumed over Macau in 1999, Macau started to restructure business practices. China’s central government first dealt with criminal issues and stopped the gambling monopoly. In 2002, casino

92 gambling was liberalized and modernized for the developing tourist industry and the term “gaming” was substituted. To deal with the economic depression and the unemployment problem, non-gaming activities were promoted to serve the tourism market (Lam, 2002; Pannell & Loughlin, 2015). Another consideration was to improve Macau’s image and reputation by offering more than just the gaming industry (McCartney, 2005).

3.1.2 Threats to the sustainability of gaming

Macau has become the world capital of gaming because of the substantial revenue generated by this activity (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). Since 1999, Macau faced the problem of lacking economic diversity due to a high concentration in its gaming and related industries (Pannell & Loughlin, 2015). A series of economic, social and environmental concerns were raised (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). Studies on the social cost of gaming in Macau showed that gaming related crime and the rate of pathological gaming was increasing (Fong, Fong, & Li, 2011; Wan, Li, & Kong, 2001). Also, as indicated from the employment structure, one in every five Macau workers was employed in a casino. About 43.8% of people with a job were without qualification up to a high school level. Many front-line staff did not even complete secondary education (Azevedo, 2013). Circumstances such as this create an imbalanced labor source distribution in the industry and cause social issues and negative impacts on the economy and on service quality (Ashton & Korpi, 2009; Lee, 2014).

On a political level, although Chinese officials or state enterprise managers come to Macau for business trips on occasion, they may be involved in the investigation of corruption matters, due to the fact that gaming is restricted for them in China (Lo, 2009). The changing policies of China’s central government and of anti-corruption actions by President Xi Jinping also bring challenges to Macau in generating gaming revenue (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). There was

93 a strong indication supporting economic diversification with less dependence on casino business when President Xi visited Macau for the 15th anniversary of its return to China (Fraser, Carvalho, & Shih, 2015; O’Keefe, 2014). The transformation of Macau into politico-administrative state has enabled China’s central government to critically influence the development of this territory’s gaming industry (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). In current studies, it is also shown that gamblers are not the primary market for Macau (Zeng, Prentice, & King, 2014). In the Zeng et al. (2014) study on Chinese and Hong Kong tourists coming to Macau, apart from coming for gaming, some came for leisure, shopping, and sightseeing and were driven by other travel motivations, suggesting the possibility of diversify marketing strategies to position tourism development as another focus.

3.1.3 The alleviation of economic dependency

Given the threat of the narrow-based economic structure of gaming, Macau has to focus on its sustainable development, consider its economic pursuits and the social impact of such pursuits and the general interest of the local community (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). Apart from the foreseeable threats of relying too much on the gaming industry, key policy measures have been implemented by the government to alleviate economic dependency by diversifying its economic structure step by step from the time Macau was handed over to China in 1999. In 2004, the Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement was implemented between Mainland China and Macau to promote the economic prosperity of both sides. Tourism, cultural and recreational related services together with other service sectors began to enjoy preferential treatment to market access in Macau (Macau SARG, 2004). Service imports now make possible the facilitation and improvement of Macau’s hospitality sector in serving diverse industries, in particular for forthcoming tourism development.

94 The history of Macau includes Portuguese sovereignty over it from 1557. During the 442 years of sovereignty, the Portuguese left behind rich cultural assets that remain visible in Macau’s urban landscape, including historical structures. Macau has a fused western and eastern culture which uniquely shapes its identity (IC, 2005). In 1983, the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) Macau Chapter was established which serves to facilitate communication among a variety of tourism industry sectors in order to enhance tourism development in Macau. Included were government authorities, regional and city tourism bodies, industry companies and partners, and professional bodies (Macau Tourism Industry Net, 2014; PATA Macau Chapter, 2017). In 2005, the Historic Centre of Macau was successfully inscribed on the World Heritage List for demonstrating a continued co-existence of eastern and western cultures in not only its architectural and urban infrastructures, but also in retaining the spirit of the historic and cultural assets (UNESCO, 2005). This significant achievement contributes to the embedment of a new element of local attractions in promoting Macau tourism development.

In the 2007 annual report, the chief executive, Mr. Ho Hau Wah pointed out the importance and necessity of integrating cultural elements into the development and promotion of local cultural industries (Government Information Bureau, 2006):

We strongly encourage experts, academics and intellectuals to study how to organically integrate cultural elements and industry development, and to design development approaches for local cultural industries to build on Macau’s actual situation. Macau’s culinary culture is unique. Both local and neighboring regions are optimistic about the future of Macau’s restaurant industry, and the Government is expending great effort to facilitating its development. The Government and social communities will closely collaborate to accelerate feasibility studies, implement effective measures and support the healthy operations and

95 prosperity of renowned restaurants in Macau. (Government Information Bureau, 2006, p. 9)

In 2010, the government set up the Department for Promoting Cultural and Creative Industries and the Cultural Industry Council to collaborate, promote and propose measures to support the development of local cultural industry with diverse perspectives (Macau SARG, 2010). In 2013, a Cultural Industry Development Fund was set up to formulate the Cultural Industry Incentive Scheme, providing financial support to the organizations and actively promoting the continuity of local festivals and events as to promote accurate economic diversification (Government Information Bureau, 2017; Macau SARG, 2013).

In 2011, the “12th Five-Year Plan” (2012-2017) was undertaken by the fourth session of the 11th National People’s Congress held by the National Development and Reform Commission. It highlighted the importance of the cultural industry to focus on promoting cultural consumption in order to expand domestic demand and stimulate the national economy. Part of the expectation of Macau by the central government, is the implication that the central government supports Macau’s development into a world tourism and leisure center and fosters a diversified economic development (National Development and Reform Commission, 2011). The new report on the implementation of the 2013 plan for national economic and social development, once again, highly emphasizes that diversity of economic dependence for Macau is necessary through the development of Hengqin as a pivot (National Development and Reform Commission, 2014). In 2015, the Macau government’s proposal on the new demarcation of Macau's territory, further aiming to promote the development of the city, was approved by the central government (Mok & Ng, 2015). In 2016, for the five-year development plan, the Macau government proposed focusing on transforming Macau into a city with international- standard living, transportation, tourism and entertainment for its socioeconomic development (Macau SARG, 2016). All these measures indicate that

96 Macau is developing towards a tourism destination through satisfying various needs.

3.1.4 The economic contribution of tourism

The Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) was initiated and designed by the United Nations Statistics Division in 2000, made reference to the UNWTO analysis of visitor spending in the major categories of tourism goods and services within the investigation of tourism contribution to the economy (United Nations Statistics Division, 2010). Visitor spending includes gaming, retail, food & beverage, accommodation, transportation and travel agency services. Tourism consumption as an indicator shows the demand for tourism activities and the trend indicates a growth of tourist spending in Macau from MOP220,384 in 2010 to MOP349,066 in 2012 according to the latest data (Figure 3.1) (DSEC, 2016b). The contribution of tourism to the economy also shows growth in all- round consumption on tourism related services (DSEC, 2016a). The number of tourist arrivals is also an indicator and shows a continuous growth trend of tourism attractiveness in Macau, in particular after the World Heritage inscription in 2005. There was a dramatic increase in the growth rate after that event, with a peak arrival number reached at about 27,003,370 in 2007 (Figure 3.2). Macau is an extremely dense city with a high ratio of tourists to local inhabitants (i.e., 50:1). This territory is regarded as the most visited city in the world. Even if the daily cross-border travelers from Guangdong Province are excluded, such a number of visits remains substantial (Lai & Hitchcock, 2017).

Figure 3.1. Tourism consumption from 2010 to 2012 (Source: Statistics and Census Service in Macau)

Tourist Arrivals 35 000 000

30 000 000

25 000 000

20 000 000

15 000 000

10 000 000

5 000 000

Figure 3.2. Tourist arrivals to Macau from 1999 to 2017 (Source: Statistics and Census Service in Macau)

The Tourism Research Centre from the Institute for Tourism Studies in Macau regularly conducts research investigating tourists regarding their purposes for

98 travelling to Macau. The results show that the primary purpose for visiting Macau’s World Heritage Sites gradually grows year by year, with a percentage of 19.2% in 2013, indicating a growth trend. However, the primary purpose for gaming drops at the same time, with a decline in the purpose of gaming, only 9.9% shown, of the visitors coming to Macau for gaming as their primary purpose in 2016 (Table 3.1) (IFT Tourism Research Centre (ITRC), 2017). So, as concluded by Zeng et al. (2014), this indicates a growth of cultural elements of Macau, illustrating a great potential for Macau to promote cultural tourism development.

99 Table 3.1. Primary purpose for visiting Macau from 2010-2016 (% of surveyed visitors) (Source: IFT Tourism Research Centre)

Notes: The number of surveys each year is 2,959 in 2010, 2,383 in 2011, 3,413 in 2012, 3,485 in 2013, 3,333 in 2014, 3,526 in 2015, 3,652 in 2016. The new government proposal for the Five-Year Development Plan (2016-2020) aims to achieve a growth in the contribution of receipts generated from non- gaming goods and services to the total tourism industry from 6.6% to 9% (Jornal O Cidadão, 2016). The strategic development, as suggested in the

100 government proposal, encourages continued growth of the non-gaming industry. The collaboration among tourism related sectors, including hotels, food & beverage, entertainment and retail, is also promoted as a strategy for tourism development in Macau. Diverse tourism promotions are to be created to develop cultural tourism, recreational tourism, maritime tourism, health tourism and community tourism, aiming to develop a quality experience for tourists (Macau SARG, 2016).

3.1.5 Cultural tourism products in Macau

During the years of sovereignty over Macau by the Portuguese from 1557-1999, Macau was a trading port for international trade, witnessing a cultural exchange between the West and the Chinese. A great legacy has been left behind demonstrating the cultural richness and complexity of the city through its architecture, cultural traditions and practices. After Macau was returned to China in 1999, many historic streets and buildings, both residential and religious, Portuguese and Chinese were left behind (UNESCO, 2005). As a special administrative region, Macau continues to preserve the history and cultural influence of the Portuguese and possesses place identity (Suntikul & Jachna, 2016). A few of the existing systems established by the Portuguese remain in effect (Huang, Tsaur, & Yang, 2012; Lai & Hitchcock, 2017). The harmonious coexistence of the seemingly contrasting gaming industry and heritage assets that condenses in limited geographical locations makes the city exceptional amongst other destinations (Vong, 2013). Macau’s unique cultural assets differentiate this territory from other cities in the Asia and makes it attractive to substantially broad tourism markets (McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018). The rich heritage assets of Macau provide cultural diversity, thereby enabling the locals at all levels of society to exhibit pride of such cultural richness (Vong, 2013). Macau is also appreciated as a place of cultural inclusiveness because of its history. That is, the higher the sense of inclusiveness, the higher the potential to develop special cultural events

101 (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). Since the Historic Centre of Macau was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2005, it has become a foremost attraction and a must-see stop included in the tourist itinerary. It comprises rich cultural assets in the area, including monuments and public squares as well as associated living traditions that are still in practice. The aforementioned intangible practices have survived because Macau was not affected by the Cultural Revolution in China (du Cros, 2013). The unique landscape covers not only individual historical architecture of outstanding universal value as demonstrated by a fusion of western and Chinese style, such as the Ruins of St. Paul’s, A-Ma Temple and St. Lawrence’s Church, but also other cultural assets, like the Macau History Museum (IC, 2016d). Moreover, note that the Ruins of St. Paul’s and A-Ma Temple are two symbolic structures amongst the other sites in the Historic Centre of Macau as described by tourists in their spatial perceptions of the city (Lee, Hitchcock, & Lei, 2018). The targeted festivals in this research are also held in these two areas, which will be elaborated later. Particularly, the Ruins of St. Paul’s is located in the center of Macau’s world heritage map. This structure is an iconic representation of historic religious influence and currently a cultural district with lively atmosphere where various art, leisure and cultural events are held (Taylor et al., 2016). Consequently, the popularity of this tourist area is also criticized as a cause of congestion, particularly when tourists visit the city for short stay and visit the must-see attractions. Comparatively, many other sites are not visited extensively (Lee & Rii, 2016). Even many individual structures are not included in the World Heritage List, they are valuable properties that contribute to the urban setting of the city. According to Decree Law No. 34/76/M promulgated in 1976, the importance of protecting cultural properties to retain the spirit of place was recognized. A list of Macau Cultural Heritage was posted with 129 items classified as cultural heritage by the government. They include monuments, buildings and architectural interest, classified ensembles and classified sites (IC, 2016c). These are all historical and cultural assets that attract a large range of cultural tourists.

102 Apart from World Heritage Sites, Macau contains many other cultural tourism products promoted as cultural attractions and sightseeing places; for example, museums and galleries, which showcase a unique perspective on the place through both historical and modern themes; natural attractions like gardens and parks. Events and festivals are another main motivation for people to travel to Macau. MGTO organizes a wide range of traditional Chinese celebrations and western festivals throughout the year (MGTO, 2016a). There is also ICH that represents Macau’s unique culture. Cantonese Opera is included in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, which is exceptional in Cantonese speaking regions – including Macau. Other aspects of Macau are included in the National Intangible Cultural Heritage List, such as Herbal Tea, Woodwork, Macau Religious Figure Carving, Cantonese Naamyam, Taoist Ritual Music and Feast of the Drunken Dragon. Some aspects are being included in the local list of Macau Intangible Cultural Heritage – Mazu Belief and Customs, Na Tcha Belief and Customs, Macanese Gastronomy and Macanese Theatre (Macau Museum, 2016). Although these are traditional and unique cultural assets in Macau, not all of them are known among tourists unless such culture is included in tourism promotion.

Starting from 2007, cultural industries have been advocating the promotion of Macau’s unique characteristics. A highlight of the last Policy Address for the Fiscal Year in 2017 expressed concern for the safeguarding of the cultural diversity of the city. Local communities are encouraged to organize cultural events which help enrich local people’s cultural life and facilitate the cultural development of the city (Macau SARG, 2017). In other words, locally based cultural events increasingly contribute to delivering the experience of Macau. Local design, visual arts, film, museum, animation and comics, all of these activities, comprise the cultural and creative industries in Macau and they can be embedded in current attractions to help create a meaningful experience for tourists (Macau Cultural and Creative Industries, 2016). All these unique cultural assets in Macau emphasize the potential for the city to develop as a cultural destination that fulfills various tourists’ needs in terms of seeking a

103 unique cultural experience. It is expected to promote Macau as a ‘world center of tourism and leisure’ (Li & Wan, 2017).

3.2 ICH in Macau

In December 2004, China ratified the Convention and became the sixth out of a total of 169 state parties to the Convention, which showcases an active participation and determination to safeguard ICH in its territories (UNESCO, 2016a). In March 2005, the State Council issued the official document, “Directives on Enhancing the Work of Intangible Cultural Heritage Protection” (關於加強我國非物質文化遺產保護工作的意見), which promulgates a listing system of representative items of ICH at all levels within the territories (The State Council of the People's Republic of China (State Council), 2005). The list is approved and announced every two years but it is different from the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Since China has a rich culture, tradition and practice of ICH, its range of categories represents the diverse and rich cultural features of China, containing ten categories 6 ranging from art to traditional cultural practices (Intangible Cultural Heritage Office, 2011). The first National List of the Representative Items of ICH was announced by the State Council in May, 2006. There are 518 items in total, among which Cantonese Opera and Herbal Tea Drinks are successfully inscribed due to the joint efforts of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau (State Council, 2006). In 2009, the Hong Kong government advocated a policy that supports the preservation and development of Cantonese Opera. As well as preservation measures, one of the policies addresses the promotion of Cantonese Opera as a major tourist attraction (Chow, 2009).

6 The ten categories are: traditional oral literatures and the languages, traditional visual arts, calligraphy, music, dance, drama, songs, and acrobatics; traditional craftsmanship, medicines, and calendars; traditional folk customs, rituals, and festivals; traditional sports and recreational arts. (Source: State Council, the announcement of the first national representative list of intangible cultural heritage, 2006)

104 On February 25, 2011, the Intangible Cultural Heritage Law of the People’s Republic of China was adopted at the 19th Session of the Standing Committee of the 11th National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China. The Law adopted “one aim, two principles and three systems” which aims to promote the construction of socialist spiritual civilization: to protect, to preserve and to manage the ICH for the benefits of the unification of the community and to enhance the awareness of the public in ICH protection. Finally, it mentioned the significance of cultural markets and relevant cultural services in promotion efforts (State Council, 2011).

The Macau government formally agreed to let the Convention be enforced in September 2006. The Cultural Affair Bureau (IC) is the authority which is responsible for the legislation, research, nomination, preservation, promotion and education of ICH in Macau (IC, 2015b). In 2008, a Provisional Measures on the Nomination of Macau’s Intangible Cultural Heritage was announced with a clarification of the nature, objectives, categories, standards of nomination and suggestions for the preservation measures of the items. This gave clear guidance for the recognition, preservation and management of the potential representative items to be nominated on the list (IC, 2008). In 2014, ICH was included in the measures of protection as stated in the Cultural Heritage Protection Law No. 11/2013 (Choi, 2014).

In April, 2016, the first International Exposition of Intangible Cultural Heritage and Ancient Art Macau - China was held successfully in Macau. The exposition was organized by the China Cultural Relics Protection Foundation and Art Exchange Center of the Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries. It demonstrates a good start of connection and exchange between Macau and China in protecting and promoting ICH and also indicates growth efforts of Macau in promoting its ICH to the world. Exhibitions are organized and traditional techniques, skills and other types of traditional arts are on display to represent the outstanding achievements of different ICH in

105 Asia, Europe, Macau, Hong Kong, and Mainland China (China Foundation For Cultural Heritage Conservation, 2016).

On 22 September 2017, IC announced the official ICH inventory list of Macau according to the provisions of the Cultural Heritage Protection Law. Apart from the ten known listed items, five are new additions - Belief and Customs of Tou Tei, Belief and Customs of Chu Tai Sin, the Craft of Bamboo Scaffolding, Procession of the Passion of Our Lord the God Jesus and the Procession of Our Lady of Fatima. IC has committed that it will continue conducting further studies on ICH and updating the inventory list, as well as to pushing forward the inscription preparation work to include the qualified items in the official ICH list of Macau (IC, 2017e; Macau Daily Times, 2017a, 2017b). IC dedicates itself in an on-going effort to recognize, archive, protect, and encourage ICH in Macau, and at the same time, encourages the public to nominate valuable items to the list through a survey (IC, 2015b). These efforts by Macau’s legislation to protect the ICH show an increased awareness by government authorities regarding significant culture and traditions in Macau.

To date, there are a total of 15 inventory items, with ten listed on the local ICH list. Eight of the ten items are listed in the National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative Items, among which the joint nomination of Cantonese Opera is successfully inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Such success of nomination reveals a diverse and rich ICH in Macau, which also indicates the collaboration efforts from the government departments, civil society, experts and academics (IC, 2014). The following list summarizes the detail of the ten items and the status of the nominations (IC, 2015a) (Table 3.2).

106 Table 3.2. Inscription year on the items in the representative list at global, national and local scales (Source: sorted by author)

Inscription Year Macau Intangible National List of UNESCO Cultural Intangible Representative No Item Heritage List Cultural List of the Heritage Intangible Representative Cultural Items Heritage of Humanity 1 Cantonese Opera 2006 2006 2009 2 Herbal Tea 2006 2006 -- 3 Woodwork – Macau 2007 2008 -- Religious Figure Carving 4 Cantonese Naamyam 2009 2011 -- 5 Taoist Ritual Music 2009 2011 -- in Macau 6 Feast of the Drunken 2009 2011 -- Dragon 7 A-Ma Belief and 2012 2014 -- Customs 8 Na Tcha Belief and 2012 2014 -- Customs 9 Macanese Cuisine & 2012 -- -- Recipes 10 Macanese Theatre 2012 -- -- (Patuá Theatre)

As seen from the above, due to the different standards of the inscription, the items are categorized differently at global, national and local levels. There is a high degree of variation in different countries in manifesting ICH (UNESCO, 2011). China has applied similar criteria as the Convention, but with alternative names and more detail. Since China has 55 minority groups, the diverse and rich culture requires a detailed and definitive presentation (Intangible Cultural Heritage Office, 2011). The Convention acknowledges that currently it simply offers broad domains and new ones can be added along with new subcategories for further application; some subcategories that have been applied are “traditional play and games”, “culinary traditions”, “animal husbandry”,

107 “pilgrimage” or “places of memory” (UNESCO, 2011, p. 3). In China, there are ten categories which include traditional oral literatures and the languages, traditional visual arts, calligraphy, music, dance, drama, songs and acrobatics, traditional craftsmanship, medicines, and calendars, traditional folk customs, rituals, and festivals, traditional sports and recreational arts (State Council, 2006). In Macau, the listing conforms to the categories of the Convention; however, Macau has its own three key criteria to judge the nominated items. If any one is fulfilled, the item can be listed in the local ICH list. These criteria are: a) represents outstanding value of cultural forms or cultural space of traditional customs; b) represents typical significance of intangible cultural heritage; c) represents the significant aspects of history, art, ethnology, folk customs; sociology; anthropology; linguistics or literature (IC, 2008). The following table summarizes the domains of the ICH items ranging from global to local (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3. Criteria of listed intangible cultural heritage items at global, national and local scales (Source: sorted by author)

Inscription Criteria Macau Intangible National List of UNESCO Cultural Intangible Representative No Item Heritage List Cultural List of the Heritage Intangible Representative Cultural Items Heritage of Humanity 1 Cantonese Opera Fulfill either Traditional Drama Performing Arts criteria: Traditional -- 2 Herbal Tea a) Represent the Handicrafts outstanding value Woodwork – Traditional Arts -- of cultural forms 3 Macau Religious or cultural space Figure Carving of traditional Cantonese Traditional Songs -- 4 customs; Naamyam b) Represent the Taoist Ritual Music Traditional Music -- 5 typical in Macau significance in Feast of the Traditional Folk -- 6 intangible cultural Drunken Dragon heritage; Customs A-Ma Belief and Traditional Folk -- 7 c) Represent the Customs Customs

108 Na Tcha Belief and signification in the Traditional Folk -- 8 Customs aspects of history, Customs Macanese Cuisine art, ethnology, -- -- 9 & Recipes folk customs; sociology; -- -- Macanese Theatre anthropology; 10 (Patuá Theatre) linguistics or literatures.

3.3 The issue of ICH in Macau

3.3.1 Cultural heritage in Macau

Macau’s cultural complexity is reflected from its mixed culture and embodied in the concentration of different types of structures located in the same precinct. The Portuguese -built colonial heritage legacy, such as the Morrish Barracks located near the A-Ma Temple, the temple serves as proof of the initial connection between Portugal and China (Chaplin, 2003). Similarly, Na Tcha Temple stands beside the Ruins of St. Paul’s. Such a strong visual contrast and the representation of the cultural complexity through each individual building collectively interpret Macau’s unique culture and history. Moreover, this situation makes the city charming and mysterious amongst visitors in discovering the hybrid culture during their visit. With tourism development and increasing investment in the casino industry with its new construction, various negative impacts arose due to the rapid changes since 2002 when the gaming industry was liberalized (Imon, 2008, 2013). The physical environment had been changed with the increased number of new hotels and restaurants built to accommodate the large volume of tourists. All of this affects the landscape of the city and threathens the integrity of the heritage (Imon, 2013). Other problems include: overcrowding at the popular heritage sites, an increasing level of tourism-related construction, pressures from congestion, pollution, transportation and the locals’ disconnect from their heritage with less control

109 over their property due to the decrease of their enjoyment of heritage (Wong & McKercher, 2012).

A challenge for cultural heritage tourism in Macau is that relatively few tourists visit the different sites in the Historic Centre of Macau because of the fact that heritage is not included in their primary purpose of travelling. Although the ‘World Heritage’ label promotes Macau to the world, the effects of stimulating additional tourist arrivals are only for the short term. This territory mainly attracts tourists from Southeast Asia because of the cultural difference when tourists are considerably attracted to Portuguese-influenced structures (Huang et al., 2012). There exists issues of poor management, maintenance and service delivery on sites (Wan & Cheng, 2011; Wan & Pinheiro, 2005). Although the government of Macau engages in a wide range of marketing activities (e.g. Macau World Heritage Year), it is still not effective enough to enhance the quality of tourist experience (Cheng & Wan, 2008). In the past decades, Macau’s government has adjusted its strategy to promote various festivals and events to diversify its destination image to promote in sustainable tourism development (Chen, 2011; McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018). Particularly, hosting diverse festivals and events is one such effort exerted to provide diverse tourism products, specifically local festivals, thereby showcasing the coexistence of the Chinese and Portuguese cultures (Li & Wan, 2017). For example, the Feast of Na Tcha demonstrates a harmonious relationship between the East and the West because Na Tcha Temple is located beside the Ruins of St. Paul’s. The religious practices held in front of the church creates a unique atmosphere when visitors enjoy a Chinese celebration in a Western environment, thereby generating a strong cultural contrast during the performance. In 2016, MGTO promoted a themed event called ‘Macau Hunt’ to encourage tourists to join community activities (Macau Tourism Industry Net, 2016). This event also provides opportunities to revitalize cultural resources to promote the cultural and creative industries. However, it is also criticized that the traditional festivals, like Dragon Boat Festival, have been developed as sport and leisure activities rather than in their traditional forms. The opinions

110 regarding such change are of two extremes. From the heritage perspective, it is a way of threatening the authenticity of the culture (Imon, 2014); from the tourism perspective, it is a creative and innovative way to promote Macau as another leisure activity destination with the addition of new elements to the attractions (Sedana, 2002; Vong & Lam, 2009).

3.3.2 Lack of attention to ICH

Before Macau returned to China in 1999, the heritage in Macau was under the protection of Portuguese legislation as being mostly a Portuguese-built heritage. After 1999, as the Macau people were finding their way of life, the pressure no longer existed to protect tangible heritage; instead, the issue was on protecting ICH to showcase the way of life of Macau (Armstrong, 2014). Current efforts to promote the performing arts by the government are inadequate and the accessibility of performance for tourists is limited. Infrastructure is required to support that and, therefore, a framework for coordinating ICH product development is needed (Sou et al., 2016).

Studies on factors affecting quality experience and satisfaction of cultural heritage from a tourist’s perspective have reviewed the physical attributes (e.g. facilities, cleanliness, direction signs, interior) of the destination and service quality (e.g. staff responsiveness, information leaflets) surrounding cultural heritage, but not the intrinsic elements or nature of the cultural heritage, the intangible culture associated with the heritage (Bonn et al., 2007; Cheng & Wan, 2008; Huh & Uysal, 2003).

The official ICH list items have not received enough attention among locals (Wong, 2014). The protection of those items becomes a challenge and the core issue will elaborated through an example of an item in Macau’s ICH – Patuá. Patuá is one of the ten official intangible heritage items enlisted into the Macau

111 Intangible Heritage List in 2012. It is a Luso–Asian Creole language7 existing since Macau was founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century and now believed to be on the way to extinction (Wong, 2014). It used to be the language used in communicating between the colonizer and the colonized in Macau and later was solely spoken by the Macanese (Amaro, 1994). According to the 2013 Macau Census, about 97.5% of the population were ethnic Chinese; however, a majority of them had never heard about Patuá. Patuá fails to confer the cultural identity to the dominant population of Macau. The responsibility of preventing the failure of ICH list is not clear. Relevance and connection between ICH and local people is weak. There is no official document to address the formal credentials that are needed for an intangible asset to be included on Macau’s ICH List. It depends on the initiatives of locals to submit the nomination and wait for the authorities to accept or not. As it requires the recommendation of professionals or scholars to support the nomination (IC, 2008) it then becomes a small proportion of enthusiasts who may apply and, therefore, there is lack of initiative for locals to do so (Wong, 2014). A potential way of protecting this ICH and increasing awareness among locals, as suggested by Wong (2014), is to promote this ICH asset as an element of a tourism product in the form of Patuá dramas as produced by the Patuá Drama Association in Macau. However, its realization needs the efforts of government support, through which it can make the Creole survive, being known by locals, and becoming a heritage product for tourists (ibid, 2014). Another case is the Feast of Drunken Dragon and Portuguese Folk Dance, which used to be the local communities’ traditional practice, but is now being commodified as a regular practice by catering to the tourists in the hotspot of the Ruins of St. Paul’s. There is criticism that a traditional practice of local culture is being performed out of its original cultural space (Imon, 2014).

7 Luso is from the Portuguese language and is used as a prefix to express relation to Portugal or Portuguese. Luso-Asian refers to the mixed race of Portuguese and Asian and the term expresses the power politics of colonial Asia with the phenomenon of Portuguese traders marrying local residents when they travelled for coastal trading. The Luso-Asian Creole language is a hybrid language they developed (Cardoso, Baxter, & Nunes, 2012).

112 Little research to date has addressed the issue of ICH in Macau (Wong, 2014). Although ICH is not discussed as a main domain in research, some elements have been mentioned in cultural heritage studies, more or less. Studies on ICH cover a few topics, such as food festivals and customs and beliefs of Macau. Investigation has been conducted to examine factors affecting the level of tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty to the food festival (Wan & Chan, 2013), as well as residents’ attitudes and support for festival development (Li & Wan, 2017).

3.3.3 Perspectives on the transformation of ICH

ICH plays an increasing role in interpreting the history of tangible structures and demonstrating heritage values. The intertwined relationship between tangible and intangible heritage enables the revitalization of structures through lively experience (Staiff & Bushell, 2013). Moreover, ICH reveals the historical and socio-cultural relationship between people and places. Various international organizations, such as ICOMOS and UNESCO, clearly state the necessity of integrating tangible and intangible heritages in documents – Nara Declaration on Authenticity in 1994, Xi’an Declaration in 2005, Quebec Declaration on the Preservation of the Spirit of Place in 2008, and UNESCO Hoi An Protocols for Best Conservation Practice in Asia in 2009 (Staiff & Bushell, 2013). The transformation of tangible cultural heritage and embedding it with intangible experiences is increasingly demanding because this process is considered to develop the potential of tourist participation in creative tourism production (Zhang & Xie, 2017). Festivals and events are considered beneficial marketing tools to realize such purpose. Particularly, the Historic Centre of Macau is pursuing this approach, which utilizes the world heritage labelling effects to encourage tourists to join local events. Greenwood and Dwyer (2017) explained that participating in festivals enables tourists to experience inclusion within the local community and ‘meet the local’ or ‘live like a local’ (p. 595). Zhang and Xie (2017) demonstrated the potential of Macau in developing creative tourism,

113 which is precisely what the current festivals and events are attempting to achieve. Creative tourism as an extension of cultural tourism advocates the collective creation of experiences of the organizers and tourists. Moreover, creative tourism facilitates a participatory interaction through tourist involvement with the living culture, which is precisely what the ICH domains represent. Particularly, the tourists can learn the local tradition whilst participating in festive events. Given that tourists are easily attracted by experience-centric activities, ICH events are considered unique cultural resources to satisfy such need by offering authentic cultural experiences.

The numerous successful examples of transforming spaces for creative tourism include the Huashan 1917 Creative Park and Songshan Cultural and Creative Park in Taipei. Evidently, Macau has a unique cultural history, in which the Portuguese and Chinese cultures are integrated. This territory is considered a cultural melting pot that has alternatives in developing various tourist products other than gaming (Zhang & Xie, 2017). The Historic Centre of Macau is one such space that is not limited to physical structure but also being used as a cultural space when various tourist objectives can be fulfilled, such as entertainment, shopping, dining and site seeing. Meanwhile, various grand events and local performances are also held in the Historic Centre of Macau, such as the Feast of the Drunken Dragon and Feast of Na Tcha. However, such threats as commercialization is of particular concern, specifically when ICH is engaged in the tourism context through performing arts. Therefore, it becomes an issue when tradition is nourished and followed in a culturally complex environment so that it has to be creative and struggle for continuity. Also, with the rapid transformation of modern society, such traditions are facing a risk of weakening or disappearing if the tradition bearers cannot sufficiently adapt (Hobsbawm & Ranger, 1983).

The A-Ma Festival is a typical religious worship in Macau, which originated in Fujian province. Apart from worship, there are also other customs organized by followers during the festival, such as A-Ma themed Chinese Opera. A-Ma is a

114 seafarers’ goddess who protects the fishermen in southeast China’s coastal areas. The A-Ma Temple in Macau, which was built to worship A-Ma, has a history of over 500 years. As the oldest temple in the territory, A-Ma Temple has witnessed the critical timeline when the Portuguese first arrived in Macau in 1557. The existence of the temple also reflects the fact that Macau was settled as a fishing village prior to colonization. The location of A-Ma Temple in the inner habour is historic because it served foreign merchant ships that witnessed the history of maritime transportation. A-Ma Temple is also thought to be where the name of Macau was derived (du Cros, 2008). The important role of this temple in the history of Macau is evident in various tourism promotion leaflets (e.g. MGTO tourist information and guiding series: Macau temples, Macau events, festivals and entertainment, Macau world heritage, walking tour routes). Particularly, DMO emphasizes Macau’s Chinese culture origin through information on this temple and the A-Ma Festival provided in various promotional materials. The Maritime Museum is also located on Barra Square, where the temple is located. The ground floor of the museum presents the exhibits in interpreting the legend of the goddess and history of fishing activities of Macau. Unlike Senado Square, which is laden with Western structures and atmosphere, Barra Square is an interpretation of the Chinese culture from the ‘hardware’ and ‘software’ perspectives. As such, strong cultural contrast, inclusiveness and complexity are presented to visitors whilst they visit both sites. The government also makes efforts to promote the spiritual activity in Macau. The A-Ma Cultural Village is built on the mountaintop in Coloane Island where the tallest A-Ma Statue is located (Macau Goddess A-Ma Foundation, 2015; People's Daily, 2001). It aims to build this representation of A-Ma culture into a tourist Mecca. The traditional festival is transformed into a fiesta to attract religious tourists by expanding the extent of not only the forms of worship, but also the dances, exhibitions and leisure activities to enhance public awareness and participation. This is one of the examples of how Macau has repackaged itself through the transformation of traditional heritage into tourism events to enlarge its audience (Vong & Lam, 2009). However, there is

115 criticism that this traditional festival is commodified and de-contextualized through tourism development. Serious concerns have been raised through an investigation of the Feast of the Drunken Dragon, which is also one of the items on Macau’s ICH list. The Drunken Dragon Event was promoted by MGTO as a regular event performed in the Senado Square to accommodate the attendance of tourists. In fact, it is not the normal practice of this festival which has changed from a yearly basis to a monthly basis. The venue has also changed from its original space of performance to new places. The ceremony has also been adjusted in aspects to be attractive enough to be eye catching. The organizers of the festival criticized such a loss of its intrinsic meaning, but the festival has simply become a product for attracting tourists. The cultural spaces of ICH are not simply a venue for performance, but are an integral part of ICH which cannot be replaced (Imon, 2014).

3.3.4 Cultural heritage in Macau – recent literature

Many scholars have selected Macau as a research context because of its cultural complexity and various cultural assets that have co-existed in a limited geographical area (Pannell & Loughlin, 2015; Taylor et al., 2016; Vong, 2015; Wan & Pinheiro, 2005; Wong & Qi, 2017; Yuan, Guo, & Xu, 2008). Macau attracts tourists who arrive in the territory for gaming, explore Macau’s cultural uniqueness and those who visit for a variety of other reasons. These tourists collectively contribute to form the current tourism development in Macau (du Cros, 2013). As a destination, Macau can satisfy the various needs of the tourism for entertainment, site seeing, dining and shopping. There are two main streams of tourism scholars who study cultural heritage in Macau. From the management perspective of cultural heritage, the issues related to tangible cultural heritage are addressed to include experiential quality (Wu & Li, 2017), heritage interpretation quality (Io, 2013; Mak, Wong, & Chang, 2010; Wong, 2013), building destination image (Hall & Piggin, 2003; Hsu & Song, 2013; Wong & Qi, 2017) and heritage image (Wu & Li, 2017), managing heritage

116 branding (Huang et al., 2012) and design of heritage-themed souvenirs (du Cros, 2013). The other stream is from the consumption perspective of heritage resources, which does not focus on the material components of heritage, but highlights the tourist experience (Vong & Ung, 2012), satisfaction (Cheng & Wan, 2008) and perceptions (Lee et al., 2018) in its conceptualization of heritage tourism and cultural tourism (Vong & Ung, 2012). The local perspective is also included in the research as to identify the issues as concerned by the local residents, including their perceptions (Lai & Hitchcock, 2017; Li & Wan, 2017), emotions (Woosnam & Aleshinloye, 2018) and attitudes (Li & Wan, 2017) towards tourists or tourism development in Macau. The contrasting opinions of tourists and residents are also covered to investigate their different attitudes of tourism development, perceptions on service quality of World Heritage Sites in Macau and destination imagery (Kong et al., 2015; Wan & Cheng, 2011; Woosnam, 2012). Apart from the perceptions of locals and tourists, there are also two other groups who are the targets in tourist research. One is the local younger generations (Vong, 2015), the other one is tour guides (Wong, 2013). The initiative from the government in launching a program called Heritage Ambassadors Training Program raises research interest in investigating the local younger generation’s perception, emotional commitment and experience to heritage tourism in Macau. The training program aims to equip interested parties with basic knowledge about Macau heritage and encourages them to protect and promote local heritage to others. Vong (2015) investigated the local people’s sense of place to heritage tourism development from the younger generation’s perspective and also extended the topic on place identity to see the younger perception regarding the crucial role of place identity between heritage tourism and place attachment. Similarly, since tour guides play important roles in providing service for heritage sites and on heritage interpretation, studies on role and perception of tour guides in organizing itinerary and interpretation have been conducted (Wong & McKercher, 2012; Wong, 2013).

117 A few other studies have focused on identifying the tourism influences on specific events, which mainly cover grand events, such as those related to food (Wan & Chan, 2013; Wong, Wu, & Cheng, 2015; Wu, Wong, & Cheng, 2014), Grand Prix (McCartney, 2005) and art (McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018; Wan & Chan, 2013). These studies have emphasized the role of events in destination branding and image. A few special themed cultural events are also considered for locals to build a strong sense of place, thereby contributing to the development of a site’s identity (Greenwood & Dwyer, 2017). Although the ICH dimension is not studied in a particular tourism context, streetscapes, urban furniture and ambiance have been referred frequently as key factors in determining the overall satisfaction and perceptions of the service quality of cultural heritage in Macau (Wan & Cheng, 2011). Evidently, ICH events preserve traditional practices and enhance the distinctiveness of destinations.

MGTO has put its efforts into building up Macau as a multicultural destination, which could be seen from its tourism promotion slogan of “Experience Macau”. “Experience”, “Enchanting”, “Fascinating”, “Surprising”, “Tasteful”. These expressions indicate the emotional feelings of experience, as summarized as “touch moments”. Tourists also agree about Macau’s image as a multicultural destination. The frequently used words regarding Macau’s image are tangible and intangible, Portuguese language, Cantonese language, cuisine, Buddhism and Taoism (Kong et al., 2015). However, not all of them are being treated with the same importance in government promotion efforts, which can be seen from the event calendar as released on the MGTO website (MGTO, 2017a).

The current challenge of Macau’s cultural and heritage development is how to blend in the old with the new by managing and conserving its cultural heritage while facing urban development pressures. Heritage studies do address planning strategies for better coordination and management of heritage conservation efforts in Macau (Wan, Pinheiro, & Korenaga, 2007). Many academic studies of Macau heritage are conducted from a history or conservation angle rather than from the realm of tourism (Vong & Ung, 2012).

118 Tourism studies on heritage in Macau focus on investigating the situation from the tourist perspectives. Vong and Ung (2012) identified the critical factors that tourists are looking for when they visit Macau’s heritage. However, the factors are mainly dealing with the physical elements or services associated with tangible heritage in Macau.

3.3.5 Cultural heritage and tourism – implementation challenges

A key issue for Macau tourism development is to extend the average length of stay of a tourist visiting Macau. However, tourists in Macau may experience difficulty in establishing a close relationship with the locals because the former merely stays for a short time and owing to the high ratio between the two groups (Lai & Hitchcock, 2017). Evidently, the tourist–local relationship poses immense challenge. Moreover, Macau mainly attracts cross-border tourists who are generally from Guangdong Province and only travel a short distance compared with other overseas tourists. These tourists from Guangdong are likely to establish a close relationship with the locals because of their high- frequency travel to Macau. Therefore, sufficient or new tourism attractions become critical in enhancing the availability of heritage resources for tourism development (Vong, 2005). The possible lack of enthusiasm towards tangible structure induces interest to add value to the intangible components of tangible assets (McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018; Zhang & Xie, 2017). That is the reason why the current scope of studies needs to be extended to ICH, and not just tangible cultural heritage (Ung & Vong, 2010). Current studies on tourists’ perception, experience and satisfaction mainly focus on heritage sites or a single event, but not on a holistic context to study the tourist experience by considering the experience environment in Macau (Ung & Vong, 2010).

Another practical issue is that a regular survey in investigating the tourist’s primary purpose/motivation of travelling to Macau shows that the tourists who

119 travel to Macau for festivals, shows, or non-business events is declining during the period from 2010-2016 (3.1% - 1.3%). Those events and festivals are normally embedded with local ICH elements. It seems that what the government tries to promote does not achieve what is expected. To modify Macau’s destination image from solely a gaming city to a diverse tourism destination, considerable effort should be exerted to make progress in enhancing the city’s appeal (McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018). As such, research is valuable to investigate tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH in Macau by considering both the inputs from the government authorities and tourists themselves. The effectiveness of promotion and tourism management efforts will also be covered as part of the components in the experiencescapes.

3.4 Chapter summary

This chapter first gives a complete review of the background of Macau in terms of its changing socio-cultural circumstance from relying on traditional economic dependence on gaming to the current work focus of diversifying its economic structure with cultural tourism development, as well as starting to focus on the promotion of its ICH as another selling point. The importance of ICH is also reviewed at both the global level and local level of Macau. The issues raised about ICH development and its relationship with tourism are also summarized to provide a structural basis for the study scope and focus. The following research methodology, as well as the data collection will encompass those items that are reviewed in this chapter. The addressed issues are references that can be used in later field surveys for comparison of both theoretical and practical implications. By investigating the components of tourist experiencescapes and their interconnecting relationship with various other aspects, as well as perspectives from tourists and tourism marketers, tourism business operators, pertaining to the current ICH in Macau, a holistic overview will be provided to address the current practical issues of ICH promotion and protection. The results of the study can give implications for

120 both tourism marketers/business operators in addressing the practical issues of ICH promotion and for the heritage management sector with suggestions on how to increase awareness and appreciation of ICH in Macau.

121 CHAPTER FOUR – METHODOLOGY

A qualitative research is applied to examine and explore the various components of tourist experiencescapes that are associated with ICH and the relationship of them as outlined in the conceptual framework in the case of Macau. The rationale for the appropriateness of the qualitative research for this thesis is that, although both qualitative research and quantitative research deal with empirical data, qualitative research instead focuses on descriptive data, in particular for those studies which the content is not easily transformed into number, such as the emotions, attitudes, and opinions (Marvasti, 2004), which are attributes most relevant to tourism studies. Qualitative methods are regarded as the most appropriate approach for the analysis of tourism experiences (Hayllar & Griffin, 2005). Furthermore, in terms of data collection, qualitative research allows the subjects being studied (the participants) to express their thoughts more genuinely, given the inherent pre-influencing nature of quantitative methods (for example, a pre-constructed questionnaire) over the subjects and the environment to be observed (Walle, 2015), which is crucial for tourism studies. Given the importance of minimizing pre-influence in the data collection, the research paradigm of constructivism is adopted, as this paradigm considers social reality a result of constructive processes by human beings (Flick, 2009; Schwandt, 2000). By the constructivist paradigm, the knowledge of social reality is “subjective, situationally and culturally variable and ideologically conscious” (Marvasti, 2004, p. 5), which, again, demonstrates its relevance to tourism studies. The relevance of constructivism for the research on tourist experiencescapes can be seen in the paradigm’s main concern, which is, sensitively, on personal meanings and on how contextual factors influence the research process, therefore, the participant’s subjective perspectives are investigated to understand on “how” certain pattern is socially constructed (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997). The paradigm therefore allows for both researcher and the participants on their subjective interpretation as part of the analysis

122 (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997). In cultural related studies, constructivism is appropriated in exploring how an individual actively constructs the knowledge and meaning from their experience associated with a particular culture and the significance is derived from social interactions (Fosnot, 1996); the relevance to the research on tourist experiencescape is therefore self-evident.

4.1 Purposive sampling

A sampling plan is designated to choose specific sources for research. In case studies, purposive sampling is suggested to consider the dimensions that are relevant for comparison (Flick, 2009). Purposive sampling is regarded as appropriate to select particularly typical cases or critical cases concerning their contents to answer the questions, perform the actions of interest and capable to reflect and articulate the issues (Morse, 1998). It has a close relationship to study the situation that is suitable to evaluate a particular scenario. According to Patton (2002), purposive sampling is applied to select the venues and events as cases. In this research, the special occasions (including venues and certain dates) of ICH events and activities are going to be included for investigation. Since some ICH items require special settings at specific time in certain place, the venues and dates of data collection of those ICH items are determined to collect interviewees’ prompt reactions to the events. Such events include: performing arts like Cantonese Opera, Macau's Portuguese Folk Dance; social practices, rituals and festive events, like Feast of the Drunken Dragon. According to the event calendar posted by MGTO in 2017, the events and festivals that are related to the local ICH are listed as below (Table 4.1).

123 Table 4.1. 2017 MGTO promotional events on Macau local ICH (Source from MGTO, DSEC, 2017)

Date Events & Festivals Venue Tourist monthly arrivals in 2017 (Source from DSEC) Feb 27 Feast of the God Tou Horta da Mitra, Macau 2,495,196 (On the second Tei (literally means the (celebrate with a whole day of the “God of Earth) roasted pig, troupe drama second lunar and Cantonese opera month) performance for celebration) Mar 30 Feast of Pak Tai (Taoist Carmo Square, Rua de 2,501,219 (On the third god) Regedor, Taipa (celebrated day and month with noon ceremony, lion of the Chinese and dragon dance parade, calendar) Chinese opera performances) Apr 19 A-Ma Festival (the A-Ma Temple, Macau 2,742,799 Goddess of Seafarers (celebrated with Chinese and Fishermen) opera performances) May 3 Feast of Buddha (Feast Start from Senado Square 2,570,428 of the Bathing of Lord Buddha) Feast of the Drunken Start from Kuan Tai Dragon Temple near Senado Square to the Inner Harbour Tam Kong Festival Celebrated in Coloane Village on the same day with Chinese Opera performances (Celebrated with Cantonese Opera performances, a street procession and dragon dance.) May 13 Procession of Our Lady From S. Domingos Church of Fátima to the Penha Chapel (commemorated the miracle of Fátima in Portugal in 1917) May 27, 28 & Macau International Nam Van Lake 30 Dragon Boat Races May 30 Dragon Boat Festival Nam Van Lake (Tun Ng Festival) (commemorate the

124 heroic poet Wat Yuen who protested against corruption by drowning himself) Jun 12 Feast of Na Tcha Na Tcha Temple near the 2,378,615 (on the Ruins of St. Paul’s. eighteenth day (celebrate with lion dance) of the fifth lunar month) Jul 17 Feast of Kuan Tai Kuan Tai Temple 2,917,953 (thirteenth day (commemorate Guan (celebrate with lion and of the fifth Yu uring the Three dragon dance, banquets, lunar month Kingdoms period) sports competitions) and the twenty-fourth day of the sixth lunar month) Oct 20-22 20th Lusofonia Festival In front of the Taipa 2,888,716 (to honour Portuguese- Houses-Museum speaking individuals (celebrate with authentic residing in Macau who food, drinks, and had contributed to handicrafts from Macau’s development) Portuguese-speaking countries Oct 27-29 15th Macau A-Ma A-Ma Cultural Village Cultural & Tourism Festival Nov 10-26 17th Macau Food Sai Van Lake Square 2,833,061 Festival (Praça do Lago Sai Van) (In the rotunda opposite the Macau Tower) (Liberally salted with exciting live entertainment, games and beer competitions) Dec 3-31 Macau Light Festival WH sites including Ruins 3,053,690 2017 of St. Paul’s; St. Dominic's Church; A-Ma Temple; Holy House of Mercy; Senado Square; Lou Kau Mansion and Cathedral Lane, etc)

The above table aims to give an overview of the current events and festivals in Macau. It also indicates the efforts from MGTO in promoting the local intangible culture in Macau. The study focus will be on those events and activities that have been experienced by the interviewees. These events cover

125 year-round, while the tourists come during any period of time, they possibly involve in any ICH related events or festivals, which provides an opportunity to investigate their perceptions on the experiencescapes in Macau.

Moreover, according to the current listed items in the Macau ICH list, three representative events (i.e. A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon and Feast of Na Tcha) were chosen to investigate the tourist experiencescapes, as these three ICH events obtain the most ICH items of both local and national importance. Firstly, Feast of the Drunken Dragon, A-Ma Belief and Customs and Na Tcha Belief and Customs are all listed in both the Macau ICH list and national ICH list in China, which showcases the importance of these items in representing the history and culture of a region in their outstanding significance at both regional and national levels. Secondly, during the celebration of the three ICH items, Cantonese Opera is included as an indispensable program, and it is the only item that is currently inscribed in all local, national and international representative lists of ICH (Table 3.2). Na Tcha Belief and Customs reflect a Taoism school of belief, the Taoist Ritual Music in Macau is also played during the event as an important program being performed in the opening ceremony. As such, it could be concluded that all these three ICH events combine different elements of ICH domains (e.g. social practices, rituals and festive events, knowledge and practices). It offers the great opportunity for tourists to enjoy various domains of ICH in one event, which helps examine the tourist experiencescape in various dimensions through exploring the tourist perceptions to the different aspects of ICH. Furthermore, all these three ICH events are held in the famous tourist spots like Ruins of St. Paul’s area and A- Ma Temple. Streets from Senado Square to Ruins of St. Paul’s are located in the Historic Centre of Macau. It represents a busy street where millions of tourists come and visit the heritage sites, where diverse ICH events and modern activities (e.g. Macau Light Festival) are also held in the area. A-Ma Temple, one of the oldest temples in Macau, is also included in the Historic Centre of Macau. It is said the temple was where the Portuguese sailors first landed in Macau (IC, 2017c). When they first attempted to ask the local inhabitants the

126 name of the land, the locals misinterpreted that they were asking the name of the temple and answered “Ma Ge”. As a result, the Portuguese translated this to “Amagao” and later shortened it to “Macau” as the name of the land (Cheng, 1999). Since Macau has a hybrid culture with Portuguese influence, the investigation of the area becomes essential in the coverage of the combined cultural elements (Civic And Municipal Affairs Bureau (IACM), 2015). Therefore, the three ICH events together form comprehensive and comparable views in the study of tourist experiencescapes. By investigating the research questions in these contexts, it can help discover a comprehensive view on how tourism marketers/operators and the tourists respond to the different experience environments and create tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH.

Table 3.2. Inscription year on the items in the representative list at global, national and local scales (Source: sorted by author)

Inscription Year Macau Intangible National List of UNESCO Cultural Intangible Representative No Item Heritage List Cultural List of the Heritage Intangible Representative Cultural Items Heritage of Humanity 1 Cantonese Opera 2006 2006 2009 2 Herbal Tea 2006 2006 -- 3 Woodwork – Macau 2007 2008 -- Religious Figure Carving 4 Cantonese 2009 2011 -- Naamyam 5 Taoist Ritual Music 2009 2011 -- in Macau 6 Feast of the 2009 2011 -- Drunken Dragon 7 A-Ma Belief and 2012 2014 -- Customs 8 Na Tcha Belief and 2012 2014 -- Customs 9 Macanese Cuisine 2012 -- -- & Recipes 10 Macanese Theatre 2012 -- --

127 (Patuá Theatre)

Besides, the tourist arrivals in Macau also have the pattern that reflects the seasonality of visitation. As indicated from the number of tourist monthly arrivals in Macau in 2017 corresponding to the event calendar (DSEC, 2016c), it shows that the three investigated ICH events are organized in the busy tourism month(s) (i.e. April and May) that are possible to attract most of the tourist audiences who come to Macau during those periods of time to enjoy the local ICH events. In other words, it optimizes the best time to conduct tourist experiencescapes on-site survey to possibly find the research targets that then cover a wide range of tourists.

Furthermore, by considering the time period of conducting a survey, the famous tourist spots can provide more possibilities for the researcher to approach the tourists for the onwards interview because those tourists who visit the Historic Centre of Macau have the most chance to participate in the events and interact with the elements of ICH. As such, their responses can be abundant for the data collection in this study.

4.2 Target ICH festivals

After Macau was handed over to China in 1999, the Chinese central government has exerted a strong influence on the interpretation of Macau’s history, as well as the education on nationalism and harmony between the East and West. Such influence is evident in the changing representation of the interpretation story as displayed in Macau Museum (Law, 2012). The reconstruction of the interpretation demonstrates the rising increasing power of China with the post-communist regime that invisibly subtly affects the cultural representation of Macau (Law, 2014). “Religious forces can [be] viewed as contributing to nationalism and playing a role in reducing ethnic tension within nations by fostering the idea of a common heritage.” (Thompson, 2005, p. 92). Additionally, organizing Chinese festivals in Macau is viewed as a method to

128 highlight the importance of the city’s Chinese history (Li & Wan, 2017). Particularly, common practices are shared amongst Asian people when Macau attracts extensive visits from Mainland China. Evidently, sharing common interests with tourists through shared behavior is considerably easy (Li & Wan, 2017; Woosnam & Aleshinloye, 2018). Such shared beliefs and practices improve the emotional solidarity of the local people, thereby indirectly influencing the local attitude to support the development of festival tourism (Woosnam, 2012; Woosnam & Aleshinloye, 2018). Singapore provides a good example of the harmonious existence of culture, in which the Chinese, Malay and Indian festivals are celebrated as integral components of the shared history of the place. Each religious practice contributes to the development of nationalism and becomes the cultural roots of the country (Saunders, 2005). These festivals are promoted by the Singapore Tourism Board to showcase the cultural diversity of the country. MGTO also exerts effort to promote cultural diversity. Research on festival studies has also confirmed that cultural festivals with strong themes are likely to attract tourists (Kim, Suh, & Eves, 2010; McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018). Festival attendance is one of the key determinants of festival success (Gursoy, Kim, & Uysal, 2004; McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018), whilst location is also considered critical in ensuring the quality of physical environment (Wu & Li, 2017). The Historic Center of Macau and A-Ma Temple are connected to the religious and spiritual practices where the three targeted ICH festivals are held. Particular, these two sites possess competitive advantage owing to their location at the heart of the Historic Centre, which welcomes numerous visits daily. As such, it ensures attendance to cultural festivals in the region. Festival celebrations are considered promotional tools that add value to the existing structure, whilst enhancing the cultural expression of the place and enriching and maintaining the ‘World Heritage’ brand (Hall & Piggin, 2003). As advocated by creative tourism, in which the mixed-used of space can create a cluster effect where various tourist purposes can be fulfilled, a diverse and gentrified experience will likely be the result. Additional opportunities for active tourist participation, instead of passive

129 sightseeing, can be generated (Zhang & Xie, 2017). For example, the area of the Ruins of St. Paul’s is a landscape where various tourist attractions are present, including historic sites, tourist shops (i.e., souvenir shop, cosmetic shops and cloth shops), street stalls and restaurants, which meet the various needs for site seeing, shopping and dining. This landscape combines the tourism icon and world heritage brand and has become a multi-functional tourist attraction. Suntikul and Jachna (2016) explained that the Historic Centre of Macau obtained a high degree of entertainment value because of its multi- functions. The following three festivals are selected for the research based on the previously discussed reasons and the combination of the ICH domains.

4.2.1 A-Ma Festival

Macau, as a coastal city, was originally a fishing port. It has the tradition of worship of Matsu (a typical goddess of fishermen from southern China), who is also known as Tin Hau or A-Ma (Macau Temple Civilization, 2012b). The A- Ma Belief and Customs can be traced back to its origin in Fujian Province where the folk culture represented related to the goddess of the sea. Later, the influence of this folk culture spread to over 20 countries and regions not only limited to provinces in China but also Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, South Africa, the United States, France, Australia and New Zealand (ICHCAP, 2016). A-Ma Temple as one of the famous tourist spots in Macau, is also part of the Historic Centre of Macau (UNESCO, 2005); it celebrates Matsu’s birthday at A-Ma Temple on the 23rd day of the third lunar month every year. Originally, it was celebrated among fishermen to pray for safety when fishing on vessels. Later, when fishery was no longer an economic pillar of the city, the old fishermen still kept the tradition to pray for protection and prosperity and better life for the residents, and it gradually attracted the believers from other places of the same religion, as well as tourists who come to visit the Temple for worship (Macau Temple Civilization, 2012b).

130 The celebration of Matsu’s birthday has a history of more than one hundred years. During the celebration, various programs are organized including the lion and dragon dance, thanksgiving ceremony, worship, sparkler grabbing, parade and traditional Cantonese Opera held in the temporary built bamboo-shed theater. The programs are adjusted in accordance with specific conditions. Unfortunately, an unpredictable fire broke out and damaged the main hall in the temple in the early morning on 10 February 2016. The interior of the hall suffered severe damage. It is believed the fire was caused by malfunctioning electrical equipment in the pavilions (Macau Daily Times, 2016). The temple is currently still under restoration. As a result, the celebration this year when the survey is conducted cuts short with only the lion and dragon dance, thanksgiving ceremony and Cantonese Opera (Figure 4.1). The lion and dragon dance and thanksgiving ceremony were held on the day of Matsu’s birthday on 19 April 2017. Yet, the Cantonese Opera performance in front of the A-Ma Temple is a continuous program on show during the afternoon and the evening two days before and after the birthday (from 17-21 April 2017).

Figure 4.1. Photo of A-Ma Festival (Source: author)

131 4.2.2 Feast of the Drunken Dragon

On the 8th day of the fourth lunar month, there is a joint feast of the Drunken Dragon, Tam Kong Festival and Feast of Buddha. The event is organized by the Macau Fresh Fish Commercial Association as its biggest event of the year (IC, 2017b; MGTO, 2017b). Although the background of the organizers is fishmongers (the wholesale or retail trade of the fishery), which is similar to those fishermen in A-Ma Festival, these fishmongers are most early migrants from Guangdong area who came to Macau to make a living. As reflected by an experienced drunken dragon dance performer, as a nostalgia for home, these fishmongers used to gather together and celebrate the festival in their own way practicing the drunken dragon dance, where the origin of drunken dragon dance lies in Zhongshan, Guangdong. In the early beginning, the tradition was only celebrated among its own community and they distributed the ‘longevity rice’ to the fishmongers and their relatives. Later, it gradually expanded its scale and became known and popular among residents – as the locals believe if they are gifted with the longevity rice, they can share the blessings and good health, and then it becomes a grand tourism event in its current scale.

Apart from the drunken dragon dance performance and longevity rice distribution, the tradition is also presented with a series of activities like Drunken Dragon Parade, which starts at the most popular tourist area – the core of the Historic Centre of Macau – the Senado Square, with dragon floats moving around the main markets in Macau, including the Red Market, Iao Hon Market, and the main area of A-Ma Temple, Kwan Tai Temple, Rua de Felicidade and finally returning to Senado Square. At each stop, the Drunken Dragon dance is performed (MGTO, 2017b). Each year, it attracts a lot of photographers to take a shot of the dynamic characteristics of dance performers (Figure 4.2). As to enlarge the effects of the festival and to attract more audience, the Macau government invites additional lion and dragon dance performance teams from other Southeast Asia regions, including Singapore, Malaysia, Japan and Taiwan, to join the opening ceremony and lion and dragon

132 dance competition as a good opportunity for cultural exchange of traditional practices. At the same time, the audience can enjoy various performances in such occasion (Macao Daily News, 2017).

Figure 4.2. Photo of Feast of Drunken Dragon (Source: author) In addition, the date of celebrating the festival also falls on the Macau International Museum Day Carnival, the museums organize a series of exhibitions and public lectures in the Red Market together with the Drunken Dragon Festival, under the joint theme – The Mobile Museum – Red Market X Drunken Dragon Festival (MGTO, 2017b).

4.2.3 Feast of Na Tcha

Na Tcha Customs and Beliefs of Macau is another element of intangible cultural heritage in Macau (IC, 2017d). The character of Na Tcha is a well- established deity in the belief of Taoism in the traditional Chinese myths and legends with its impression of filial piety, while Taoist Ritual Music is played

133 during the feast of Na Tcha is also another ICH items. The Feast of Na Tcha celebrates Na Tcha’s birthday on the eighteenth day of the fifth lunar month. Its customs and belief can be tracked more than 300 years and the tradition of celebrating this ritual has lasted for more than one hundred years – the Na Tcha Temple was built in 1888. Although the Na Tcha related festival was suspended in Macau for several decades while the Cultural Revolution occurred in 1966 (IC, 2017d; Macau Temple Civilization, 2012a). It recollects the traditions of celebration in 2004. Since then, the scale of the celebration continues to expand with preserving more and more traditional elements in its rituals and ceremonies, for instance, the Parade of Floats (literally, ‘Piao Se' (飄色), means the parade with the children dressed up as legendary heroes suspended above the crowd on the tips of swords and paper fans that seems to glide through the air) (IC, 2017d).

A series of activities are organized on the day of Na Tcha’s birthday, including Prince Na Tcha Parade, worship ritual with incenses in the Na Tcha Temple aside the famous World Heritage site – Ruins of St. Paul’s, which is regarded as a perfect mix of the eastern and western culture in Macau (Figure 4.3). In addition, the event also includes dragon and lion dance, dancing lion “caiqing” or “plucks the greens” along the route of the parade to the local shops as a way to wish success in business, a firecracker-grabbing race, the distribution of peaceful rice, and traditional Chinese Opera performance for the gods (Macau Temple Civilization, 2012a). Compared to the A-Ma Festival and the Feast of Drunken Dance, this feast is the biggest in scale and also keeps the most traditional elements as illustrated in the above mix items.

134

Figure 4.3. Photo of Feast of Na Tcha (Source: author) Furthermore, the organizer – Na Tcha Temple Association has successfully invited the host and more than one hundred masters in Wong Tai Sin in Hong Kong to travel to Macau to host the opening ceremony of worship ritual in front of the Na Tcha Temple in the early morning of the event, which marks a significant milestone in the history of celebration which has never been tried before. Because Wong Tai Sin in Hong Kong was considered a reputed Taoism Temple in Asia; its host and masters are all respectful persons who are the representatives of the Taoism ritual practitioners. As reflected by the organizer, such participation adds to the glory of the birthday and especially a symbol of bringing good wish and wellbeing to Macau residents and those who join the ceremony.

The following table (Table 4.2) summarizes the nature of the events, in particular, highlighting the forms of celebration and the containing elements of ICH in their expression. As such, it can provide a better understanding of the

135 later discussion on how tourists participate in those performances and their corresponding experiences associated with them.

Table 4.2. Nature of the three ICH events (Source: author)

Festivals A-Ma Festival Feast of Drunken Feast of Na Tcha Dragon Main location A-Ma Temple Senado Square Ruins of St. Paul’s Date of 19 April 2017 3 May 2017 11-12 June 2017 celebration Forms of Worship Worship ceremony Worship ceremony celebration ceremony Lion & Dragon Lion & Dragon Lion & Dragon dance dance dance competition Cantonese Opera Cantonese Opera Cantonese Opera Longevity rice Peaceful rice distribution distribution Parade Parade of Floats Drunken dragon Prince Na Tcha dance Parade Lion ‘Caiqing’ Lion ‘Caiqing’ Joint theme Firecracker-grabbing exhibition race Element of ICH Cantonese Opera Cantonese Opera Cantonese Opera A-Ma customs Feast of the Drunken Na Tcha customs and and beliefs of Dragon beliefs of Macau Macau Taoist ritual music in Macau

4.3 Semi-structured interviews

In order to conduct the case studies, semi-structured interviews were necessary to examine the participant’s responses in a complete manner for a concrete issue and to understand the scenario in depth. Focused interview was developed by Merton and Kendall in sociological studies in 1940s as a flexible use of interview schedule and non-directive style of conversation (Merton & Kendall, 1946). It is also commonly referred to as in-depth interview or semi-structured interviews. It is typically conducted with small samples but in a more detailed and tailored manner, which allows for unique, rich and candid responses from

136 the interviewees. The purpose of such interview is to discover the presumed inner and hidden perceptions of the participants and for them to reveal multiple attitudes (Johnson, 2002). Since this study is to understand different stakeholders (including tourists) on their perceptions to the tourist experiencescapes and their efforts in creating the space for experience, it is necessary to discover their psychological states regarding the “how” and “why” questions. Besides, the interview goes beyond the surface level of participants’ feelings, but to a deeper level of their consciousness (Gubrium & Holstein, 1997). The interviewees gain a large sense of freedom in their responses, through which, the quality of information gained from the interview is considered high (Walle, 2015). As such, it is referred to as “stream of consciousness” type of response (Walle, 2015, p. 18), which is critical to a qualitative approach. Interviews are about constructing meanings and express the subjectively lived experiences and opinions from the interviewees’ perspective (Tracy, 2013), which is accurately adopted in the concept of the experiencescapes, as experience is subjectively expressed (O’Dell, 2005a).

The design of semi-structured interview has four elements: the first one is non- direction, either unstructured questions or semi-structured questions being used. Either way leaves the response open. It is suggested to start with unstructured questions and gradually involve structuring questions during the interview as to prevent the interviewer’s frame of reference being imposed on the interviewee’s opinion. In this study, there will be semi-structured questions organized, but at the same time, leave the space for the interviewee’s prompt reaction during the conversation. Semi-structured interviewing appears to be appropriate in instances where the researcher aims to elicit unanticipated responses, while still centering on a particular theme (Myers, 2009). This is notably the case when the study examines the behavioral options, attitudes, thoughts and emotions, semi-structure is considered as most appropriate (Kastenholz et al., 2012). The structure of semi-structured interviews includes a limited number of open ended questions with flexibility for improvisation (King & Horrocks, 2010). The second element is specificity, as to keep focus on specific elements that used to

137 determine the aspects of the stimulus situation and main impacts or meanings of an event or object that correlated to the study instead of general statements. Even though the specifying questions need to be general to prevent a dominant idea imposed on the interviewees. In this study, such situation applied when interviewees mention the attributes that related to their experience associated with ICH. In such cases, the interviewer will keep focused on the specific elements as mentioned and ask for a detailed description. Follow-up questions and prompts will be initiated to get clarification and deeper insights. The third element is range, which refers to topical range as to secure all relevant topics and aspects covered provide sufficient information to address the research questions. The last element is depth and personal context. It focuses on the emotional responses of the participants in expressing how the stimulus materials and environments are experienced (Merton & Kendall, 1946, pp. 552- 555), which is exactly what this study will focus on to understand the tourists’ participation in the experiencescapes. In terms of the length of interview, to what extent the interview goes, depends on the actual interview situation. The interviewer, therefore, plays a critical role in controlling the process of interview and determines the degree of depth on the information obtained and decides the appropriateness of continuum of the given case. There should be roughly 30 interviewees (Flick, 2009, p. 223).

According to the current empirical studies on –scapes, either experiencescapes (Chui et al., 2010; Jernsand et al., 2015; Samuelsen & Norway, 2010), sensescapes (Agapito, Mendes, & Valle, 2013) or servicescapes (Chui et al., 2010), they apply a qualitative research approach in most cases with focus/in- depth interview as the preferred method to explore the different perspectives (either solely on tourist or on tourism marketers) on their perceptions and experience in certain study context. A survey questionnaire is employed in the context like spectator’s opinions of events (Benckendorff & Pearce, 2012). This study adopts a qualitative approach to conduct semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders who are involved in ICH, including government representatives (e.g. MGTO, IC), representatives from NGOs, ICH creators and

138 bearers, local retailers and tourists. The interview questions address the key strategies and components as mentioned by these stakeholders. As such, the key components become the constituent structure of tourist experiencescapes from both the supply and the demand perspective. Therefore, the responses from the stakeholders are vital in constructing the structure of experiencescape in a practical sense. They include: tourists, NGOs, performers, local communities and government authorities.

The interview questions are available in both English and Chinese depending on the nationality of the informants. One limitation might be that the Chinese version of the questions may not literally match the English word for word, but this certainly does not distort the meanings of the main topics to be asked. The translation has been checked and examined by tourism professionals who can speak both languages to ensure the accurate expression of the intended meanings. “Translation refers to the process of converting written words and ideas from one language to another, which is never as literal or straightforward as it sounds.” (Guest, Namey, & Mitchell, 2013, p. 164). Interview questions are always derived from theories, but they need to be constructed as a form of conversation to encourage informants’ spontaneous and unscripted discussion. It is important that the format of the interview questions is close to the interviewee’s own language capturing in its natural form to avoid convoluted expressions (Kvale, 1996; Ritchie et al., 2013). Therefore, it is necessary that the asked questions sound simple and straightforward.

4.3.1 Tourists

Tourists are the main targets of this research, their perspectives of participating in the ICH events and responses to the ICH offerings are critical to determine the factors as affecting the experiencescapes from the demand side, whose insights are also valuable to the suppliers in forming the strategies for ICH protection and promotion with management implications. The interviews will

139 be conducted to the same tourists at the three stages of their travelling (pre-trip, on-site and post-trip stage).

4.3.1.1 Approaching the targeted tourists: snowball sampling

The purposive sampling explained in Section 4.2 is designed to specify the field study locations and the possible festivals and events to investigate tourists’ involvement. The snowball sampling is intended to find the tourists to conduct focus/in-depth interviews. The investigation of same tourist’s perceptions in a continuous timeline can be used as inferences to learn the changes along the time, at the same time to discover the linkage among the different perceptions in the three stages of experience. As such, in order to find the same tourist who is willing to spend hours conducting a semi-structured interview for all travel stages (before, during and after the trip), snowball sampling is appropriate to contact the tourists through the recommendation from their familiars and then to approach those who have already confirmed travel to Macau, and then the survey can track their perceptions along the way. The estimated number of independent tourists is around 30, which is an average number of interviews as normally conducted in tourist experience research (Jensen, 2015; Jernsand et al., 2015; Kastenholz et al., 2012; Matteucci, 2015; O’Dell, 2007). It always depends on the scale and nature of the research and also the capability of the researcher in handling the interview by considering the time and budget of the research; therefore, the numbers vary from one to another.

Snowball sampling is based on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects (Breakwell, Hammond, & Fife-Schaw, 2000). In this research, snowball sampling will be applied in all means to get the right targets for the interview. Such means include the recommendations from the friends who are going to have a trip to Macau.

The study will not be restricted to specific types of tourists. However, by considering the channel to approach the target tourists as to have enough

140 reliable data for analysis, the target tourists will be free independent travelers (FITs) who have come to Macau for any leisure related purpose apart from gaming. Such tourists may be regarded as enthusiastic and as desiring experiences of new ways of life, with a particular interest in local culture (Gadling, 2010). Therefore, this type of tourist is also the most possible target who may go to the selected sites as explained. This also conforms to current tourism research trends in Macau which have focused on leisure tourists (ITRC, 2017) (Figure 4.4). The reason for excluding tourists who come to Macau solely for gaming is that the nature of this research to explore tourists’ perceptions on experiencescapes. Furthermore, the current studies on exploring tourist experiences in Macau focus on the leisure tourists rather than gaming tourists (Bonn et al., 2007; Cheng & Wan, 2008; Sou et al., 2016). Again, with the key concerns on the interaction between the tourists and other stakeholders (including local communities, business operators), gaming tourists are inappropriate by considering their simple activity undertaken in the destination (Fong et al., 2011). There is rare chance for them to participate in and interact with the experience environment. Therefore, the leisure environment of multidimensional elements as combined in outdoor activities is much better than the casino in examining experience in a significant way. For the purposes of the present study, overnight tourists have been preferred over day visitors. Most visitors to Macau are same-day tourists from the bordering city – Zhuhai and from Hong Kong (DSEC, 2017a). Such visitors include workers who travel on a daily basis between Macau and Zhuhai, or who are frequent border crossers – Hong Kong residents, long-term non-local students, long-term patients, foreign diplomats, consular staff, military personnel and their dependents, as defined by UNWTO (UNWTO, 2010). Some same day tourists stay in Macau for as little as an hour and would not be able to provide rich information as required in this qualitative study. It is also important for the investigator to allow enough time for tourists to enjoy the local culture. This will provide them with more opportunities to experience the local environment and allow space for interactions with others. Furthermore, the nature of ICH related events and

141 activities tends to extend to long hours, thereby tourists must engage a longer time on site. As such, overnight tourists are more suitable to join the study and to respond appropriately.

Figure 4.4. Primary purpose for visiting Macau (latest available data in Q4 2016) (ITRC, 2017)

Among the tourists mainly coming to Macau for leisure and vacation, their major source markets can also be used as a reference to allocate the target tourists for interview (Figure 4.5). Based on the recent data as shared by IFT Tourism Research Centre in 2017, the majority of tourists came from Mainland China, followed by Hong Kong, due to the geographical convenience of tourists to travel among the places. There are also tourists from Taiwan, and other Asian countries (e.g. Malaysia, Singapore), and then some from Western countries. It is expected that the target tourists in this research can also cover these different tourists from the various regions. At the same time, it has to be admitted that due to the fact most of the tourists are from mainland China, the final approached target may be dominated by mainland Chinese.

142

Figure 4.5. Place of residence of tourist survey in Q4 2016 (ITRC, 2017)

Although the sampling technique is considered less representative to cover a broad cross-section of tourists, in order to ensure the tourists are reasonably representative and not with strong biased with single demographical structure, the target tourists will be selected to cover as wide a range of different features of tourists as possible. At the same time, in the detailed data analysis on the description of the target tourists, a clear description of approaching the target and who they are (including demographic questions, such as age and occupation to confirm the profile of tourists), as to leave for the researcher to determine if the interviewees are representative enough and at the same time, for the readers to know the features of the tourists and make their own judgement about the representativeness for their concern and future interests in further research (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016).

143 4.3.1.2 Approaching the target tourists: non-probability sampling and convenience sampling

Apart from snowball sampling method, non-probability sampling and convenience sampling are also used. The interviewees are not randomly selected, but they are chosen on the basis of their willingness to respond. These techniques are regarded as more timely ones than probability sampling techniques (Sthapit, 2013). To prevent the prospect of a strongly biased sample that is commonly associated with convenience sampling, the study tries to select a broad cross-section of tourists in a balance of demography, including gender, educational level and age to get a reasonable representative of the interviewees. Another strategy is to acknowledge the whole process of obtaining the sample and list out all the detailed description of the participants to leave the space for the readers to judge the representativeness of the sample, even though the samples may not be that fully representative of the population (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016).

4.3.1.3 Conducting the interviews After confirming the participation of the target tourists, the interview will apply different approaches to contact the target tourists to conduct the interview. During the pre-trip stage interview, the researcher will choose either to approach the target in person within the accessibility of the researcher and participants or approach the target through online platform, such as WeChat, QQ and WhatsApp, as long as these methods can help establish the conversation. When it comes to the end of the pre-trip stage interview, the researcher will make an appointment with the participants for the next stage interview - on-site stage. It will be conducted when the participants finish part or their whole itinerary in order to have certain reflections based on their experience, and also before they depart from Macau. As such, the interview conditions can be the time when they are taking rest in the accommodation or when they are free during the daytime while taking a rest in the itinerary, or

144 when they are waiting for the ferry departure from Macau. The way to approach the participants will be the online platform (i.e. WeChat, QQ, WhatsApp) because of the limitation to approach them in person. As before, once the on- site stage interview finishes, the researcher will make another appointment with the participants for the post-trip stage interview. As similar to the pre-trip stage, during the post-trip stage, the researcher will either approach the participants in person or through the online platform. When tourists are back from the trip, the researcher will check the availability of the participants to conduct the post-trip stage interview. All conversations will be recorded in audio or text form upon the agreement of the participants. In the data analysis, these conversations will be transcribed.

4.3.1.4 Designing the interview questions Questions are designed to address the context in the three stages. In the pre-trip experience, it aims to understand tourists’ intentions and perspectives on the destination in particular to investigate if they notice any ICH related items in Macau. Tourists may have or may not have ICH related knowledge, in order to know if they have noticed any ICH related items in Macau. It is better to have a full coverage of their itinerary. The purpose of doing so is to find the clues on their intentions or perceptions to any ICH related items in Macau, and to understand the extent to which tourists are aware of and attend ICH related events – for instance, their motivation to enjoy a local cuisine or attend a local festival. Although tourists may or may not notice it as an ICH item, in fact, such itinerary indicates their intentions to experience ICH.

The interview structure starts with introductory questions followed by more specific questions regarding the research topic. The introductory questions include asking for demographic features of the tourists (age, gender, occupation, educational level), to understand who the interviewees are (Blaikie, 2010). This is important to determine if the interviewees are actually a good representation of the population and also beneficial to the data analysis by considering the

145 background of the tourists to their perceptions (Jensen, 2015). At the same time, an investigation of tourist travel condition to Macau aims to take account of the regular practices of tourists in the data analysis, if any. Also, in order to generate an atmosphere of trust and stimulate dialogue (Matteucci, 2015), the interview started with concise and simple open-ended questions, such as,

1. Is it your first time visiting Macau? 2. If it is repeat visitation, a. How often do you travel to Macau? b. What is your purpose to travel to Macau usually? c. Who are you travelling with usually?

The main questions contain three parts, which address the three stages of travel (pre-trip, on-site, and post-trip experience). Interviewees are required to describe their feelings as specific and clear as they can.

1) Pre-trip experience

In the pre-trip experience, as the first stage of interview, probe questions are designed to generate an atmosphere of trust and stimulate dialogue (Matteucci, 2015). The pre-trip experience aims to explore the questions on psychological essentials of tourism associated with motivation or purpose of travel (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015) and also the awareness questions (Jensen, 2015) to determine whether or not the interviewees recognize or recall any related experience on ICH in Macau. The interview started with concise and simple open-ended questions, such as:

Probe question: Do you have any previous impressive experience sharing on Macau?

1. How was that experience? 2. What is it about Macau that you like the most/the least and why?

146 Once rapport have been established, further and more central questions to the study are introduced. Based on what has been introduced by Benckendorff and Pearce (2012), the pre-trip experience involves domains on exploring people’s personality, motivation and involvement. In particular for motivation, it is frequently used to examine tourist’s pre-trip experience (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015). The main questions include:

1. Why did you decide to visit Macau? 2. What are your expectations for travel to Macau? 3. Would you like to participate in any events in Macau? 4. Would you like to enjoy any local food in Macau? 5. Follow up Question 3 and Question 4, if yes, a. Why did you decide to join that event or enjoy that local food? b. How did you get to know about that event? i. What do you think about the promotions of Macau (including the government official websites, promotional materials from social media and other channels) of that event? c. How did you get to know about local food? d. How do you think you can join that event? 6. Any other thoughts or concerns you would like to share before travelling to Macau?

2) On-site experience

In the on-site experience, questions are asked in all aspects on their perceptions to the experiencescapes that present to them, in particular to those they have been involved in. Previously, the literature review introduced the three main influential factors of experiencescapes (Campos et al., 2018), which are considered in the interview to investigate tourists’

147 perception of those aspects they may encounter during the travel in Macau. Besides, (Bitner, 1992; Ekerljung, 2015) also stated people’s internal responses (including cognitive, emotional, physiological feelings) by considering both the external and internal factors (Ekerljung, 2015). Therefore, it has to know first their detailed travel routine while they are visiting Macau. For instance, where have you been on the first day of travel? What have you done on the first day? By asking these questions, it also can make the participants feel at ease in the beginning of the interview and then be involved in the process of expressing their feelings on site. Some of these following questions are directly quoted from Matteucci (2015)’s study on tourist experience on intangible heritage of Flamenco dance, which is of great value of reference in examining the on-site experience. As a conclusion, Matteucci (2015) suggested to investigate people’s emotional feelings with the most endurable memory of reflecting their best or worst experience so far and explain the reasons associated with that experience (Matteucci, 2015). As such, this study aims to understand how tourists perceive the influential factors, namely, physical environment, social environment and product/service. Therefore, in terms of each description of the participants’ experience, detailed follow-up questions are designated to understand if such experience is correlated to any of the influential factors, as well as on how such influential factor affects their overall experience. Due to the fact that each participant may enjoy different types of experience, in terms of each influential factor, they may involve different scenarios where various elements can emerge. Therefore, the follow-up questions are customized to each response and be asked for the reflection later on. For instance, when a participant mentions the physical environment, he or she may have concern on the ambient conditions, as such, the questions are asked in particular to examine their feelings associated with the ambient conditions. The design of the questions to be asked during the on-site experience are framed as below.

1. What has been your experience here so far?

148 a. In a detailed description, how could you describe your feelings on the ambient conditions (temperature, sound, music, smell)? b. How could you describe your feelings on the functionality (layout, decoration, furniture)? c. How could you describe your feelings on the symbols (signs, style, artefacts)?

All these probe elements are referred as Bitner’s study in 1992 and Ekerljung’s study in 2015.

d. How could you describe your feelings associated with your interactions with others, if any? e. How could you describe your feelings on your observation of the locals, if any? f. How could you describe your feelings on the product (e.g. souvenir) you bought? g. How could you describe your feelings on any impressive service you received? h. By considering all feelings you mentioned above, could you evaluate your experiences so far? i. To what extent do you enjoy the experience? ii. What is so far your best experience? iii. What are the best and worst things that have happened to you so far? 2. In a broad sense, what does this experience mean to you? 3. Any other thoughts or feelings you would like to share during your travel in Macau?

Since the interaction between tourists and other stakeholders is also concerned seriously, in terms of every other stakeholders (government authorities, NGOs, local business, private operators, ICH bearers) tourists

149 have ever contacted, the questions are asked for details of their interactions and perceptions of the experience.

3) Post-trip experience The post-trip experience is about tourists’ evaluation and recollection of their experience in the destination (Anderson et al., 1994). Although tourists no longer are involved in the physical environment of the place, their minds can be also involved in the imagined environment of the experience (O’Dell, 2005a, 2007). Therefore, questions are asked to know their perceptions on the post-trip experiencescape. Tourist satisfaction is a frequently used criteria when tourists or scholars apply it to evaluate the destination attributes in the post-trip experience (Anderson et al., 1994; Bultena & Klessig, 2018; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). The same as the behavioral intention of revisit the place and willingness to recommend to others (Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Kim et al., 2015; Kozak, 2001; Yoon & Uysal, 2005), which is also applied to reflect tourists’ follow-up actions to an end trip in a longer time even after they are back from the trip. Therefore, during the post-trip interview stage, questions do not only ask about the participants’ behavioral intentions, but also dig into the reasons behind. A “why” question is always followed up for a deep and extended expression.

1. How would you describe your enjoyment of Macau? 2. How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience, compared to your pre-trip experience? 3. How would you describe the most impressive experience you had? 4. How does your experience in the events/activities influence your overall satisfaction to Macau? 5. Will you come back to Macau again? Why or why not? a. If yes, what aspects of Macau would you come back for?

150 6. Will you consider staying longer next time when you visit Macau? Why or why not? a. If yes, what aspects of Macau attract you to stay longer? 7. Will you consider joining any other cultural event(s) next time? Why or why not? 8. Will you consider sharing your experience to others? Why or why not? 9. Any other thoughts or feelings you would like to share after your travel to Macau?

4.3.2 Non-government organizations (NGOs) and performers

Apart from the target tourists who are the main audience to investigate in this study in the demand perspective, there is another group of stakeholders who play an important role in the construction of experiencescapes in Macau in the supply perspective. Although Macau’s current six biggest casino operators (e.g. S.J.M, Galaxy Casino, Venetian, Wynn Resorts, Melco Crown Jogos and MGM Grand Paradise) are the main stakeholders who dominate the casino industry in Macau and also contribute the domain economic sources of the city (South China Morning Post, 2017b), the stakeholders in this study instead are the plurality of smaller stakeholders who work closely in the heritage and tourism field. Since Macau attempts to diversify beyond its gaming dependency, these smaller stakeholders along with the government are important in defining the experiencescapes of Macau, in particular when the study focus is on ICH. In this study, the stakeholders are required to be the individuals or organizations who are directly involved in any experience stage of the target festivals. These key stakeholders include the event performers who deliver the experience to the audience, event organizers who prepare the events, who are also local non- government organizations (NGOs), the government who officially helps promote the event and those local retailers who are directly involved in the ICH experience environment.

151 Apart from the government organized events, almost all other local cultural events are organized by the non-government organizations (NGOs). More specially, they are the local registered associations. The three target ICH events are organized by these local associations, named after their organized events, like Na Tcha Temple Association, Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra and Fresh Fish Traders Association of Macau. Since they are also the main organizers of the events, their opinions are critical in examining the tourist experiencescapes from the service providers’ point of view.

In terms of the questions to be asked to the managers/staff in these NGOs, it is expected to know their roles in the construction of experiencescapes and the way that they help construct the space for tourists to enjoy the ICH. For instance, 1) Why does your organization participate in the work of organizing the festival? 2) How does your organization participate in the work of organizing the festival? 3) Did you find any sponsors or organizations to help organize the festival? Or what kind of help did you find from other parties? 4) How do you realize the cooperation with other organizations to deliver the experience? 5) What kind of experience do you expect to bring to the audience? 6) Does your organization have any chance to contact with the tourists? If so, how does your organization get them involved? The ICH creators and bearers refer to those performers or ICH event organizers who are directly involved in the preparation and presentation of the ICH items. They normally belong to the NGOs, who jointly organize performances. Since they are involved in the front stage of delivering ICH experiences, their perspectives directly affect how the tourists perceive the ICH products. Therefore, the interview can be organized to involve the staff who work in these NGOs as well as the performers/ICH creators and bearers who deliver the ICH

152 experience to tourists to understand how they share the key message of ICH to the audience and get them involved. Questions are asked like, 1) In the case of performing ICH on a tourism occasion, how do you deliver the key message of ICH to the audience (include both locals and tourists)? 2) What kind of elements do you think are necessary to deliver the experience to the audience? Why? 3) What do you think about promoting ICH as a tourism product? 4) How do you involve the audience in your performance?

4.3.3 Local communities

Locals are mainly in contact with tourists on site. However, in this study, the local communities to be investigated are not simply randomly chosen locals. They have to be the key informants to ensure the quality responses obtained from the interview. Therefore, the local communities are approached as local retailers, who run local business in the research area. Since the owner has run the business for years, he or she is an experienced person who can provide information by considering their familiarity with the place. Therefore, their perceptions to the changes and their opinions on constructing the space for experience are mature compared to the locals who spontaneously visit the place and may have come across tourists in only a few conversations. As such, the local communities should be the ones who can have longer and deeper connections and interactions with tourists. As previously studied by Getz (1993), there is importance of local retailers in the role of creating streetscapes for tourist revisit intentions. The heritage resources can be the initial attraction, but the local retailers can draw attention to repeat visitors. The places like small towns or villages with heritage attractions have considerable potential to foster joint promotion of the business and also the heritage itself. Retailing and service was stressed to be included in the tourism planning of a district, due to the fact that the involvement of local retailers can also stimulate community

153 initiatives in creating a better environment for tourists. For places like Macau, a high-density city with diverse tourism resources (e.g. shopping, heritage, leisure) and large tourist flows every day, the development strategy of integrating local retailers in its urban planning is quite essential in achieving long-term sustainability. Haven-Tang and Jones (2012) also agreed to strengthen the linkage between the destination and local tourism business to implement effective marketing strategies in further to increase the competitive advantage. Therefore, the interview is organized to investigate these specific local communities’ perceptions on the role of tourists in the experiencescapes and their interactions and connection with tourists. By investigating the opinions of local communities, questions are asked such as,

1) Do tourists have any impact on you/your business? What do you think about this? 2) What do you think about the festival? 3) How do you think you can participate in this festival? 4) Do you have any interaction with tourists? If yes, how do you interact with tourists? Why do you want to contact with tourists?

The intention of asking these questions is to know the local communities’ perceptions of the role of tourists in the experiencescapes and their interactions and connection with tourists.

4.3.3.1 Approaching the targeted local retailers: non-participant observation Apart from interview, the study also employs observation to supplement the research findings as generated by the interview contents. It is a non-participant observation or passive participation as researchers function as observers and unsystematic observation to remain flexible in the process of observing the interaction and involvement in the participants in creating experience (Walle, 2015). There are several phases of observation as suggested by Adler and Adler (1998), Denzin (1989) and Spradley (1980) including: the selection of a setting;

154 to define what is to be observed; conduct descriptive observation; conduct focused observation that concentrates on the relevant behaviors and environment conditions in the research field; and then selective observation to focus on the central aspects of the research questions; and when theoretical saturation is reached, the observation is no longer needed as no extra knowledge is added (Flick, 2009, p. 223). Such observations serve another source of evidence in the study.

The observation is also applied to complement the interview with the local communities, due to the fact that the observation may be more effective to observe the local retailers’ behaviors to attract tourists in their operations. It offers an indirect approach for the data collection. Besides, the observation research method is applied to approach local retailers in order to acquire first- hand information from observing the interactions between shop owners and visitors. The researcher makes field notes on the observation. As stated, field notes are taken which allow for an immediate recording when observations are being made as to record the intuitive feelings and initial impressions on the observed behaviors that have taken place among the interviewees. More detailed and refined analysis can be further developed to combine the interview contents of the participants (Walle, 2015). Furthermore, a mixed-methodology including in-depth interview and observation are designed to elicit rich information of the nature of experiencescapes pertinent to the research aims (Willson & McIntosh, 2007). Besides, the observation is also a way to supplement the information that is not addressed adequately by the interviews, due to the failure to approach certain local retailers, or interruption in between conversations, or termination for uncontrollable reasons. Because the owners and staff sometimes work in an intensive mode, some may not be available to have a long conversation because of carrying on a thriving business.

The use of triangulation is seen as a common form of exploring more than one approach to collect data (Creswell, 2014; Denzin, 1989). The application of mixing methods of data collection is regarded as a creative and comprehensive

155 way of collecting data as it may reveal contradictions to either confine or confirm certain circumstances (Decrop, 1999), in particular for a full understanding in qualitative research to explore the dynamic process of tourists’ experiences (Morgan & Watson, 2009). It allows researchers to have a deep understanding of the phenomenon (Myers, 2009), and helps strengthen the congruence of findings from different perspectives (Decrop, 1999). Such observations include the interaction between the shop owners and tourists, the way shop owners run their business, in particular the way they approach the tourists in marketing.

4.3.3.2 Approaching the targeted local retailers: sample of location map The following figure (Figure 4.6) indicates the possible traditional local tourism business operators to be interviewed in the area of Historic Centre of Macau. The figure also shows the location maps for the shops, which can be used as a guidebook to approach the interview target. As stated above, since tourists also favor these local shops, the operators of which may not be available for in- depth interview for a long time due to the busy operation of business. In case the in-depth interview is not feasible, the on-site observation are undertaken to observe the possible interactions and service delivery of some of the local shops.

156

Figure 4.6. Location maps of traditional local shops in the area of Ruins of St. Paul’s (compiled by author)

4.3.4 Government authorities

Macau’s ICH and tourism related government authorities mainly involve two bureaus, including MGTO which focuses on tourism promotion and marketing. Referring to the organizational chart of MGTO, there are mainly three departments which are relevant and possible to provide key information as needed in this research. They are Destination Marketing Department, Organizational Planning and Development Department and Tourism Product and Events Department (MGTO, 2016b). The other bureau is Cultural Affairs Bureau (IC) which is in charge of the cultural issues and heritage protection. There are three relevant departments in IC including Department of Cultural Heritage, Department for Promoting Cultural and Creative Industries and Department of Cultural Events (IC, 2016b). The semi-structured interview of the officers working in these two different government authorities is to explore

157 their perspectives on the ICH protection, promotion and development as related to tourism context in Macau, as well as the different measures they used in their responsibilities. Investigating their opinions can identify the factors/elements of creating the space of tourist experience of ICH in Macau; in other words, it provides one of the supplier perspectives on the tourist experiencescapes. The semi-structure interview questions are applied. The questions are both semi- structured and open-ended to encourage free expression of interviewees’ thoughts and feelings. Open-ended questions were added, eliminated, reworded and adjusted corresponding to the interviewee’s reactions. Questions are asked to address the measures they use to construct the experiencescapes regarding promoting ICH related experience to tourists coming to Macau. Semi-structured questions are organized in addressing their perceptions in three stages. Questions may link to the detail on what target does the government intend to project, what strategies have been used or plans to use to promote the ICH, and their expected objectives of organizing any events or government plans in supporting the local business which helps promote unique ICH culture in Macau, as well as the collaboration with other government departments to achieve the plan.

Gelter (2006) has developed a model named, Total Experience Management (TEM) which focuses on totally 22 components 8 to evaluate an experience production for producers or managers. He describes it as a process of working with both pre-experience and post-experience (Gelter, 2010). Such components include both perspectives of customer experience and production. These 22 components cover an entire evaluation perspective ranging from production to service delivery, which is available to apply in the tourism and hospitality field in a general sense. Therefore, the interview questions to be asked of the experience providers are designated to explore their corresponding management perspectives within their responsibility. For instance, for MGTO, the questions

8 Physiological, safety, social, self-esteem, self-fulfillment management and production, technology, sensation, activity, interaction, learning, entertainment, hostmanship, risk, temporal, ethical, stage, information, theme, creativity, quality and sustainability management (Ekerljung, 2015, p. 16).

158 are to be customized to focus on their tourism promotional efforts in promoting Macau’s ICH related activities and events. The questions focus on cultural protection and promotion when the interview is conducted with the representative from IC. Besides, based on the cultural tourism assessment indicator as designed by McKercher and Ho (2006), a range of questions assess the experiential value and tourism potential of cultural heritage assets. Among these questions, there are listed criteria which can be used as reference to examine in detail what the government has been working on to promote Macau’s ICH. The detailed questions and rationale of posting such questions are listed and explained below.

1) Pre-stage experience How does the government prepare to help tourists enjoy the ICH in Macau? This question may link to the detail on what target the government intends to project for, and what strategies have been used or plans to use to promote the ICH, and their expected objectives of organizing any events or government plans in supporting the local business which helps promote unique ICH culture in Macau, as well as the collaboration with other government departments to achieve the plan. The follow-up questions are designated corresponding to the responses from the interviewees when they mention the detailed measures of promotion.

1. Through which way do you give support to the local communities (NGOs) to organize ICH related events? a. Apart from monetary support, do you have any other support to the local communities to organize ICH related activities? 2. What is your purpose to support the local communities in organizing ICH related events? 3. How do you decide to support the ICH related events?

159 a. What are the critical considerations in supporting those ICH related events? 4. What kinds of ICH events do you support? 5. Through which way are you involved in the three ICH events (i.e. A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon and Feast of Na Tcha)? 6. What kind of effort does your authority currently apply in conserving the local ICH? a. How do the efforts get realized? If it is realized by the authority, what kind of preparation does your authority have? If it is realized through the cooperation with other departments or organizations, what kind of roles do you play? 7. How do you promote the ICH related events/activities to the public? 8. Are there any promotional channels of these events? If yes, how does the media help market the events? 9. In terms of the information provided on the events, how do you achieve the accessibility of the information to the public? 10. Do you also target tourists? If yes, how do you approach this target group? What experience do you expect to bring to tourists? All these sub-questions help to facilitate government’s actions in providing better tourist experiencescapes during the pre-trip stage.

2) On-site experience How does the government realize its role in organizing the events/activities/plans? The responses to this question provide information on how government interacts with tourists on site and government’s actions on realizing the tourist experiencescapes of ICH, in particular for those ICH related

160 events and festivals which are in performance based activities, and the coordination work to all relevant departments to ensure the smooth and successful delivery of a lively experience.

As stated, in the process of realizing the government’s role in organizing relevant events/activities/plans, they need to consider the measures on how to provide a participatory and engaging experience, to meet different tourists’ expectations and to provide good quality interpretation. Based on what the responses have mentioned in the measures they apply, the follow-up questions are asked to address the reasons behind that.

1. Do any of Macau’s ICH assets have the potential to offer memorable experiences to tourists? 2. In what ways are Macau’s ICH assets capable of providing a participatory, engaging and/or entertainment experience? 3. Is this ICH asset capable of meeting different tourists’ expectations? If yes, how? 4. Is good quality interpretation currently available, and if not, how can it be provided?

3) Post-stage experience How does the government contribute to the provision of memorable and meaningful experiences of Macau? The investigation to the answer of this question can provide information on whether the government has undertaken or plans to undertake any follow-up actions to retain the destination image by utilizing the ICH cultural assets in Macau. This may raise the questions on the government’s future plans to promote ICH related experience and the way the government plans to provide cultural space for appreciating ICH. Furthermore, in order to stimulate more responses to the questions, two sub-questions are designed to address the key domains as studied in

161 post-trip experience on satisfaction (Chi & Qu, 2008; Huh & Uysal, 2003; Lee et al., 2008) and behavioral intentions (Chen & Tsai, 2007; Lin et al., 2003; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1996).

1. How does the government enhance tourists’ behavioral intentions (i.e. revisit intentions, and recommend to others) to the ICH? 2. How does the government reinforce tourist satisfaction with their travel to Macau associated with their experiences to the ICH related events/activities? 3. What about your perspective to the other stakeholders involved in the organization of the local festivals?

Summary

As a summary, the following table (Table 4.3) shows the interview plan to the above different stakeholders in detail of their corresponding organizations and expected number of interviewees.

162 Table 4.3. Design of interview plan (Source: author)

Stakeholders Interviewees (Number) Independent tourists Overnight and leisure Pre-trip experience tourists (30) On-site experience Post-trip experience Non-government ICH event organizers (3) organizations (NGOs) and ICH creators and bearers (i.e. traditional festival performers performers, custom believers) (at least one representative from each festival/event) (3) Local communities Local retailers (estimate number of local shops in the selected sites – 15) Government MGTO Director (1) authorities Representative from destination marketing department (1) Organizational planning and development department (1) Tourism product and events department (1) IC President (1) Department of cultural heritage (1) Department for promoting cultural and creative industries (1) Department of cultural events (1)

4.3.5 Inductive approach

Since a qualitative approach is applied, the research design is flexible (Robson, 2011) and inductive without a predetermined framework in a strict sequence of steps to follow (Maxwell, 2013). Any initial decision of the prior assumption on research results is avoided but to allowed for the flexibility of the emergence of insights and open for different components to interconnect and interact (Maxwell, 2013). It is because the pre-structure may lead the researcher to overlook the various ways that the study can differ in every stage of the research process (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). This study is to investigate different perspectives from the stakeholders and to know their perceptions. By considering the variety of real situations, the study involves the reflection of psychological states of the people. It is difficult to predict what and how the interviewees reflect their feelings corresponding to certain situations. Although the results can be properly assumed, the data collection

163 techniques can be structured in an appropriate way, but allow the interpretation of the data in a largely inductive manner without pre-established categories (Spradley, 1979; Werner & Schoepfle, 1987). The intention of applying qualitative approach is not solely about whether to prestructure the study or not, but on how to achieve the predefined goals and the reasons to justify the research behaviors (Maxwell, 2013). In this study, since one of the research objectives is to know how the different stakeholders jointly construct the experiencescapes, the predetermined structure is unknown. But as highlighted from the current literature and the characteristics as reviewed in the previous studies, the current conceptual framework acts as a summary to the present situation of the studies on experiencescapes, which can be used as an incomplete frame to define the experiencescapes, and its constituent structure are filled in after the data collection.

4.4 Data collection procedures

After the description of the above different data collection techniques, the detailed procedures of data collection are elaborated as below.

Stage 1. Preparing for data collection

This part includes the contact to the stakeholders (including the government officers, and other managers of NGOs) except tourists. These stakeholders are interviewed once, as the interview aims to discover their perceptions on the three stages (pre-trip, on-site, post-trip experience) in one go. The interview with these stakeholders lasts along the entire stage of data collection with the availability of the research targets and also considering the completeness of data collection.

The other part is to contact the tourists for the arrangement on=f the interview for the pre-trip experience to Macau. This process lasts the whole research process until it reaches the estimated number of tourists or until the saturation

164 information is achieved. Besides, it is expected that these tourists are not coming at the same time, but at different times of the year, so to cover as diverse experience perceptions of Macau as possible.

Stage 2. On-site observations and interviews

This stage mainly aims to investigate tourist’s perception on the experiencescapes on site. The researcher accompanies the tourists and observe their interaction with people and the environments, and make record of the observation. Along with the trip, the researcher also conducts interviews with tourists when the tourists are at ease with the environment, such as when they are taking a rest in a restaurant or after a day trip. The researcher’s own observation of the environment is also recorded as a way to observe the other stakeholders’ interaction with the tourists. It helps give evidence and support to supplement the responses from the stakeholders (including tourists) that they neglect or fail to explicitly express in focus interviews, in particular to the on- site experience stage.

Stage 3. Post-trip follow-up

This stage also is directed at the same tourist as to track their perceptions after the trip, even in the stage they are no longer involved in the physical environment, but with the recollection or memory they can engage their imagination and perceptions through recalling. The purpose is to investigate if they have noticed in the experiencescapes even after the trip, as well as to know if the other stakeholders have ever put their efforts to retain the image of the destination/business/culture in the minds of tourists.

4.5 Content analysis

In terms of the interpretation of the result, there is no specific method to be considered as applicable to all studies (Bauer, 2000). As the data collected from the interview is more in a detailed expression of the feelings and experience in

165 content format, a qualitative content analysis is applied in data analysis as a way to analyze textual material into explanatory categories (Bauer, 2000). The text is seen as “medium of appeal” (Bauer, 2000, p. 134), where the categories and themes derived from which can be used to connect with certain cultural practices (Marvasti, 2004). A key feature of applying this content analysis is the use of categories as defined by the theoretical models. The key rule of data handling on content analysis as suggested by Mayring (2000) is to paraphrase the key content; to generalize the issues of the paraphrases to the defined level of abstraction and data reduction to discover the new statements and to merge similar issues. Therefore, all interviews are recorded, transcribed and subjected to content analysis in order to identify the main issues of the participants’ discourse. This analysis allows the study to construct indicators of attitudes, opinions and compare the differences among groups (Bauer, 2000). Therefore, in this study, this approach for data analysis is appropriate to sort out the psychological feelings of different stakeholders.

The data collection from the interview results in a need of thematic analysis to develop the key messages as transferred from the conversation (Braun & Clarke, 2006), which is proper to be applied in analyzing the focus interview contents. The basic system of thematic analysis suggests a three-stage process of thematic analysis, including descriptive coding, interpretive coding and overarching themes. The qualitative data analysis computer software – NVivo is applied to work with the rich text-based information obtained from the interview. It aims to have a deep analysis of the responses from interviewees. Before the textual data is transformed into the software, verbatim transcription of the digitally recorded interviews is needed. The purpose of this analysis is to visualize the findings in an effective, concise and clear way in a form of diagram (King & Horrocks, 2010, pp. 152-159). The diagram(s) may draw the conclusions of each stakeholder in their responses to the construction of tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH.

166 The following table (Table 4.4) is a summary on the approaches and data collection techniques that are going to be applied in the research design.

Table 4.4. Summary on approaches and techniques for constructing a research design (adopted from Flick, 2009, pp. 142-143, 212)

Sampling Interviews Observation Data Interpretation Approach Purposive Semi-structured Non-participant Qualitative criteria sampling interview Observation content analysis Openness to Sample Non-direction by Define phases Explicating the issue by structure is unstructured of observation content developed questions analysis from the analysis and the material Structuring Focus on Giving a stimulus; Focus on the Summarizing the issue by instructive Structured central aspects content cases or questions; to the research analysis; material Focusing on Structuring feelings content analysis Contribution Substantial Four criteria for Remain Strongly rule- to the and concrete designing flexible to the based general selection of interviews; process of procedures for development cases and Analyzing the interaction reducing large of materials object as a second amounts of qualitative data sort data methods by Domain of Studies aimed Analysis of Information Large amounts application at developing subjective saturation of data from a theory; meanings different Qualitative domains evaluation References Patton (2002) Merton and Adler and Mayring Kendall (1946) Adler (1998), (2000) Denzin (1989) and Spradley (1980)

167 4.6 Analytic induction

Analytic induction is a way to examine, confirm or reconstruct a theoretical sampling (Znaniecki, 1934). This method starts with a theory or a model and then examines the pattern in particular case(s). The analytic induction aims to use the case to control, adjust and confirm the development of the theory or model. In this study, three selected sites are used to cover the different locations of on-site survey ranging from historical context to modernity. The analytic induction is perceived as a strategy to increase the quality of qualitative research through confirming the practical certainty by a number of cases (Flick, 2009). The steps of analytic induction suggested an initiated phenomenon is formulated and then cases are studied to confirm if the initiated phenomenon can be explained and decide if redefining the phenomenon is needed. In this research, a conceptual framework is initially proposed based on the literature review. Then the conceptual framework needs to be confirmed after the data collection and data analysis as reflecting the responses from the interviewees.

4.7 Research reflexivity

Research reflexivity is the self-disclosure of assumptions, beliefs and biases as raised by the researchers in advance. The intention is to determine the validity and acknowledge the possible research bias prior to the research process (Creswell & Miller, 2000). In this study, the researcher has to acknowledge challenge of data collection before starting the research process. Since the study is to explore the tourist experiencescapes associated with ICH in Macau, the ordinary tourists, locals and some tourism operators may have less knowledge of ICH in Macau; therefore, they need the guidance of the researcher to address their feelings in relation to ICH such as prompting tourists to express their experience through asking questions to cover as many ICH items as possible. For instance, when the interviewer is asking tourists on their experience of ICH, if the researcher simply asks, what do you think about the ICH in Macau? He or

168 she may not accurately link their opinions to the ICH items because it depends on the interviewee’s own knowledge if they have known about ICH. Therefore, the researcher can ask if he or she has enjoyed any local food, or joined any local events, and then the linkage can be established through the researcher’s interpretation of the responses from the interviewees.

4.8 Pilot test

A pilot test is designed to test whether the ideas or methods work in practice by trying them first on a few people, in order to have more precise data collection in the later stage (Maxwell, 2013). As it is applied here, the use of a pilot test aims to refine the instrument that is used in the study. The researcher can then examine the current designed interview questions and the methodology of approaching the tourists, and raise other possible challenges in advance.

A pilot test was conducted from 28 February to 5 March 2017 in Macau. Prospective tourist interviewees were approached randomly about their potential availability to participate in a pre-trip interview as the top priority. The interviews were conducted at the main traffic, including Hong Kong– Macau Ferry Terminal in Hong Kong, Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal in Macau, Taipa Temporary Ferry Terminal and Macau International Airport. The researcher spent time in each of these places in order to catch up with tourists who are on the point of travelling to Macau or have just arrived in the city prior to commencing their trips. The pilot test was not confined to festival settings, but had a more general aim of determining whether tourists to Macau have explored and experienced local intangible culture. Most importantly, it aims to assess the feasibility of conducting an investigation of the tourist experience over three stages. A total of 15 interviewees completed the interview, amongst whom one joined the on-site experience interview and the others only completed the pre- and post-trip experience interviews. This is because most interviewees do not anticipate a fixed schedule while travelling and the

169 researcher was unable to approach them during their trip in Macau. It was found that the pre-trip experience interview was not desirable because tourists were typically rushing to catch transport and could not wait to start exploring the city. It was found that potential interviewees were unavailable to engage in extended conversations with the researcher. Furthermore, it is convenient for tourists to take any casino shuttle bus to their hotels to check-in first. Especially in Taipa Temporary Ferry Terminal, the shuttle bus is just located cross the road; it is hard to stop the interviewees and let them stay for long for the conversations.

Once the pre-trip interview was finished, the researcher asked for the interviewees’ willingness to leave a contact for the interview in the later stage. Because many interviewees failed to leave a contact or refused to respond in the later stages, it becomes an invalid data. This is also one of the biggest challenges met in this pilot test – to have an interviewee who can continuously join the interview at different stages.

In this pilot test, the successful interviewees are normally those who leave a contact of WeChat, WhatsApp or Line as the hottest social communication platforms they used currently. Therefore, the researcher approached the corresponding targets through either text message or voice message or voice call in those platforms for the post-trip interview.

4.8.1 Pilot test summary

It may be concluded that no valuable information has been collected on tourist experiences on intangible cultural heritage in Macau, because prospective interviewees have no chance to join local events or to encounter any local intangible activities. This may have been due to the fact that no grand events were happening during the time of the pilot test. Pre- and post-trip experiences need to be more targeted if they are to address ICH relevant topics in the form of pre- and post-event experiences. Otherwise, the pre- and post-trip experiences may become too generalized and imprecise to address specific

170 event experiences. It was found that interviewees would easily go off topic, straying from the point and talking about their general city experience. Therefore, tourists need to be directed to answer along the right track to avoid the discussions being out of scope. Besides, the pilot test result suggested slight differences between the on- and post-trip experiences. This is because the interviewees recalled what she/he had done and felt once the actions were complete, instead of reflecting while the actions are happening during the on- site stage.

This pilot test also indicated that it is not feasible to interview a random selection of tourists. On the one hand, it is hard to have the same tourists engaging in interviews through all three stages. On the other hand, it was not feasible to investigate tourist experiences of ICH. An adjustment to the intended methodology was strongly suggested to fulfil the research objectives. Furthermore, the intention of conducting interviews with the same tourists for three separate stages needs to be compromised by targeting those tourists who have joined local intangible culture events. In that case, tourists can share their experience on ICH in particular. Therefore, the certainty of tourist participation in the local ICH events is the key criterion to approach the targets in the beginning. After confirming their attendance to the ICH events, questions can be asked regarding their pre-event experience. Since the local events are held in specific occasion on certain dates or in a certain period of time, the data collection is organized on the event dates to ensure valid information can be collected from the target tourists. Also, tourists need to be approached on-site to ensure they will or have experienced the ICH events during the trip.

4.8.2 Adjustments to interview questions

The original designed interview questions are summarized in Table 4.5. After the pilot test, it was suggested that some interview questions need to be adjusted in order to better fit the research objectives of finding the appropriate

171 responses from the interviewees. Such adjustments include: to rearrange the order of interview questions to comply with the flow of conversation through explaining the profound things in a simple way first. For instance, instead of asking the previous experience first, the questions start with “why do you decide to take the trip to Macau?”. As stated before, the interview targets a certain period of time when the local cultural events were held, therefore, the questions are asked in a more specific way to address the concern of the events, such as, “what are your expectations to join this event?”, “how much do you know about the event?”. Furthermore, based on the findings of the pilot test, tourists mainly refer to the surrounding environments or specific objects they have contacted with, therefore, the probe is added to provoke more associated feelings on those subjects, for instance, “how do you think such physical environment has impact on your feelings?”. The adjustment of the interview questions is elaborated in Table 4.6. And the updated interview questions are listed again in a new table (Table 4.7) to guide the data collection in the next stage.

172 Table 4.5. A summary of the rationale in designed interview questions

Target Stages Criteria (if any) Reference Interview questions Sub-questions (if any) How was that experience? Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, Do you have any previous impressive experience sharing on Previous experience 2008 Macau? (prompt with ICH items in particular) What is it about Macau that you like the most/the least and why?

Benckendorff & Pearce, Expectation What are your expectations for travel to Macau? 2012 Why did you decide to visit Macau? Pre-trip Would you like to participate in any events in Macau? Why did you decide to join that event or enjoy that local food? Čomić & Kalmić, 2015; Motivation How did you get to know about it? Jensen, 2015 What do you think about the promotions of Macau (including the Would you like to enjoy any local food in Macau? government official websites, promotional materials from social media and other channels) of that event? How do you think you can join this event? What has been your experience here so far? Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell, How could you describe your feelings on the distinctive 2005; Wakefield & ambient environment of Macau (e.g. temperature, sound, Physical environment Blodgett, 1996; Bitner, music, smell, layout, decoration, furniture, signs, style, 1992; Ekerljung, 2015 artefacts) How could you describe your feelings associated with your interactions with others, if any? Social environment La Salle & Britton, 2003 How could you describe your feelings on your observation of On-site the locals, if any? How could you describe your feelings on the product (e.g. Tourists souvenir) you bought? Product/Service Arnould & Price, 1993 How could you describe your feelings on any impressive service you received? To what extent do you enjoy the experience? What is so far your best experience? Could you evaluate your experiences so far? Evaluation Matteucci, 2015 What are the best and worst things that have happened to you so far?

What does this experience mean to you? How would you describe your enjoyment of Macau? How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the Evaluation and Anderson et al., 1994 experience, compared to your pre-trip experience? recollection How would you describe the most impressive experience you had? Anderson, Fornell, & Lehman, 1994; Bultena & How does your event experience influence your overall Macau Satisfaction Klessig, 1969; experience? Westbrook & Oliver, Post-trip 1991 Will you come back to Macau again? Why or why not? What aspects of Macau would you come back for? Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Will you consider staying longer next time you visit Macau? Behavioral intention What aspects of Macau attract you to stay longer? Yoon & Uysal, 2005 Why or why not? Will you consider joining any other cultural event(s) next time? Why or why not? Willingness to Kim, Duncan, & Chung, Will you consider sharing your event experience to others? recommend to others 2015; Kozak, 2001 Why or why not?

173 Table 4.5. A summary of the rationale in designed interview questions (continued)

Target Stages Criteria (if any) Reference Interview questions Why does your organization participate in the work of organizing the events/festivals/activities? How does your organization participate in the work of organizing the events/festivals/activities? Did you find any sponsors or organizations to help organize the festival? Or what kind of help did you find from other parties? How do you realize the cooperation with other organizations to deliver the experience? What kind of experience do you expect to bring to the Non-government audience? organizations Lindlof & Does your organization have any chance to contact with the Management (NGOs) and Taylor, 2011 tourists? If so, how does your organization get them performers involved?

In the case of performing ICH on a tourism occasion, how do you deliver the key message of ICH to the audience (include both locals and tourists)?

What kind of elements do you think are necessary to deliver the experience to the audience? Why? What do you think about promoting ICH as a tourism product? How do you involve the audience in your performance?

Do tourists have any impact on you/your business? What do you think about this?

What do you think about the festival? Jernsand, Kraff, & Local communities Interaction Mossberg, How do you think you can participate in this festival? 2015

Do you have any interaction with tourists? If yes, how do you interact with tourists? Why do you want to contact with tourists? How does the government prepare to help tourists enjoy Pre-trip Gelter, 2006; the ICH in Macau? McKercher & How does the government realize its role in organizing the On-site Ho, 2006 events/activities/plans?

Chi & Qu, 2008; Huh & Government Uysal, 2003; Management authorities Lee et al., 2008; Chen & How does the government contribute to the provision of Post-trip Tsai, 2007; memorable and meaningful experiences of Macau? Lin et al., 2003; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1996

174 Table 4.6. Adjustments of interview questions to tourists

Target Stages Criteria (if any) Reference Interview questions Sub-questions (if any)

Do you have any previous impressive experience sharing on How was that experience? (Removed) Macau? (prompt with ICH items in particular) (Removed)

If yes, what was the most memorable experience like? Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, If no, what do you remember most about the event that you Previous experience 2008 Have you had any previous memorable experiences of local attended? cultural event(s) in Macau? (prompt with ICH items in What is it about Macau that you like the most/the least and why? particular) (Removed) What elements are most important for you when considering attendance at a local event? Benckendorff & Pearce, Expectation What are your expectations for travel to Macau? What are your expectations to join this event? 2012 Why did you decide to visit Macau? Do you have any itinerary? Where would you go and visit? Pre-trip Why did you decide to join this event (i.e. A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon Festival, Feast of Na Tcha) in Macau? Would you like to participate in any events in Macau? Why did you decide to join that event? (Removed) Čomić & Kalmić, 2015; How did you get to know about it? How much do you know about Motivation Jensen, 2015 this event? If yes, please share anything you know about it. If not, what do you think of this event? Have you seen any promotions about the event? (e.g. official Would you like to enjoy any local food in Macau? government websites, promotional materials from social media and (Removed) other channels)? What do you think about the promotions of Macau of that event?

How do you think you can join this event?

What has been your experience here so far? Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell, How could you describe your feelings on the distinctive 2005; Wakefield & ambient environment of Macau (e.g. temperature, sound, Physical environment Blodgett, 1996; Bitner, music, smell, layout, decoration, furniture, signs, style, 1992; Ekerljung, 2015 artefacts)

Tourists How could you describe your feelings associated with your interactions with others, if any? Social environment La Salle & Britton, 2003 How could you describe your feelings on your observation of the locals, if any? On-site How could you describe your feelings on the product (e.g. souvenir) you bought? (Removed) Product/Service Arnould & Price, 1993 How could you describe your feelings on any impressive service you received? (Removed) To what extent do you enjoy the experience? (Removed) Could you evaluate your experiences so far? (Removed) What is so far your best experience? (Removed) What are the best and worst things that have happened to you so far? Evaluation Matteucci, 2015 (Removed) What does this experience mean to you? (Removed) Was the experience enjoyable? How does this experience of event influence your trip? What is your most memorable experience associated with this event? (Removed) How would you describe your enjoyment of Macau?

How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the Evaluation and How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience in Macau, compared to your pre-trip experience? Anderson et al., 1994 recollection experience, compared to your pre-trip experience? How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience on event, compared to your pre-trip experience? How would you describe the most impressive experience you had? Anderson, Fornell, & Lehman, 1994; Bultena & How does your event experience influence your overall Macau Post-trip Satisfaction Klessig, 1969; experience? Westbrook & Oliver, 1991 Will you come back to Macau again? Why or why not? What aspects of Macau would you come back for? Will you consider staying longer next time you visit Macau? Beeho & Prentice, 1997; What aspects of Macau attract you to stay longer? Behavioral intention Why or why not? Yoon & Uysal, 2005 Will you consider joining any other cultural event(s) next time? What aspects of the event attract you the most? Why or why not? What kind of channel(s) (in oral, through photos/videos, or other Willingness to Kim, Duncan, & Chung, Will you consider sharing your event experience to others? social platforms like moments, blogs and travel diary) would you recommend to others 2015; Kozak, 2001 Why or why not? prefer to share with them?

175 Table 4.7. Updated interview questions for tourists

Target Stages Criteria (if any) Reference Interview questions Follow-up questions (if any) Čomić & Kalmić, 2015; Motivation Why did you decide to visit Macau? Do you have any itinerary? Where would you go and visit? Jensen, 2015 Benckendorff & Pearce, Expectation What are your expectations to travel to Macau? 2012 What are your expectations to join this event? How did you get to know about it?

How much do you know about this event? If yes, please share Why did you decide to join this event (i.e. A-Ma Festival, Čomić & Kalmić, 2015; anything you know about it. If not, what do you think of this event? Motivation Feast of Drunken Dragon Festival, Feast of Na Tcha) in Jensen, 2015 Macau? Have you seen any promotions about the event? (e.g. official Pre-trip government websites, promotional materials from social media and other channels)? If yes, what was it? How do you think you can join this event?

If yes, what was the most memorable experience like? Have you had any previous memorable experiences of local Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, cultural event(s) in Macau? Previous experience If no, what do you remember most about the event that you 2008 attended? What are the important elements do you consider to join a local event? What has been your experience of the event so far?

How could you describe your feelings on any observation to the Mossberg, 2007; O’Dell, physical surroundings? Please describe in detail on how special What do you think of the distinctive/unique ambient 2005; Wakefield & objects (what you see, smell, hear and feel) that makes you think Physical environment environment of event (e.g. temperature, sound, music, smell, Blodgett, 1996; Bitner, memorable to this event. layout, decoration, furniture, signs, style, and artefacts)? 1992; Ekerljung, 2015 How do you think of such physical environment have impacts on your On-site feelings? How could you describe your feelings on any observation to the Tourists How could you describe your feelings associate with the social performers, other participants? Social environment La Salle & Britton, 2003 surroundings? How do you think of such social environment have impacts on your feelings? Was the experience enjoyable? Evaluation Matteucci, 2015 How does this experience of event influence your trip? What is your most impressive experience associated with this event?

How would you describe your enjoyment of Macau? How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience in Macau, compared to your pre-trip experience?

Evaluation and Anderson et al., 1994 recollection How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience on event, compared to your pre-trip experience?

How would you describe the most impressive experience you had? Anderson, Fornell, & Lehman, 1994; Bultena & How does your experience on the event influence your overall Post-trip Satisfaction Klessig, 1969; What aspects of the event influence you the most? satisfaction to Macau? Westbrook & Oliver, 1991 Will you come back to Macau again? Why or why not? What aspects of Macao would you come back for? Beeho & Prentice, 1997; Will you consider staying longer next time you visit Macau? Behavioral intention What aspects of Macao attract you to stay longer? Yoon & Uysal, 2005 Why or why not? Will you consider joining any other cultural event(s) next time? What aspects of the event attract you the most? Why or why not? What kind of channel(s) (in oral, through photos/videos, or other Willingness to Kim, Duncan, & Chung, Will you consider sharing your event experience to others? social platforms like moments, blogs and travel diary) would you recommend to others 2015; Kozak, 2001 Why or why not? prefer to share with them?

176 4.9 Preparation work

It is helpful to explain the preparation of data collection in order to ensure a robust approach to data collection for subsequent analysis. Various festivals adopt distinct programs (e.g. parade, lion and dragon dance). They are not static one-stop performances, but move around the city with certain arrangement on the performance schedule. At each stop the performances range in duration from several minutes to an hour depending on the waiting time for the performance to start. In such settings, the researcher needs to grasp every chance to identify potential interviewees when the event starts. Even in these circumstances, it is only possible to interview a limited number of interviewees during the event, taking account of the duration of each in-depth interview. To ensure smooth data collection of sufficient interviewees it was necessary to recruit on-site helpers to conduct the survey simultaneously.

A training on survey guidance and skill to each helper is indeed necessary to get the quality data to be used. Firstly, experienced survey helpers were recruited. Secondly, the researcher prepared a guideline for the helpers and gave a briefing to each of them while answering any questions and raised concerns (see Appendix 1). Such briefing includes introducing the study purpose and survey details, getting through all interview questions with the helpers in order to let them be familiar with the questions, sharing the skills on provoking the responses from the interviewees, informing the possible conditions or difficulties to encounter and the corresponding solutions, the importance notices to have and the necessary support they can get during the survey.

4.10 Formal data collection

177 The in-depth interviews were conducted at the venue or along the route where the events were held. It was conducted during days when the different programs were showing. These survey days are 19-21 April, 3-5 May, 11-13 June 2017 respectively. The tourists who joined the events were eligible to participate in the survey. Purposive sampling was utilized and the survey was conducted based on the willingness and availability of the interviewees to join the survey on site. When a possible interviewee was identified, the researcher and helpers approached the person and confirmed if they were free independent tourists to screen the interviewees. If they were, the researchers and interviewees then raised the request of doing the survey. They were asked whether they had time, were willing to do the interview and be recorded in the conversation. Once the permission was granted, the warm-up questions were asked, and an interview was continued with the main questions (see Appendix 2a). Otherwise, the researcher and the helpers thanked the individual and proceeded to look for other potential participants.

The in-depth interview approach adopted open-ended questions that were designed around the research objectives in order to guide, provoke and explore more detailed responses from the participants (see Appendix 3a, 4a). Although the interview questions are presented in a formal expression and an accurate translation word-by-word from English to Chinese especially for those Chinese speaking interviewees, the questions are necessarily phrased in a general manner without changing the meanings whenever the interviewees raise the concern about the questions or indicate a need for more explanations. The approach put the interviewees at ease and encouraged them to express their viewpoints freely.

4.11 Data analysis procedures

All interview responses were audio-recorded with the permission of interviewees. At the end of each survey day, the researcher sought feedback

178 from the helpers about their perceptions of the interviewees and their comments about potential improvements. As such, the researcher can have a brief idea of the collected data. When the audio-recorded data was returned, the researcher first listened to the materials to become familiar with the data before proceeding to the transcription stage. The audio-recorded data were then transcribed verbatim. Most of the transcriptions were in Chinese, because Macau attracts most tourist arrivals from Mainland China with 66.1% of total number of tourist arrival, Hong Kong (20.7%) and Taiwan (3.5%), followed by other Southeast Asia regions (<1.0%) (DSEC, 2017b). To ensure the consistency of raw data for the analysis, all Chinese transcripts were translated into English (see transcript excerpts in Appendix 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b). Following translation, the researcher went through each Chinese transcript and its corresponding English version to ensure that the meanings were fully expressed and not misinterpreted. Familiarity with the raw data was assured through several rounds of comparing the two versions and repeated listening to the audios. The researcher’s own language proficiency in Chinese (mother tongue) and English (second language) was also helpful for the data analysis. Through the coding process, the meaning of the responses was considered when analyzing to eliminate any potential misinterpretations of meaning.

Data analysis was performed based on the transcribed and translated data. Following the content analysis technique as introduced by Miles et al. (2014), two types of coding were applied, open coding and latent content analysis. In the open coding, the researcher read the transcripts from line to line and identified all the keywords and key phrases as expressed by the interviewees, and then extracted the main idea for each paragraph.

Table 4.8. Example of coding of transcript excerpt – Open coding Transcript excerpt (Interviewee 16, female, Open coding Guangzhou) Interviewer: What do you think of the event?

Interviewee:

179 The culture [in Macau] is rich and with strong Cultural deposits cultural deposits.

Because the Cantonese Opera is always a representative of Chinese traditional culture. [I Traditional culture could enjoy this traditional culture], which is quite good. I see many grandmothers bring their own grandsons or granddaughters, even some babies. Cultural appreciation Although the children could not understand it, if they grow up in such environment, they may feel Cultural transmission the appreciation of this traditional culture, and understand this culture or even transmit this culture. Because Cantonese Opera to us is really a symbol of cultural transmission.

Interviewer: How do you think of the physical surrounding? Interviewee:

The bamboo stage is nearer to earth, which means quite close connection to the local environment and culture. It is not like those Bamboo stage theatres; the decoration is not that grand as theatres. These are quite close to the locals, even Close to local culture the ordinary residents can and are willing to join. Decoration

The preceding discussion is based on the analysis of the interview transcript - Interviewee 16 on her on-site experience during the A-Ma Festival. She went to join the Cantonese Opera. Open coding aims to segment the transcript into coding units, thereby reflecting the meaning of the interviewee either in her own words or summarized terms. For example, the remarks of her experience are in the first sentence. She determined that the culture of Macau has ‘strong cultural deposits’. Thereafter, she revealed that such perception stems from her belief that the Cantonese Opera represents the traditional Chinese culture. Such perception was enhanced when she saw the local participation, thereby leading her to consider cultural appreciation and transmission. She likewise mentioned ‘bamboo stage’ and ‘decoration’ when asked about her experience related to the physical environment. The perception on such environment is ‘close to the locals’, thereby indicating that the decoration is fits the local environment (Table 4.8).

180 After finishing the first stage of descriptive codes - the labeling exercise to the transcript, all existed codes were continuously compared, merged, reviewed and finalized until there were no overlaps of the meanings of each category (Table 4.8). When it comes to the interpretive codes, the themes can be developed based on the current categories to compile the similar categories in a larger set (Miles et al., 2014) (Table 4.9). A few sub-themes are also formed whenever necessary.

The preceding example is also used in the latent content analysis stage. That is, further analysis using open coding is conducted to develop a theme or topic that functioned as inferential, exploratory and interpretive codes that can accurately reflect the meanings expressed by the interviewees. The linkage of the expressions is analyzed in this stage (Table 4.9). In the latent content analysis, it involves a further process of exacting the hidden or alternative message of the responses. It is also the stage of forming categories or codes for the data. It is either based on the exact keywords as expressed from the primary data or developed by the researcher in interpreting the data in a way that is more understandable and easier to apply to academic field based on previous knowledge of the relevant context in the literature.

Table 4.9. Example of coding of transcript excerpt – Latent content analysis Transcripts (excerpt) Open coding Theme Interviewer: What do you think of the event?

Interviewee: The culture [in Macau] is rich and with strong cultural deposits. Cultural deposits Because the Cantonese Opera is always a representative of Chinese traditional culture. [I could enjoy Traditional culture this traditional culture], which is quite good. Importance of I see many grandmothers bring preservation their own grandsons or granddaughters, even some babies. Cultural appreciation Although the children could not Cultural transmission understand it, if they grow up in

181 such environment, they may feel the appreciation of this traditional culture, and understand this culture or even transmit this culture. Because Cantonese Opera to us is really a symbol of cultural transmission. Interviewer:

How do you think of the physical surrounding? Bamboo stage Interviewee: Close to local culture Event settings The bamboo stage is nearer to earth, which means quite close Decoration connection to the local environment and culture. It is not like those theatres; the decoration is not that grand as theatres. These are quite close to the locals, even the ordinary residents can and are willing to join.

For the topic of ‘culture’, the interviewee expressed several key terms as summarized in the open coding. Particularly, the answer to the interview questions mainly expressed her key theme of ‘importance of preservation’ based on her experience, perceptions and observations, even though several key words were used to reveal her feelings. These explanatory terms aim to convey her thoughts on cultural preservation. Similarly, the interviewee used the physical structures to express her experience related to the physical environment. All the referred elements (i.e. bamboo stage and decoration) are part of the event settings, thereby facilitating the generation of her experience to the event settings.

In a continuous process of data analysis, the categories were compared with the created codes recursively. If the response was implicit the same meanings as one of the categories, the response was recorded and grouped into the existing ones and not coded. For example, interviewee 4’s comment of ‘red colored archway, the decoration, it makes me feel lively’ was assigned the ‘event settings’ code because the archway is also part of the event settings. Only when

182 a different meaning was expressed, it was then added to the database in a new category. For example, the comment “There is drunken dragon dance, the most special aspect is the dragon and the expression of getting drunk” (Interviewee 27) is no longer about the setting but on the performances. In such case, a new code is created for the particular responses.

In this stage, some similar categories emerged, however, these categories were only merged in the next stage after all primary data has been reviewed. The categories were cross-checked and critically reviewed several times in order to make sure the data was coded properly. Those similar categories were then decided to combine or not based on their implicit meanings. Another example is when tourists revealed different emotions related to the events (e.g. fresh, relax, lucky, surprise). These feelings are different psychological feelings but also refer to general emotions, which are not elaborated with specific objects. In such a case, these feelings were coded under one category. If different meanings elaborated in nature, the categories remained as their original. However, in the case of specific touching experience with the performers, these emotions were separately listed because the tourists provided explanatory reasons on how such emotions emerged and how they influenced the experiences with and perception of the local culture. By sorting out these, the complicated categories can be reduced after this process, which is better for the later formation of the framework. While, such procedure is not aiming for simplifying the data or distorting the message, but aiming to organize the data in a way that is concise. Misinterpretation is strictly restricted by following the principle of trustworthiness. Therefore, a proper display of the data is pursued at the base of respecting a precise interpretation of the data.

After that, the pattern codes were organized to link the flow of ideas into relationships because the perception of the interviewees reflects a cause and effect relationship and these interviewees may refer to themselves on how they start with such feelings with reasons. As such, it provides a clue to the researcher to examine whether the interviewees keep consistent with their own

183 expressions and link the responses in the relationship among themes. Furthermore, the creation of the ‘spontaneous activity’ pattern code is the result of the interviewees mentioning the reason(s) of joining the ICH event. That is, the majority of the interviewees reflected ‘no reason’ but revealed a few different ‘stimuli’ that can be deduced as spontaneous event participation. Instead of providing specific reasons, tourists are attracted by the physical environment. The detailed analysis will be introduced in Chapter 5. When the pattern codes were developed, the mind map was created to present the categories and their interrelated relationship in a diagram. The details of the formation of the framework are covered in the discussion chapter.

4.12 Chapter summary

This chapter introduces the methodology applied in this research. The methodology first outlined the paradigm, research design and method of data collection and data analysis. The reasons and details for adopting purposeful sampling and focus interview were highlighted as aiming to guide the empirical work in the data collection stage. The scope of the interview was also outlined, including the rationale of targeting the three investigated ICH events and the categorization of the interviewees. A pilot test was conducted to test the validity of research design in approaching the tourists for three separate stages of interview. Based on the results, it proved that the research approach and the interview questions to tourists need to be adjusted accordingly before the formal data collection. In addition, a detailed explanation on the preparation work on conducting quality in-depth interviews was elaborated for a complete referencing work in future. At the end, a brief overview of the formal data collection was presented and the procedures of data analysis were also introduced to help form a solid foundation for the understanding of the logic and consideration in presenting the research findings before continuing to the detailed elaboration on the data analysis.

184 CHAPTER FIVE – TOURIST PERSPECTIVES OF THE ICH EXPERIENCESCAPE

This chapter mainly interprets the findings of the semi-structured interviews with tourists on their experience of ICH. Based on the literature review, it was found that few previous studies have mentioned the experiencescape framework (EK, 2005; Jensen, 2005; O’Dell, 2005a; Pennings, 2015; Willim, 2005). Given this deficiency, the various themes that are presented in the following chapter should help to fill this gap. A qualitative research method of in-depth interviews has been adopted for the data collection and analysis. The chapter begins with a description of the distribution of the interviewees in each festival and their demographic features.

5.1 The interviewees

A designated number of prospective tourists were approached at each festival amounting to a total of 47 interviewees. 16 responses were collected in the case of the A-Ma Festival. At the Feast of Drunken Dragon, 13 tourists joined the survey. Finally, 18 responses were received at the Feast of Na Tcha (Table 5.1). The following tables provide an overview of the interviewee demographic features, including their gender, ages, education, residence and time of visiting Macau, and travel parties.

Table 5.1. Number of tourist interviewees to the surveyed festivals

Festival Number of tourist interviewees A-Ma Festival 16 Feast of Drunken Dragon 13 Feast of Na Tcha 18 Total 47

185 Most interviewees were female (n=30). A majority were in the 25-34 age range (Table 5.2). Since 66.1% of all tourist arrivals to Macau are from Mainland China, greatly exceeding the proportion from other places (DSEC, 2017b), it is inevitable that most interviewees are from Mainland China. However, the distribution of the interviewees from Mainland China is in different regions, to prevent the dominant effect of cultural similarity in the response. Their profile of origin is sorted in regions other than cities to have a clear overview of the data (Table 5.3). Most of the interviewees hold a bachelor’s degree and above. From the responses, it could be seen that the interviewees who have a higher educational level obtain a high possibility to generate rich information based on their knowledge than the lower ones (Table 5.4). The interviewees largely come to Macau for the first time. Their engagement to the ICH-related event is new to them. So an abundant newly-created impression of the event and the city was generated then. Then followed by frequent travelers to Macau, even if they had visited Macau many times, most of them experience the ICH for the first time and have less knowledge about the local ICH (Table 5.5). A summary table is concluded as a review of all tourist interviewees’ demographical information with their occupation included as well (Table 5.6).

Table 5.2. Gender and age distribution of the tourist interviewees

Profile Summary Gender Female 30 Male 17 Age 15-24 7 25-34 21 35-44 6 45-54 6 55-64 2 65-74 4 75-84 1

186 Table 5.3. Origin of interviewees Origin of interviewees South Central (including Henan, Hubei, China China Guangdong, Hong Kong) 24 (including Shanghai, Anhui, Fujian, East China Nanjing, Hangzhou, Taiwan) 9 North China (including Hebei, Shanxi) 1 Total 34 Europe, Africa (including Germany, Italy, France, & Middle East Netherlands, Poland) 5 Australia/New Zealand/South Pacific and (including Australia, New Zealand, Japan, 4 North Asia South Korea) South & 4 Southeast Asia (including Malaysia, Singapore, India) Total 13

Table 5.4. Educational level of tourist interviewees Educational Level Degree Number High school graduate 8 Associate degree 6 Bachelor's degree 20 Master's degree 10 Doctorate degree 3

Table 5.5. Time of visit of tourist interviewees Time of Visit Times Number First time 20 Second time 7 Third time 4 More than three times 3 Frequent traveler 13

187 Table 5.6. Summary of demographic information of each tourist interviewee

Interviewee Educational Time of No. Gender Origin Age Occupation Level Visit Third 1 Female Fujian 30 Accountant Bachelor time Part-time Taxi Middle Once a 2 Male Hong Kong 79 Driver School year 3 Male Fujian 65 Retired Associate First time Middle Every half 4 Female Hong Kong 15 Student School a year 5 Male Hubei 72 Retired High School First time interviewees Once a 6 Female Hong Kong 45 Accountant School year New Once a 7 Male Zealand 42 Yoga teacher Doctorate month Second 8 Male Shanxi 41 Journalist Associate time 9 Female Anhui 32 Administration Bachelor First time 10 Male India 24 Designer Master First time 11 Female Finland 73 Retired Bachelor First time 12 Male France 34 Engineer Doctorate First time Third 13 Female Guangzhou 25 Student Master time 14 Male Poland 44 Freelancer Master First time 15 Male India 26 Photography Master First time 16 Female Guangzhou 26 Administration Bachelor Fifth time Once a 17 Male Hangzhou 34 Businessman Bachelor year Twice a 18 Female Hong Kong 50 Accountant High school year Third 19 Male Guangdong 60 Lecture Doctorate time Second 20 Female Hong Kong 26 Nurse Bachelor time Government 21 Female Taiwan 54 officer Bachelor First time 22 Female Hong Kong 22 Student Bachelor First time The 23 Male Netherlands 30 Student Bachelor First time 24 Male Italy 24 Engineer Master First time Property Once a 25 Female Hong Kong 28 Management Bachelor year Every half 26 Female Taiwan 48 Engineer Master a year Fourth 27 Female Guangzhou 65 Retired Bachelor time

188 28 Female Korea 33 Bank worker Master First time Once a 29 Male Hong Kong 25 IT Master month Third 30 Female Guangzhou 39 Doctor Associate time 31 Female Guangzhou 32 Accountant Associate First time Travel jets 32 Male Germany 42 agent Bachelor First time Second 33 Male Zhongshan 29 Salesman Bachelor time Second 34 Female Shenzhen 24 Nurse Associate time Three times a 35 Female Foshan 27 Administrator Bachelor year Middle 36 Female Dongguan 22 Worker school First time 37 Female Guangzhou 30 Bank clerk Associate Fifth time Middle Once a 38 Female Foshan 54 Farmer school year Second 39 Female Guangzhou 34 Self-employee High school time Second 40 Female Australia 58 Shop owner Bachelor time Language 41 Female Japan 45 teacher Bachelor First time Second 42 Male Malaysia 28 Bank clerk Master time Once or twice in a 43 Female Shanghai 39 Accountant Bachelor year 44 Female Nanjing 25 Student Master First time Factory 45 Male Taiwan 30 worker Bachelor First time 46 Female Henan 22 Student Bachelor First time Once a 47 Female Hong Kong 30 Retail Bachelor year

5.2 Pre-event experience

According to the conceptual framework that was proposed in Section 2.4 (Figure 5.1), previous researchers have not defined the process of tourists’ evolving experience in the pre-trip stage within the context of experiencescape. To provide a clearer focus on the research topic of ICH, the pre-event

189 experience was examined to place further emphasis on ICH experiencescapes instead of investigating the pre-trip experience, given that irrelevant information may be included that can affect the result of studying ICH.

Figure 5.1. Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (pre-event experience) (adopted from Campos et al., 2015) It has been found that the tourist interviewees have not reflected rich information on their pre-event experience since there was no obvious planned behavior in joining the event. However, during the interview process, tourists may inadvertently reveal their previous experiences of joining similar events and share their associated memories of those experiences. Such information reflected tourist’s pre-event experiences, which can be interpreted as pre-event experience instead of the experience in other stages. The pre-event experience embodies the following themes from the tourist perspective.

5.2.1 Spontaneous event participation

According to tourist pre-event experience, most viewed their festival attendance as spontaneous. This is indicated through a process of generating continuous stimuli to join the event. When asked about their purpose of travel to Macau and travel plans, most interviewees indicated that they travel for leisure and usually follow no itinerary, because they view Macau as small and easily navigable. Instead of following a full itinerary, most interviewees chose to explore the city freely, only visiting famous tourist spots like the Ruins of St. Paul’s, Senado Square, A-Ma Temple and the Venetian. In practice, the venues

190 for the various ICH related events blend into these famous sites (i.e. A-Ma Temple, Ruins of St. Paul’s, and Senado Square). Tourists were approached at these sites. “There is no certain itinerary to follow. After we check in from the hotel, we start to explore the city and come to this area, the must-go site and then we will go back.” (Interviewee 31). “We come to Macau for sightseeing. We don’t follow any plan. We just go around and look around.” (Interviewee 10)

When the interviewees revealed the reason for joining the event, a majority of them could not offer a concrete answer, because the tourists came across the event when they visited the area instead of joining the event by purpose. “We don’t know anything about it in particular. We just pass by and we hear the sounds of the drum and then we go and have a look.” (Interviewee 29). In most cases, the tourists know nothing about the event, but they were attracted by the lively atmosphere, including the sound, the performance, performers, and decoration.

A lady interviewee from Guangzhou who travelled with her parents and her child believes in Buddhism. She usually goes to temple to pray when there is a temple fair or folk custom in her hometown. She just came across the event by chance. She said, “We just go inside the Na Tcha Temple to pray. Because my child heard the sound of the drum and saw the lion dance, he found it very nice.” (Interviewee 30)

On the first day of the celebration of the Feast of Na Tcha, apart from the local performing teams, the group of Wong Tai Sin Temple in Hong Kong was also invited to hold the temple ceremony. A hundred Taoist monks gathered together in the ceremony, along with other performers. The celebration is grand. Not surprisingly, there is a lively atmosphere which prompts spontaneous interest from those neighbors. One interviewee described the scene as follows:

It is very lively, at the same time, while they are having the parade, there are many different performing teams. I could see many different temples [‘s participation], like Na Tcha Temple and Wong Tai Sin Temple gather together to celebrate this event. (Interviewee 35).

191 Being impressed by the lively atmosphere, this interviewee was attracted to join the event when he encountered the scale of performance. He also found the event is unique and worth enjoying.

5.2.1.1 Stimuli

McCartney and Ip Si Kei (2018) identified several key motives of festival attendants, among which novelty seeking and festival atmosphere are two key reasons that demonstrate the importance of local festival in providing such experience. Tourists also revealed several psychological reasons for deciding to join. The following stimuli attracted tourists who are already visiting the area to enjoy the event and stay longer. Such stimuli occur mainly because the tourists were curious about the culture. They had a desire to experience and learn about local culture.

One interviewee said, he is curious to know about the culture, “We travelled here for leisure. Because we visit Macau at the right time of this event, it offers good opportunity for us to learn about it clearer.” (Interviewee 26).

An old retired lady who travelled with three other friends coming to Macau for the third time had never experienced the local event. She is curious to learn the culture. While she was waiting for the opening ceremony of Feast of Drunken Dragon, she tried to know more about the background of the event by asking a local resident the reasons why the celebration works like this.

I asked an old man [about the origin of the Feast of Drunken Dragon], he said, “it is an event organized by the fishery community, all fishermen do not sell fish today. They are off.” I asked what others [locals] eat then. He said, “The vegetables.” I asked then, “There must have fish to eat [today], right? Because they are fisher community.” He said, “Not really. They will eat vegetables today.” (Interviewee 27).

This lady revealed a need to know the story and is curious about what people do during the event.

192 Other interests in the event are raised by the needs to experience a local culture. “It is very good, unbelievable. I really like to experience Asian culture, especially the traditional culture. I like to know about traditions and family of the place. That is why I come.” (Interviewee 15). “I have many opportunities to travel. So if there are events, I will join. It brings you closer to the people you know.” (Interviewee 32). It also indicates what tourists expect to perceive from the event.

The following quotations reflect how tourists expect to experience a different religious culture and learn knowledge from participation. A Chinese girl who has already travelled to Macau many times likes to experience the local culture by learning about different religions. Macau feels different to her. Although it is a special administrative region in China, Macau has been influenced by western culture. Through attending the different events in the church and temple, “I could understand the different cultures. So, I want to see how different people perceive religions differently [through my participation in this event].” (Interviewee 16). The previous mentioned retired lady also found the participation in a local event could let her “learn some knowledge while widening our life. Your feeling will also become better. It happens right here, doesn’t it?” (Interviewee 27)

Although the researcher did not count the number of religious or non-religious believers during the interviews, there is a clear indication of the religious and non-religious believers on their reflections of their stories. Most interviewees were not religious believers. As for religious believers, the stimuli of the event is prolonged and deepened because of the attachment to the religion. The support to a local event tie closed to a religion is seen a devout activity. A Chinese man from Shanxi came to Macau for the second time. He chose to visit the A-Ma Temple again because he is a religious believer. He got surprised to involve in the festival as he never had known about it.

I didn’t know it [the A-Ma Festival] before. It can be called “destiny or luck” [for me to join this festival] on the lunar calendar of the 23rd of

193 March. Actually, before I came, I was confused with “Tin Hau” or “A- Ma”. People all call them “Buddha”, right? Actually, I think, no matter it is Buddhism or Taoism or Ma Zhu, any school of God, they all deliver positive messages to the people. The festival is a charity with sharing good things and speaking to people with positive attitude. It transmits such tradition of a belief. (Interviewee 8)

Another religious believer from Fujian also shared her surprise about the event.

I don’t know about this event actually, even I don’t know it is the birth of A-Ma. I just passed by and saw the event here. When I asked the lady selling the incense I know, it is the birth of A-Ma. I feel so lucky [to join this]. (Interviewee 1)

5.2.2 Previous similar event experience

Not all tourist interviewees revealed that they had previous experience of joining a similar event before. About a third mentioned their previous similar event experiences during the interview. When these tourists encountered the current event, they recalled memories of previous experience of any similar components of those events they joined or experienced before. Most are from regions where there are similar ritual practices or similar event components (e.g. lion dance) in their residence places. Since the investigated ICH events are typical traditions in south coastal area of China (i.e. Hong Kong, Fujian province, Guangdong province and Taiwan), those tourists who come from this area are more likely to have such similar event experience than the other tourists and they possibly reflected such experience in the interview. However, the finding from the interview did not show a certain pattern of this group of tourists. Not all tourist interviewees who come from the south coastal area have revealed previous similar event experience. Only about one third of the total interviewees who come from Hong Kong, Fujian, Guangdong and Taiwan have reflected their experience on the similar events in their residence places. The

194 rest are those tourists who have previous similar experience in other destinations while they are travelling elsewhere, or in an exceptional case of an Australian tourist whose current living place is close to a Chinese temple. She used to see such lion dance practices at home (Interviewee 40).

I remember, the Chinese in Australia have a dragon that goes to every shop to pray, so, it reminds me of that. A blessing, good luck. In Australia, we live next door to the Chinese temple, so I watch them practice this with dragon, I hear them practicing and doing the dragon. So, I know they have to practice, so they can see where they are going….But this is bigger and more people involved. Ours is small.

Those who grew up in coastal areas of China such as Guangdong, Fujian, Hong Kong and Taiwan often expressed nostalgic feelings or revealed an associative memory to familiar scenes when they see the elements of the performance. This background prompts their interest in supporting regional culture.

Because it is Cantonese culture, we should support. I am also originally from Guangdong because my ancestors are all Guangdong people. I saw the lion and dragon dance when I was young. But when I grew up, it is hard to see this anymore. So, when we came across it here, we decided to go and have a look. (Interviewee 29)

I did experience similar event in Fujian before. Because Fujian is the origin of A-Ma, the event is much grander than this one. Even for the China Central Television (CCTV), they had a video shot in Fujian before, called “Our Chinese Heart”. (Interviewee 3)

It reminds me of the time when I was in Hong Kong. I used to join the event organized by the Tin Hau Temple in Cheung Chau, a famous place in Hong Kong. My relatives used to be association members there. I go to that temple every year. (Interviewee 2)

An old retired man from Hong Kong used to work in the area of inner harbor which is quite close to A-Ma temple when he was young. He was quite familiar

195 with Macau. He always came to Macau because he missed the time when he was here. He likes to eat in a restaurant near the temple. Like the same, this time, he brought his family to Macau and shared the feelings with them. When he revisited the A-Ma Temple this time, he joined the event by chance (Interviewee 2).

A few tourists shared that they used to travel in the place where there are similar event components in their previous experience, the experience of this event in Macau arouses their memories of prior experience. A tourist from Shanxi shared,

I didn’t know it is a festival today. But I see the flags, in Mainland China, we don’t have such flags, it makes me hold a revered feel to the god…And it is different from the celebration in Mainland China. It has its specialty. This event also has similar performance elements in other parts of China I travelled, like deafening sound of gongs and drums. No matter in the southern or northern part of China, there are lion performances, and sometimes with dragon dance. (Interviewee 8)

He was attracted by the special decor of the event in Macau and also identified the similar elements that he tried to make a connection to his previous travelling experience in other places in Mainland China, even a comparison of the similarity and differences between cultures.

A tourist from France also arouses the feelings of previous experience of a similar event when he travelled.

Actually, I saw something similar in Japan. It reminds us of some memories in Japan. But we cannot describe it clearly. To us, we cannot easily distinguish Asian culture, like these traditional practices. We felt they are almost the same in Japan. Because when you see something you don’t really understand, it would cause confusion of memory. (Interviewee 12).

196 Although this tourist could not clearly describe the previous similar event experience, it does not affect the existence of the fact that he had a similar event in another destination. Otherwise, he could not make such assumption and connection in mind.

Summary

Overall it was evident that tourists did not join local events purposefully during the pre-event stage, since they did not expect to encounter the event, but did so by chance prompting a spontaneous activity. Through various stimuli, tourists are progressively drawn to join the event. When such event motivations were aroused, some interviewees recalled their prior experience of similar events. Most who had previous comparable event experiences are from similar cultural backgrounds whose areas of regular residence also have similar ritual practices or celebration components. A few others had connected the current experience with previous travelling experience on any similar events they joined before. In the following section, a detailed discussion will be covered in the tourist experience on their real participation. Being attracted by these different stimuli as reflected above, tourists choose their own ways to participate in the event.

5.3 On-site experience

On-site experience mainly focuses on tourist experience about their participation when events are occurring. The tourist responses mainly reveal their prompt reflections of the observation and participation of the events on site. Based on the literature review in Chapter Two, Campos et al. (2018) revealed the on-site experience contains components of active participation, social interaction and psychological states and processes. The active participation, shortly, participation, is either physical or emotional engagement in the experience. In Campos et al.’s (2015) discussion, both active participation and social interaction are influential factors arousing to the tourists’ psychological feelings (Figure 5.2). However, as stated in the literature review,

197 there is lack of empirical research to address the cause-effect relationship. In the following discussion, the tourist’s responses will be presented according to the current framework of on-site experience and at the same time to evaluate the findings revealed within the three components.

Figure 5.2. Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (on-site experience) (adopted from Campos et al., 2015)

5.3.1 Participation

Toursits seek for physicial, social and psychological outcomes during the participartion (Taylor et al., 2016). Campos et al. (2018) referred to the active participation as either physical or emotional engagement with the experience. However, previous literature does not provide clear definitions of the physical and emotional engagement, probably because it is easy to distinguish them from the wording of physical and emotional. These two dimensions are frequently used in the organization management of employees. Engagement was founded in the literature in the early 1990s by William Kahn (Kahn, 1990). The two main dimensions were subsequently referred to commonly as physical and emotional. Emotional engagement was described as the deepest level that a person involves his/her emotional experience at a certain environment. It can be interpreted as deep-seated engagement which is motivated by the desire to achieve certain positive feelings or goals (Fleming, Coffman, & Harter, 2005; Gourlay et al., 2012). The main difference between the physical and emotional engagement is people’s varying degree of their selves in the roles they perform.

198 If physical resources invested into the role performance, that means physical engagement. If emotional resources invested into the role performance, it can be interpreted as emotional engagement (Kahn, 1990). In this research, there is a clear reflection told by tourists of their engagement with the event. Tourists themselves use the possible physical resources (e.g. camera) standing in front of the performance taking photos without any deep engagement emotionally, which can be interpreted as physical engagement. They are the persons who stand by and join the event without any deep reflections about the event experience or only take photos as a record. Most interviewees were physically engaged in the event. They told that they took photos or videos during the event when asked about their participation. This can also be confirmed through the researcher’s on-site observation. “We took some videos of it.” (Interviewee 1) “I just took photos and go surround the event.” (Interviewee 13) “I will follow them [the masters] around, because it is just around the stage area of the prayer ceremony. It finishes quick [which won’t affect my itinerary].” (Interviewee 4) Some mentioned a shallow experience when participating in the events. “We are just here to look around and experience it.” (Interviewee 21) “We are just here to watch as onlookers to see what happened. In fact, it is crowd. We can only watch through the crowd of spectators. I even don’t take any photos, how about taking a photo for me? It shows that I am here to join the event.” (Interviewee 27)

Conversely, there is another group of tourists who had a deep reflection on the event experience and enjoying the event in a sustained manner with a view to remembering or understanding it. In this research, it has been found that relatively few people engage emotionally with the event. Tourists who engaged in depth with the event shared a strong feeling of participation. For example, one interviewee mentioned that she enjoyed Cantonese Opera and lost track of time.

199 I didn’t take photos. I listened to the performance all the time. Because I find it very interesting, I fully engaged in the performance, and also I could understand what they perform. (Interviewee 16).

Tourists engage in the festival celebrations. They either enjoy themselves holding a home feeling, or express their feelings of engagement through appreciating the program.

I can tell you if you are talking about the comparison of the two places [Macau and interviewee’s hometown – Fuzhou], although this one is smaller in scale, here, in Macau, it brings more home feeling, which, eventually, makes the entire feeling of the event totally different… This one is much more friendly [than the one in Fuzhou]….. I think everyone here is really sincere. (Interviewee 1)

Or one may aim to memorize the performance and record it in their mind as a memorable experience of the trip. “We sit there and listen, I memorize the performance and record in my mind.” (Interviewee 14). When a tourist has an emotional tie to the involved environment, his or her participation in the event may be deeper. One interviewee expressed that he was touched by the other participants and expected to engage like others. “We follow with a heart like these believers - sincere, happy and excited.” (Interviewee 5)

Even though some tourists cannot understand the language, they still engaged themselves in the performance.

I love the environment. It is really nice and friendly. The locals, even I don’t know the language, it is very homely. It is difficult to understand one another, but I think, with the expressions, with the understanding, we can figure it out. (Interviewee 15)

While, for the tourists who can understand the local culture and language, they even engage themselves more as a local in the enjoyment of the performance and forget the time.

200 I could not imagine I can stay here for that long. I come here around 3 o’clock, but you can see the time, it is already two or three hours past. Originally, I’d like to leave earlier, but when I join the performance, I found their performance is quite humorous and interesting, and it also raises the concern of people’s livelihood. And the performance transfers the message of the positive attitude towards life. Therefore, I cannot stop enjoying it for so long. (Interviewee 16)

5.3.2 Social interactions

Apart from active participation, Campos et al. (2018) mentioned social interaction as an influencing factor which arouses tourists’ psychological feelings (Figure 5.2). However, there is no significance of the social interaction in the reflections of tourist experience on site. The majority of the interviewees reflected that they haven’t interacted with the locals, performers or other tourists during the event. Because they regarded the participation of the event as an independent activity only enjoyed by themselves. They do not expect such social interaction when enjoying the event. As a consequence, most interviewees did not reflect much information on the interaction with others. Instead, the researcher could only ask tourists about their observations and perceptions to others. Such reflections reveal tourist’s psychological states which are elaborated in the later discussion.

As an exceptional case, only two of all tourist interviewees mentioned that they have talked to locals about the event. In the previous discussion, the female Guangzhou resident mentioned that she talked to a local to consult some background information about the event (Interviewee 27). Similarly, the Chinese man who was curious about the difference between the labeling of “Tin Hau” or “A-Ma”. He asked a local lady and received her help. Later, he thanked her with a bottle of water. As he recalled,

201 I don’t know that Tin Hau is Ma Zhu, I asked the lady, the woman who sells the incense in the temple, and she explained to me that they are exactly the same…. I also asked her to help change 30 dollars into coins, and she carefully put all coins with the red pockets, which lets me feel touched. Because she knows those changes/coins are used for praying. As a return, I bought the water for her. I tried to say in Cantonese, “the weather is hot, I do hope you take good rest and save your energy.” I don’t know whether I am right or not in the pronunciation. She said, “Thanks.” You see, the conversation and the communication between us. We both get good mood because of such interaction. You will see how people start to strengthen the communication through such way. (Interviewee 8)

These two interviewees have told that they have experience of interacting with locals. However, it is rare to find the same pattern in other tourist’s reflections. Therefore, it is not significant to conclude that tourists had social interaction in the on-site experience.

5.3.3 Psychological states and processes

As noted in the prior literature, psychological states and processes associated with the on-site experience refer to feelings including sensations, perceptions, thoughts, images, attention, feelings and emotions along with involvements in the experience environment (Campos et al., 2018; Larsen, 2007). But there are no concrete manifestations of such feelings introduced. The program contents are quite rich in the three investigated ICH events including the stage performance, parade, ceremony, lion dance, dragon dance and there are also various performing teams involved. Any event attributes in the experience environment may arouse tourist’s psychological feelings. It is possible for them to express anything regarding their experience to the particular attributes that make them impressed. In practice, tourist interviewees expressed various

202 feelings associated with the event attributes in a wide range of words and in diverse dimensions. These feelings revealed their psychological states of perceptions, thoughts, images and emotions on the different event attributes ranging from tangible to intangible ones. It is worth stressing that it is difficult to distinguish tangible elements from intangible elements since they are interconnected and supplement each other. The performance cannot stand alone without the event settings and all other necessary performance elements. These psychological states were summarized in the following categories, which will be elaborated in details. A summary table is also presented to briefly show the results in a concise way (Table 5.7).

Table 5.7. Tourist psychological states to the ICH events and the relevant attributes (Source: author)

Psychological states Event attributes Images on: Intangible: Performance  Lively atmosphere  Lion and dragon dance  Religious ceremony  Cantonese Opera  Parade  Necessary props Tangible: Event settings  Event layout and decoration  Community-based settings  Traditional materials in set-up Thoughts on: Learning about  A search for new experience traditional culture  Know a different Macau The importance of  Represent Macau’s traditional preservation culture The power of religion  Religious ritual Emotions on: Appreciation of local  Performer engagement to the culture performance ((hard working, gestures, voice, costume) Enthusiastic participation  Local participation Others  Fresh, friendly, holly, relax, lucky, surprise, sincere, positive

5.3.3.1 Images on performance

203 Festival program is a key determinant of tourist satisfaction and loyalty (Tanford & Jung, 2017), especially when such program highlights an authentic cultural tradition (McCartney & Ip Si Kei, 2018). The performance is a vital component of the event, including across different programs – lion and dragon dance, religious ceremony, parade, Cantonese Opera and the necessary props used in the performance, and the roll of drums. The most expressed psychological states by tourists are related to the performance. The most frequently mentioned word “lively” in the impression of the event is reflected by tourists. Such lively atmosphere emerged from the active event atmosphere aroused by the performances, which also benefited from the event setting.

[The event] is very lively and festive. It is also in Chinese feature. In Mainland China, there are many activities like this with lion or dragon dance performance. (Interviewee 28)

Because this area [Ruins of St. Paul’s] is already a famous site, there are many tourists. The event organized in this area makes the whole environment quite alive. (Interviewee 44)

Various performance elements were also observed and referred to when tourists exposed their images of the performance. An Anhui born Chinese girl, who studied in Guangzhou, has never joined the religious ceremony as celebrated in Macau. She thought such traditions have regional characteristics.

[The event] is a local feature, it is rare to see such kind of religious ceremony in other places, such as lion dance and worship, which is really rare to see. I think it should be of Lingnan culture, exclusively for the area in Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Macau. (Interviewee 13)

Other interviewees were also surprised about the programs, and impressed with the performance.

I see different facets of Macau which I haven’t seen before, such as the drunken dragon dance, the street market and the exhibitions held in street market. They are all quite special. (Interviewee 26)

204 There is drunken dragon dance, the most special aspect is the dragon and the expression of getting drunk. You see, there is spraying wine (Figure 4.2). Only when there is wine, it will get drunk. It is also the tradition of the fishery community. Besides, the organizer invites performance teams from Singapore, Japan, and Taiwan. (Interviewee 27)

When foreign tourists came across the event, they found it even more surprising and interesting, compared to their own culture.

The music is good and people get together, and the performance of course, too, especially the dance with the dragon. We don’t have that in Europe. That’s pretty much interesting. (Interviewee 32)

5.3.3.2 Images on event settings

Settings where events or festivals take place significantly influence an individual’s experience, in particular for the outdoor activities when physical landscape shape tourist experience (Taylor et al., 2016). Another frequently mentioned image is on tourist experience of the physical event settings. The layout of the event settings and applied decoration of the venue are impressive, such as the bamboo stage used in the Cantonese Opera, the red colored archway in front of the A-Ma Temple and the flag signs. These are all typical event decorations of the traditional ICH events in Macau. These eye-catching decorations are referred to when tourists are expressing their experience on site.

You see the red colored archway (Figure 10), the decoration, it makes me feel lively. It is rare to see such in Hong Kong. (Interviewee 4)

Furthermore, the settings are quite close to the local life in its original settings.

[The setting] makes me realize the community thing. All people live here, the younger's [participation]. People dress up to make it special (Figure 5.3). So, even though we don't know this stamp, we know it is a special occasion. (Interviewee 40)

205

Figure 5.3. Dress-up performers in Feast of Na Tcha (Source: author) The decoration of the place is very simple, not that extravagant, but at the same time, it reflects the theme of the A-Ma temple. If it is extravagant, it becomes a waste, right? The event does not decorate that grand, but it still keeps the lively atmosphere of a festival (Figure 5.4). (Interviewee 8)

206 Figure 5.4. Setting of A-Ma Festival (Source: author) The bamboo materials using for holding the stage are reversible which is considered environmentally friendly.

[The bamboo stage] is nearer to earth, which means quite close connection to the local environment and culture. It is not like those theatres; the decoration is not that grand as theatres (Figure 5.5). These are quite close to the locals, even the ordinary residents can and are willing to join. (Interviewee 16)

Figure 5.5. Bamboo structured performance stage (Source: author)

5.3.3.3 Thoughts on learning about traditional culture

Apart from the images on the performance and event setting which can be observed, tourists also reflected their thoughts on the ICH. 18 tourist interviewees have reflected their thoughts on the local culture in varying degrees. Their thoughts include the learning about traditional culture, the importance of preservation and the power of religion.

The participation in the local events as perceived by tourists as a way to learn about the local culture, in further to experience the city from a different angle is

207 out of the routine of mass tourism. Some tourists reflect a search for new experience and feeling associated with the encountered event spontaneously. The event is perceived as an opportunity to know a different Macau.

I can tell you. My impression here, for instance, the event, theatre, performance I staying right now. I feel it is one of the most original pieces of culture that I see in Macau. Macau is famous for gambling, and all of that, but if you want to experience real Macau, real what local people do, it is something like this. (Interviewee 15)

Firstly, is the purpose and value of holding the event. They [the organizers] promote the culture and this culture makes Chinese people understand and learn more about its own culture….I think, Macau is not only a modern city as we know of its gambling, but also has its own ethnic culture, which is rich in feature. ….I think, Macau is of rich cultural deposits. (Interviewee 33)

The event also provides learning opportunity of traditional culture.

[The Cantonese Opera] draws my attention, and I stay there to watch it, and I am thinking excited. [I am glad to see this cultural thing.] ….Well, actually, I am happy to see this, to learn a little bit more about the culture here. Positive! …..Just like the people are excited about it. It’s really fun, you know. (Interviewee 32)

[A-Ma Festival] lets me learn a lot of new things, I know, Tin Hau is exactly A-Ma, at least, I learn this. I didn’t know anything about the A- Ma festival before. Today, I search online, in particular, I learn this from the participation. Previously, I never notice about this. If there are other social activities, I will join if possible, maybe I will also learn something. When others communicate with me, I can confidently share my learning with others. Actually, all we learn is accumulated from the experience we encounter in daily life. (Interviewee 8)

208 Even for the foreigners, the experience of the event provides them an angle to learn about Chinese culture.

[The event] is something new about China. It is something we have never seen in our place. It is impressive to us. I took a lot of pictures. (Interviewee 11)

5.3.3.4 Thoughts on the importance of preservation

The recognition of the importance of traditional ICH in Macau is revealed by tourists. Although tourists didn’t notice the culture as an ICH item, they realized the event is organized in its traditional way representing the culture of Macau and it is a meaningful performance for the community. As such, the necessity of preserving the traditional culture is raised.

A man from Hong Kong who is a frequent traveler to Macau mentioned that it is the first time he encountered such traditional performance in Macau when travelling. It has been a long time since he used to see such practice when he was young. He was touched with the nostalgia feeling of the traditional practice.

Here I could feel a little bit of the traditional taste of the culture. Maybe because it is held in such a traditional cultural atmosphere, and it requires the performers with rich performance skills. All these can be reflected from their gestures. I also do hope such traditional culture can be transmitted for long, and more people can keep practicing these skills. Because it is rare to see such real practice in our daily life, not to say, the transmission of the culture. (Interviewee 29)

Similarly, the participation of the younger generations is also a symbol as perceived by tourists as cultural transmission to the traditions.

I just see a lot of people getting in cars. I feel they are very enthusiastic, especially for the younger generations. It shows a strong connection of

209 passing down the traditional culture from the old generation. [It is hard to see such]. (Interviewee 31)

The culture [in Macau] is rich and with strong cultural deposits. Because the Cantonese Opera is always a representative of Chinese traditional culture. [I could enjoy this traditional culture], which is quite good. I see many grandmothers bring their own grandsons or granddaughters, even some babies. Although the children could not understand it, if they grow up in such environment, they may feel the appreciation of this traditional culture, and understand this culture or even transmit this culture. Because Cantonese Opera to us is really a symbol of cultural transmission. (Interviewee 16)

Such feelings are not only perceived by the Chinese, but also by foreigners, notably in the case of an Indian tourist who expressed the importance of keeping the tradition as a way to learn the roots of one’s culture.

I think the impact had on me is that every culture, every country, every region, has a certain way of life. It has a certain history, if you do not preserve that history, we don’t know who we are. Because we need to know. If I don’t know my grandparents, what is the point of me? I have no connection to my roots. These are my roots. This is my culture. This [The traditional event] is traditional roots. Because it is important to know where you come from, in order to know where you are going. (Interviewee 15)

5.3.3.5 Thoughts on the power of religion

A few others mentioned the power of religion. These three ICH-related events are of strong religious culture as the base of celebrating the festivals – the rituals of A-Ma, Buddhism and Na Tcha. During the events, participants can easily find the elements of the religion through the decoration, costume, performance, and ceremony. Furthermore, the sincere prayers, atmosphere, and

210 its related traditional praying activities bring a rich cultural atmosphere, which is perceived by tourists as a power of religion. They express such feelings as,

[The celebration] is a kind of communication with the god. People can feel the power of A-Ma. I don’t know whether something existed other than science. At least, at the praying moment, the person has the inner feelings that belong to him. (Interviewee 8)

No matter the person has a religion or not, the atmosphere of the religious practice aroused some tourists’ feeling of the god.

What we see is the worship, there is a master leading the ceremony spilling the wine. [I could feel] the existence of god and being protected. I could feel a power of religion. (Interviewee 13)

5.3.3.6 Emotions on appreciation of local culture

A wide range of emotions was expressed by the tourists on the aspects of local cultural appreciation, impressive and memorable experience and enthusiastic participation of the audience and other various feelings. Nearly half of the tourist interviewees expressed their emotions on the appreciation of local culture through their expressions in respect to the performers.

I think [the event] decorates in respect to the traditional culture. In the modern environment nowadays, these performers could let us know more about what the traditional culture looks like. (Interviewee 44)

The feeling of appreciation is not only embedded in the performance, but also to the culture itself and to the performers in their engagement with the performance. The performers play a key role for tourists to appreciate the local culture. The performers present the tradition to the audience, whose professionalism has a critical effect on the accurate expression of the performance. In the meanwhile, the tourist audience generates experience about the performers while enjoying the program. The responses mainly indicate a

211 view that the performers are professional and energetic in delivering the message of a traditional culture to their audience.

The most impressive feeling is that the performers are quite hard, they perform their best for the enjoyment of the audience, and they also interact with the audience. They are quite professional and they do not just treat the culture as a performance, but they themselves also enjoy it. (Interviewee 16)

The performers are also praised as they stand the hot weather for performance. Being touched by the hard work of the performers, some tourists generate respectful feelings to the culture because of the performance.

I think [the performers] are quite hard performing under such hot days. [The organizers and the performers] put their heart in organizing the event and express what they want to deliver and promote the culture. I think they really play hard to organize this. Of course, the passion from the audience is also an appraisal of their performance and hard work. (Interviewee 33)

We really appreciate their performance, they perform with their heart. They have kept practicing it for long. At least, they try their best to perform, it is already enough. It shows that they are really sincere to respect the tradition. Therefore, we appreciate their performance. (Interviewee 29)

Tourists are also impressed by the details of the performers and their performance, including their gestures, voice and costume.

I like it [the Cantonese Opera] because it is the first time I see a piece of Cantonese opera and it makes me enthusiastic. I like this voice; I like these colors [night view on the stage decoration around 9 pm] (Figure 5.6); I like these moves; I like these facial expressions (Figure 5.7). It is amazing. Something different for me. Something new. (Interviewee 14)

212

Figure 5.6. Night view of the Cantonese performance stage (Source: author)

Figure 5.7. Cantonese Opera performers (Source: author) The way of presenting the tradition along the time and for the enjoyment of the audience is a great appreciation by tourists. Such appreciation were expressed through words.

213 I think there are many [innovative or technological] things now. But you cannot control that. The society needs to develop and people need to improve, and there must be new things. It is really rare to keep the traditions under such environment. Although the environment is changed, the spirit of a place is not lost….You see, such traditional Chinese culture has remained in Macau for a long time (pointing to the lion and dragon dance). (Interviewee 19)

Everyone has his/her own belief. People here organize and celebrate the religion in their own ways, as long as they follow their religion, I think, it is good, I respect it. (Interviewee 3)

5.3.3.7 Emotions on enthusiastic participation

The warmly welcoming ICH-related events attract the participation of both locals and tourists. The enthusiastic participation is perceived by a few interviewees in terms of their observations to other participants. Many locals also joined the events and were involved in the same environment as the tourists. Therefore, a few tourists made observations about the locals in their comments. “People here attach great importance to their festivals. They (the locals) have a high participation in the local events and engaged themselves a lot in the event.” (Interviewee 21). “I feel that the involvement of the people is quite strong, no matter the old or the younger performers, they all [participate in] the performance. The whole atmosphere of the involvement is quite strong to me.” (Interviewee 17).

Another tourist from India also expressed his feelings on the local’s participation.

Locals work to survive their families, have a good time. These are the places [point to the bamboo stage for Cantonese Opera] they come and have a good time. So, if I can have a piece of that, I think I am extremely a lucky person that I do experience something like that.

214 Because this is what real Macau is about, experiencing what locals do…..I saw the locals, I think they are enjoying a good time, they are laughing, they come with their family, with their children, so it is basically a way for them to have a break from day to day business, they come here to have a good time, and then go back to work. So, it is really fun. (Interviewee 15)

5.3.3.8 Other psychological states

Apart from the above tourist’s images, thoughts and emotions of the event, tourists obtain other different psychological states, including fresh (Interviewee 45), friendly (Interviewee 15), holly (Interviewee 10), relax (Interviewee 8, 43), lucky (Interviewee 15, 30), surprise (Interviewee 12, 21, 43, 45), sincere (Interviewee 1, 8, 29), positive (Interviewee 16, 32), etc. Some examples of the expressions are:

From my own feelings, it is a feeling of enjoyment. Besides, my mind is calm when I join this. … What I see here is the sincerity, which I think the most impressive feeling I have, even impressive than I was here for the first time…. I could see the face of each person with such sincerity, which touched me a lot. (Interviewee 8)

This antique beauty environment makes me think that, as a Chinese, I am very proud that we have such traditional Chinese culture. (Interviewee 6)

In summary, the tourist’s psychological states associated with the events are quite rich, comprehensive and expressive. Various event attributes contribute to the formation of tourist’s rich psychological feelings. These event attributes contain both the physical elements in experience environment and also the people who critically play important roles in the performance. Tourist interviewees not only expressed directly their observations on the physical environment and the performers but also expressed the inner thoughts of the

215 various experience aroused from their observations. Although Campos et al. (2015) claimed psychological states as a general result of tourist on-site experiences, this research proved to be too general and imprecise. In the case of the present research, the tourist reflections revealed a variety of psychological states aligning with multiple categorizations. Since these psychological states can be presented in a more concise and systematic way, the researcher will proceed to do this in Chapter Seven.

Summary

Tourists’ on-site experiences involve two main components – participation and psychological states of various types. This differs slightly from the pre-defined framework of on-site experience that was proposed by Campos et al. (2015). This is because tourists who participate in ICH events rarely connect socially with others. The “social connection” component did not appear prominently in the framework. More tourists engaged in the events physically by taking photos or videos for recording purposes than those who engaged more deeply with emotional feelings about the event leading to longer-lasting memories. Tourist participation in the event aroused on-site psychological feelings across a variety of dimensions. Having enjoyed the events tourists formed their evaluations of the event that summarize the overall experience within the entire process. This will be reflected in their post-event experience.

5.4 Post-event experience

Similar to the limited coverage of pre-event experience, the previous literature does not take adequate account of components of the post-trip experience in the framework of tourist experiencescape (Figure 5.8). Again, since this study focused on the ICH events, the post-trip experience refers to the post-event experience to be more specific in addressing the topic. Post-event experience

216 mainly summarized tourist’s recollection of their most memorable experience of the event. Such expressions elaborate an impressive feeling of the event in various aspects. The impressive feeling alters tourist experience to the destination image of Macau. Consequently, tourists raised their behavioral intentions regarding their travel to Macau in future. The reflections were briefly summarized to show the key attributes as emphasized by tourists in a table (Table 5.8).

Figure 5.8. Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (post-event experience) (adopted from Campos et al., 2015)

Table 5.8. Attributes in post-event experience (Source: author)

Post-event experience Attributes Memorable events  Impressive event components (e.g. performance, atmosphere, culture, performers, colors, using props)  Out of imagination  Feel lucky, happy and enjoyable  Performing forms, nature and setting of the celebration The image of Macau  Diverse activities  Rich cultural deposit  An embracing city of different cultures Behavioral intentions  Joining similar events  Revisitation intentions  Willingness to recommend

217 5.4.1 Memorable events

When tourists evaluated their experience of the event, most highlighted the most impressive and memorable parts, to indicate how the event experience has influenced their overall trip to Macau. Such highlights are a summary of their experience of the event, including the performance, atmosphere, culture, performers, colors and using props. Most importantly, the experience of joining the event provided them an opportunity to learn the local culture in a distinctive aspect that made their trip memorable.

Furthermore, tourists frequently refer to their participation in the event as spontaneous activities. The experience of the event is out of imagination. Because without any previous expectation of the event and not much previous experience to the similar event, the actual experience easily reaches a satisfaction and is regarded as adding value to their trip.

[The participation in the event] can be regarded as a wonderful memory, especially when I came for the first time, I found it special. It is such an event organized in front of such [western] style architecture, which is very special….Honestly speaking, we never imagine encountering this in this area. How it comes to have such similar event as we had in Taiwan of the temple activity! (Interviewee 21)

Because I didn’t know the event before, it is the first time for me to join it. The event definitely shows a traditional ritual that transformed from the past and it keeps its nature and original features. I think the folk customs are not changing that much, such as the costume and the way of celebration. Maybe the organizer adapts the new ways of presentation, but the nature and context of the culture will never change. (Interviewee 19)

Tourists were impressed with the scale of the event, the performance itself, some even completely forgot themselves in the performance. They felt lucky, happy and enjoyable when recalling their most memorable experience of the

218 event. The most memorable experience to the event was either derived from the participants, performers or locals.

When I was here before, I mainly experience the city with other tourists. I never experienced staying with the locals to enjoy the local Cantonese Opera. This is what I could not think I will experience. I can also understand the Cantonese. I could feel that I could engage myself in their lives. My feelings changed along with the performance. I naturally laughed with the jokes shared by the performers. It seems that I was also a member of the locals. (Interviewee 16)

The majority of first time and repeat visitors referred to their experience of the event as memorable and as contributing to their image of Macau.

Each time I went to Macau, my feelings of the image of Macau are different. The memory of this event must be impressive to my whole trip in Macau this time. I never know this festival. After I learn about it, I join it. My feeling must be impressive because I get involved in it. (Interviewee 27)

5.4.2 The image of Macau

Because of the memorable experience of the event, more than half of the tourist interviewees further expressed that they alter the previous image or perception of Macau. As in their minds, Macau is a place mainly focusing on gambling or shopping, apart from the tangible culture with the World Heritage - Historic Centre of Macau, they know little about the intangible culture aspect of the city. However, through the participation in the local event, they believe they learn the city in a different angle never seen before and also feels surprised of such ‘new’ experience. “[The event] makes the image of Macau more impressive. I become more familiar to Macau.” (Interviewee 22).

Apart from gambling, Macau offers diverse activities.

219 My attitude to Macau has been changed a lot. Originally, I think Macau is all about gambling, but I change my attitude to Macau because of this ritual activity. If I come to Macau next time, I will not visit casino anymore. I will find more on the traditional and historical activities to join or place to visit. (Interviewee 26)

It is my first time to join this kind of event. I feel good. I realize that in Macau, apart from the gambling, it also pays attention to such traditional culture. I feel a little bit surprising. It is my first time that I realize that Macau has such events. (Interviewee 35)

The rich cultural deposit of Macau provides another perspective to view the city. The image of Macau becomes enriched because of the traditional Chinese culture.

Actually, I didn’t plan to visit this area. I think Macau has more of the commercial things. I don’t like those commercial cities. Now, I realize that Macau is also of rich cultural deposits. … I think this event lets me understand deeper of Macau and forms a better image to Macau. … Those children on the top of the pillar in the parade (literally 飘色 in Chinese). I found it so interesting [pointing to the children performers]. (Interviewee 33)

Because I just come across this Na Tcha Feast celebration, it makes me feel the beauty of traditional Chinese culture better. For my previous trips to Macau, I mainly experience the European culture.… I could only say that Macau is also a city with rich Chinese culture. (Interviewee 34)

The great contrast of the eastern and western culture makes the image of Macau a unique destination for tourists. It is seen that Macau is an embracing city of different cultures.

I don’t imagine there is Cantonese Opera and also the Feast of Na Tcha. …Because of the Ruins of St. Paul’s is a western church, I don’t

220 imagine there is Chinese cultural event held aside. It makes a great contrast. … Because Macau used to be colonized by Portugal, it should have more Portuguese. Apart from the casino, Macau also has many other different cultural surfaces. (Interviewee 37)

I think Macau is a very embracing city. It absorbs the foreign culture, as well as the culture from all over the world. Because of this, it opens its door to the world early before for many years, which is more advantageous than other cities in China. But at the same time, it keeps the Chinese tradition, as well as the foreign culture. It is quite good. (Interviewee 19)

Not only the tourists, but also it is the willingness of locals who expect to host more cultural events to highlight the destination image as a place of culture (Vong, 2013). Since the promotion of cultural inheritance is considered a way to revitalize the local traditions, which also consolidates the local’s pride and enhances their connections to the past.

5.4.3 Behavioral intentions

Using the example of art festival, McCartney and Ip Si Kei (2018) demonstrated that authentic cultural festivals have a significant contribution to tourist loyalty. Such impact is even more obvious when tourists are interested in the cultural elements presented in the festivals. As a conclusion of the travel experience in Macau with the joint effects of the local events, tourists told their preferences on the behavioral intentions regarding the travel to Macau in future. The behavioral intentions include join other similar events, revisit intention and willingness to recommend.

5.4.3.1 Joining similar events

221 Because of the good experience of the participants in the event this time, nearly 70% of the tourists responded that the experience stimulates their intentions to join other similar events in future. Although there are some constraints, like the length of stay and itinerary, the interviewees are not sure if they can definitely join any similar events in future, at least, tourists are willing to participate, if there is an opportunity.

Some tourists are not only willing to join similar events in future, but also would like to bring their relatives to join.

I noticed that when my relatives traveled here, they joined the local art festivals, but I never experienced that before. Now, I experienced it. If I know those festivals or other grand events in future, I will bring my parents to join it as well. (Interviewee 30)

Tourists decide to join other similar events because of various reasons. Some Chinese tourists found that they are not that familiar with the Chinese culture. Through attending the event, they can better understand their own culture.

If there is, I will probably go and join it. Because I feel that I am not that familiar to my own [Chinese] culture. (Interviewee 34)

The plan of joining other similar events is also regarded as a way to learn a new culture of the destination and accumulate knowledge of travelling.

Because of the different culture, imagine if you go to Europe and there is just a food festival on. You may have the curiosity to go and taste different food and you will compare with the normal food you eat. Like the same, I may consider if I can learn new things from different events, at the same time, fulfill myself. (Interviewee 8)

Because you go to a new place, you’d like to learn and experience everything that helps you better understand the place. (Interviewee 9)

A memorable and desirable experience of the event this time provides a good reference for the next one.

222 I will join similar events because I find it very interesting. I will tell others that I encounter with this event when I travel to Macau. (Interviewee 35)

5.4.3.2 Revisitation intentions

Most tourist interviewees expressed a willingness to revisit the city. Tourists’ revisit intention is not only because of the event but instead, is the overall effect of the good impression of Macau in general. The experience of the event is one of the reasons of revisit intention that added value to the trip and to the image of Macau. “Because Macau has its own cultural features.” (Interviewee 33) ”It is a very nice place.” (Interviewee 14), “Macau has great people and lovely culture, why not come back!” (Interviewee 15), “Because I also want to see other events in Macau.” (Interviewee 26), “I like the culture here. The mix of Chinese culture and Portuguese culture.” (Interviewee 32).

5.4.3.3 Willingness to recommend

The willingness to recommend is another manifestation of the behavioral intentions. Positively, most tourists are willing to recommend their experience to others. Some tourists regard such behavior as a way to exchange ideas with others to see how different people perceive the same things differently.

Because I can tell others that, other than the famous site like Ruins of St. Paul’s, Macau also has different things which are not well known by others, which are very interesting. (Interviewee 6)

Because I think every person who comes to Macau, even you visit the same place, the feelings and experience are different. We can exchange our ideas through our communication, it can make us better understand Macau. (Interviewee 44)

223 Tourists revealed that they will share their experience with others through various channels. They chose different ways to recommend, such as word of mouth or sharing photos or videos through social platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Weibo, WeChat, Instagram, WhatsApp and Line. For tourists from Mainland China, WeChat and Weibo are popular social chatting platforms for them to share and exchange ideas and information. For overseas tourists from Hong Kong or other places, they used to share on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, WhatsApp and Line. However, these social platforms are favored by younger generations and those who are good at using new technology. Whereas, for the middle aged tourists and above, they prefer to choose the traditional way of sharing their experience through face to face communication or through phone calls and showing others the photos when gathering.

5.5 Chapter summary

This chapter has elaborated the findings of the tourist interviews. They were presented in alignment with the various elements of the conceptual framework. Since the previous literature has not defined the components of pre-trip and post-trip experience within the tourist experiencescape, this research has attempted to fill the gap. The findings partially reflect participation and different psychological states during the on-site event experience. The pre- defined element of “social interaction” that was reported in previous studies on the on-site experience has not been supported here. Therefore, in the following diagram, the component of “social interaction” was marked in a dashed line. The psychological states that were proposed previously by Campos et al. (2015) were found to be insufficiently precise and too general. This deficiency can be addressed by re-organizing the structure into themes. A diagram is presented to highlight the main interview findings on tourist ICH experiencescapes (Figure 5.9). A further analysis of the results will be presented in Chapter seven.

224

Figure 5.9. Summary on interview findings with tourists (Source: author)

225 CHAPTER SIX – STAKEHOLDER PERSPECTIVES ON THE ICH EXPERIENCESCAPE

In Chapter Five, the investigation considered tourist perspectives separately since these stakeholders take in the experience in the ICH events. Although tourists are the main players in the ICH experiencescape and their perspectives are critical for interpretative purposes, many other stakeholders play different roles in shaping the construction of ICH experiencescape. As previously clarified in the methodology in section 4.3.2, this study focuses on the interpretation of those key stakeholders who were directly involved in the ICH experiencescapes on the heritage angle. Their perspectives are important in outlining the ICH experiencescapes entirely. Without such stakeholders and the critical roles that they play in the ICH experiencescape, the tourist experience may be distorted. For this reason, the following chapter introduces the perspectives of other stakeholders whose opinions complement those of the tourist, leading to a better analysis of the ICH experiencescape framework. The stakeholders mentioned in this chapter are the main players involved in the experience environment other than tourists. They include the organizers, performers and local community whose business operations are involved in the environment of the ICH event venues and the representatives from the government authorities. This chapter mainly discusses the findings of the in- depth interviews with these stakeholders. These reported on their involvements in the ICH experiencescape and their experiences and feelings of the ICH. (Figure 2.7). The chapter first presents an overview of stakeholder interviews followed by a summary of the interview findings obtained from each stakeholder.

226

Figure 2.7. Conceptual framework on tourist experiencescapes within the context of ICH (adopted from Campos et al., 2015)

6.1 Stakeholders other than tourists

At each festival, all three types of the stakeholders were approached and interviewed, including the representatives of the organizers, performers and surrounding local retailers. They all shared their opinions to the corresponding festivals when investigated. Instead, the government perspectives cover all three ICH events. The informants’ names are either anonymous or identified with the only surname by respecting their willingness and to protect their identities. The interviews with the representatives of the organizers and performers were approached by appointments either during the break time of their work or performance or after the events when they are available to join the interviews. There are totally 28 interviewees, among which, at A-Ma Festival, the Council President of Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra, Macau (literally in Portuguese, Associação de Opera Chinesa dos Moradores Marítimos e Terrestres da Barra de Macau), Mr. Chan Kin Chun; famous Cantonese Opera actor in Hong Kong, Mr. Loong Koon Tin; the Cantonese Opera Troupe Head in Zhaoqing, Guangzhou, Mr. Chan; and

227 three surrounding local shops – one café and two souvenir shops were interviewed. At Feast of Drunken Dragon, the Vice-president of Fresh Fish Traders Association of Macau (literally in Portuguese, Associação dos comerciantes de peixe fresco de Macau), Mr. Cheong Kuok Chu; Drunken Dragon Dance Team Leader, Mr. Yuen; Drunken Dragon Dance Performer, Mr. Lee; and three surrounding local shops – one pharmacy, one snack stall and one fruit stall were interviewed. At Feast of Na Tcha, President of Na Tcha Temple Association, Mr. Ip Tat; Vice-president of the Association, Ms. Lam; two performers, a local helper and 11 surrounding shops were interviewed. The reason why there are more shops interviewed than the previous festivals is that the scale of the parades in Feast of Na Tcha is grander and the parades last longer and perform in different time slots than the other festivals. The programs of Feast of Na Tcha are more and the duration of the feast lasts for several days which allows the researcher to cover more interviews in the hot tourist spots in Senado Square and around the Ruins of St. Paul’s. The following table provides an overview of the profile of the interviewees (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. Distributions of stakeholder informants (other than tourists) (Source: author)

Festivals Position Name Number Council President Mr. Chan 1 Cantonese Opera Actor Mr. Loong 1 Cantonese Opera Troupe Head Mr. Chan 1 A-Ma Festival Local Shop - Café Owner 1 Local Shop - Souvenir (cookie) Employee 1 Local Shop - Souvenir Employee 1 Vice President Mr. Cheong 1 Drunken Dragon Dance Team Leader Mr. Yuen 1 Feast of Drunken Dragon Dance Drunken Performer Mr. Lee 1 Dragon Local Shop - Pharmacy Employee 1 Local Shop - Snack stall Owner 1 Local Shop - Fruit stall Owner 1 Feast of Na President Mr. Ip 1 Tcha Vice President Ms. Lam 1

228 Performer Mr. Lee 1 Performer - Jieyitang Mr. Sing 1 Local Helper Anonymous 1 Owner's Local Shop - Herbal Tea Daughter 1 Local Shop - Durian Icecream Owner 1 Local Shop - Beef offal stall Owner 1 Local Shop - Pharmacy Employee 3 Local Shop - Souvenir - Dried Meat Slice Employee 1 Local Shop - Juice shop Manager 1 Local Shop - Souvenir – cookie Employee 2 Local Shop - Cloth Employee 1 Tourism Product and Events MGTO Department Anonymous 1 Organizational Planning and

Development Department Anonymous 1 IC Department of Cultural Heritage Anonymous 1 Total 31

6.2 Organizer perspectives

Event organizers play a leading role in determining entire programs. In the context of ICH events, these organizers are not only event planners, but also the practitioners who keep practicing and safeguarding traditions. Their expressions of the performance directly affect the way tourists experience the local culture. Therefore, they act crucially in shaping the ICH experiencescape to be experienced by others. In the minds of the organizers, the celebration of the festival on an annual basis is raised from their heart of transmitting the tradition from the ancestor, respecting the tradition and preserving the culture. With the guidance of such faith, the organizers prepare the event, perform the rituals and expect the outcomes all to keep to the philosophy of cultural preservation. The organizer’s engagement in the ICH experiencescapes are then presented under the themes of cultural preservation, event preparation, on-site performance and expected outcomes. Such relationship can be illustrated in a diagram (Figure 6.1). The following diagram lists the emphases of each theme for the purposes

229 of review. Unlike with tourists there is no obvious division among pre-event, on-site and post-event experience. The event preparation, in fact, reveals the timeline when preparation works were undertaken before the event. The expected outcomes reveal the will from the organizers on the event effects that the results of which can only be realized after the completion.

Figure 6.1. Overview of the organizer perspectives (Source: author)

6.2.1 Cultural preservation

Despite the long history of the traditional festivals, the inscription of the traditional practices is a recognition of the importance of such ritual. The Cantonese Opera has been recognized as a representative item at local, national and global scales. The A-Ma Belief and Customs and Na Tcha Belief and Customs both listed as Macau Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2012 and also being included in the National List of Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative in 2014. The Taoism which Na Tcha Belief belongs to, its associated Taoist ritual music is also a listed item in both inscriptions. The inscription status of tradition is highlighted in both the conversations with the interviewees and also can be found in the promotional materials at the venue, like the displayed banner and exhibition booth (Figure 6.2).

230

Figure 6.2. ICH inscription status displayed in the decoration (Source: author) The Council President of Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra, Mr. Chan highlighted the importance of cultural preservation and called for the younger generation to pass down the traditions.

The A-Ma Belief and Customs is more than 100 years old. We do need to preserve the belief from generation to generation. I am the third generation of transmitting the tradition, I do hope the next generation can also keep doing this. (Council president, Mr. Chan)

The Cantonese Opera troupe head, Mr. Chan, also emphasized the importance of preserving Cantonese Opera during the interview.

The Cantonese Opera is a favored tradition for people in Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau. It represents a regional culture, which obtains extreme importance of existence. It is also a joined listed ICH item at the national level. As recognized in such an important status, it is even worth preserving. The government support is also raised in both the financial support and also the educational promotion. As such, it is

231 hoped the Opera can attract both current audience and the potential ones to enjoy and appreciate such tradition. (Cantonese Opera troupe head, Mr. Chan)

The socio-cultural significance of the belief and customs is also manifest in the ongoing practices and support of the local community. The vice-president of Fresh Fish Traders Association of Macau, Mr. Cheong, illustrated an example of how the character-defining element of the traditions is preserved through time with the help of locals. The organization also tries to promote such traditions to the younger generation.

The famous calligrapher Mr. Zeng gives us the favor to write the donator’s name in the red paper in calligraphy. This is the rare example of keeping such tradition in Macau. Since we keep such feature, we are also invited to go to the school to promote the drunken dragon festival by organizing the exhibitions of the treasure items. Such written calligraphy is also included. (Vice-president, Mr. Cheong)

Not only the organizers but also the leader of the performing team, he noticed that the involvement in the efforts of keeping the traditional practices is quite meaningful.

The involvement of transmitting and promoting the traditional culture is meaningful. We are lucky because when our past generation tried to practice the tradition, there was no such inscription. They did the hard work for us even without any recognition of the status. Now, we get the benefits from the inscription. It is a great honor to us and encourages us to keep preserving the culture. (Drunken Dragon Dance Team Leader, Mr. Yuen)

The establishment of the relevant associations represents a strong community base. It demonstrates a large community in their interests and support of the tradition, indeed, such enthusiasm is embodied in their dedication to the organization of the events.

232 Each year when we distribute the ‘longevity rice’, we do receive a long queue of people who come and wait for the distribution even quite early before the start. Luckily, we also have many volunteers and neighborhood come to help us with the preparation and distribution. (Vice-president, Mr. Cheong)

Under the pressures of modernity, the transmission of cultural traditions becomes worth preserving due to diminishing practice. In order to preserve the culture and traditions, the informants also highlighted the importance of the belief and performers, as well as the participation of the young generation.

6.2.1.1 The importance of belief

It is important to maintain traditional practices in their physical performing form, but the spirit of a culture is most important. As such, the organizers highlight the importance of their beliefs and share the spirit of the religious culture.

Mr. Lee is a very experienced Drunken Dragon Dance performer. He was born in Macau and used to learn Chinese Kung Fu when he was young. When he graduated from middle school, he started to work and he used the spare time to practice the basic gestures of playing drunken dragon dance with the Master Mr. Lau in Macau Fresh Fish Commercial Association, including the gestures, steps, movements and states of the dance. Each year, he joins the Drunken Dragon Dance. He recalled the origin of the performance which reflects the importance of the belief.

In my memory, Macau was still a fishing village when a lot of immigrants from Zhongshan came to Macau for a living. These immigrants had to make a living by selling the fish. They later organized an association to gather this group of people, and they also did all the best for the benefits for the group. They opened the school for their children. It is the early stage of forming the spirit of the Drunken

233 Dragon when people help each other and keep a strong team spirit. (Drunken Dragon Dance Performer, Mr. Lee)

The Vice-president of Na Tcha Temple Association, Ms. Lam, also expressed the spirit of the religion and would like to disseminate such message to the participants.

We did all good things as taught by the Taoism School. We also do hope because of our good behavior we can wish our family a good health. We also want to share the spirit of Taoism and wish a world peace, because people have many negative attitudes nowadays. Through the organization of the events, people are expected to feel the harmonious environment and learn to have an even temper. That is what we did during the praying ceremony on all these good wishes. It is the same as every religion. No matter which school you believe, they all tell the good things for us. (Vice-president, Ms. Lam)

As reflected by the organizer, the president of Na Tcha Temple Association, Mr. Ip told that a lot of Taoism believers came to help the event spontaneously as inspired by the religion. The organization also did a lot of charity activities as to bring more social benefits to the society. These are all on the welfare of the belief.

It is the power of the belief that brings all these people together and creates a harmonious environment…When we had the parade on the event day, there are more than ten thousand audience. It is a good opportunity for us to educate the next generation on the spirit of Na Tcha as respect to parents. (President, Mr. Ip)

6.2.1.2 The importance of performers

The traditional practices of the festivals critically rely on the bearers who perform the traditions in its original forms. Therefore, the importance of the

234 performer is also emphasized by the organizers. It is also becoming a crucial task for the organizers to recruit or train the professional performers in order to provide a complete and accurate performance to the audience.

This year, we are lucky to invite Jinlong troupe, the famous Cantonese Opera Actor - Mr. Loong, actress - Ms. Zeng Hui, and the troupe from Zhaoqing, Guangzhou. It is really a rare chance to gather all these professional individuals and teams together. Such cooperation is expected to bring new experience for the audience to appreciate. (Council president, Mr. Chan)

6.2.1.3 Participation by the younger generation

It is urged to call for the younger generation in joining the transmission of the traditional culture. Therefore, the participation of the young generation is expected as a critical and solid base in stimulating their interest of passing down the traditional practices step by step.

The council president of Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra, Mr. Chan mentioned the difficulty in managing an association without the younger generation’s participation.

It is not easy to manage an association. In order to better promote and transmit our culture, we need to involve more youngsters to join our team. I think it is important for an association to have different generations in its management teams, as the youngsters can learn by doing from the seniors. (Council president, Mr. Chan)

The Cantonese Opera Troup Head from Zhaoqing brought the hope that they have tried to promote and educate the younger generation to the Cantonese Opera, at least, for the younger generation to start to know about the traditional culture and gradually generate interest to the practices. As such, it brings more opportunities for the younger generation to transmit the culture.

235 Guangdong provincial government and the central government pay high attention to the education to the youngsters to appreciate the traditional culture of Cantonese Opera. It is expected that the youngsters cannot only listen to it but also they can love to sing. If there is no appreciation from the youngsters, when the elder performers pass away, such traditions would be a great loss to all. It becomes a task for us to promote, educate and encourage the youngsters to listen, watch and practice this Cantonese Opera. What we do is going to the school and let the children try the costumes and mine the actions of the performers. (Cantonese Opera Troupe Head, Mr. Chan)

6.2.2 Event preparation

Organizers involved in the ICH experiencescapes in a quite early stage since they need to prepare the event for appreciation. Their role is critical in determining the construction of ICH experiencescape. The festivals are held annually. The arrangement of the programs and the organization of the event need to be regularly adjusted. Routine procedures are followed because the organizers need to arrange a series of works, including recruit performing teams, raise funds both from the government authorities and different foundations, collect the donations from the local communities, venue leasing and logistic arrangement. Therefore, the festivals reflect multi-support from various parties. The organizers are the key persons who coordinate with other parties to arrange the events. In the following section, the discussion focuses on the event preparation works by the organizers in the different aspects – local involvement, program arrangement, venue arrangement and fundraising.

6.2.2.1 Local involvement

Locals who help at the event do so on a strictly voluntary basis. They either donate or dedicate themselves to the event. In the case of the A-Ma festival, the

236 organizer distributes free tickets to the locals who donate money to the preparation work in compensation. In both the A-Ma festival and Feast of Drunken Dragon, there is a wall of red paper with donors’ names on (Figure 6.3). It is a way of praise to their behavior, which also makes the local communities proud of their involvement in the event.

Figure 6.3. Donors’ names written in a traditional way and stuck on the wall of performance stage (Source: author) We have a booklet of donors with details of their donations. We will arrange the seats for them to enjoy the Opera according to the different amount of donations. By arranging the seating plan like this, it is also good for the organization to maintain the order of the venue. (Council president, Mr. Chan)

Each year, we will distribute longevity rice to the community. When the event day is approaching, those who live nearby come to either donate money or give support in the resource, like ingredients. For example, someone brings 10 kilograms of mushrooms, who wish to give us more

237 ingredients to prepare the dish for free distribution…On the event day, some neighborhoods will come to help distribute the rice. All these locals participate in their own ways to help. We also recruit some scouts to help us maintain the order on the event day. (Vice-president, Mr. Cheong)

6.2.2.2 Program arrangements

Program arrangements form a critical step in preparing the annual event to help ensure a smooth flow and a wonderful program with various activities for appreciation and participation. As shared by Mr. Cheong, the vice-president of Fresh Fish Traders Association of Macau, the preparation work starts in November of 2016 for the event in 2017. They need to leave enough time for the preparation. For instance, they need to decide how many programs to have, whether or not to distribute the rice for all main streets. This arrangement is not only for the event preparation but also for fund application to the government authorities, as told by Ms. Lam from Na Tcha Temple Association. “We need to submit the proposal to the government stating clearly on what is needed, what programs are arranged, who to recruit.” For the event this year, Ms. Lam happily shared that, “Apart from the regular event we hold every year, this year, we invite Wong Tai Sin temple from Hong Kong, which makes the event even grand in scale.” The president of the Association, Mr. Yip further emphasized that “There are totally 18 teams participating in the parade, including both the traditional ones and the modern ones. We expect to promote the Na Tcha Belief through embedding it in the tourism activities.”

6.2.2.3 Venue arrangement

The venue of the event needs permission from the Civic and Municipal Affairs Bureau (IACM), Macau. The organizers therefore normally apply the venue from IACM, however, the decoration of the venue requires the own efforts from the Association, for instance, recruiting the workers to the set-up of the

238 bamboo stage, printing their own promotional leaflets and posters and other logistic arrangements.

6.2.2.4 Fundraising

As stated previously, the proposal of the event needs to be submitted to the government authority for fundraising. “The fund is extremely important, otherwise, it is hard to organize the event on such a scale”, as reflected by Mr. Chan, the Council President of Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra. Not only the government but also the foundations give financial assistance to the event. Other than these main sources of fund, the associations themselves need to cover part of the expenses and locals also donate some money with their own wishes to the event. Mr. Yip told “a culture is difficult to pass down if there is no financial support to the event. I also personally donate a lot of money on the preparation work, as I have already treated the temple like my home and devote myself solely to the preservation of the Na Tcha Belief.”

6.2.3 On-site performances

When it comes to the on-site stage of ICH experiencescapes, the organizers and tourists were both involved in constructing the experience environment. The organizers concentrate on the on-site coordination of the entire performance. The on-site performance mainly depends on the efforts of the performers and the organization of the event. The performer engagement will be discussed in detail when introducing the stakeholder of the performer. As shared by the organizers, the local involvement is a great help to the success of the event in both the preparation stage and the on-site performance. Similar to the local involvement in the event preparation, the local communities work as volunteers to participate in every step of the event activities, such as help distribute the rice and maintain the order of the event. As told by Ms. Lam, vice-president of Na Tcha Temple Association “The volunteers are from different organizations and

239 different age groups. The younger generation will find helpers in their ages. The elders bring their elder friends to come and help. There is no fixed task assigned to them. Everyone plays its own strengths. It is a teamwork.”

Mr. Yip, the president of Na Tcha Temple Association also shared a story that a volunteer from Taiwan came to help especially for this event.

There is no need to assign tasks for the volunteers. They will give their hands spontaneously. For instance, on the night of the performing day, there was a storm signal No. 8. People worried the gate decoration (a bamboo-made façade used to decoration at the entrance of the performing stage) may fall down, a number of people fixed the structure using the rope on their initiatives. I was touched as I remembered one volunteer came and told me, ‘I was here these days. I found you guys are quite hard in organizing this event, therefore, I came to give a hand’.

Not only the Na Tcha Temple Association but also the other organizers, they all reflect a great appreciation to the local’s support for their events.

6.2.4 Expected outcomes

Although there is no specific reflection on the post-event experience, the organizers expressed what they expect to achieve after the event or their long- term objectives to the development of the traditional cultural practices. Since the same organizer arranges the ICH events annually, they adjust the programs or organizations based on the pervious performance. The way they examine the expected outcomes affects the preparation of the next year’s event in another circle. As such, their role in engaging the ICH experiencescapes is also constructed and affected by these outcomes. The expected outcomes include the promotion of ICH and strengthening community relations.

240 6.2.4.1 Promotion of ICH

As one of the key purposes of the event, the organizers expect to promote the ICH to the public in order to let the audience know and appreciate the traditional culture. The organizers also expect to take the opportunity to enlarge the influence of the event. A-Ma Belief and Customs has been recognized as an ICH item at both local and national level in 2011 and 2014. Mr. Chan, the council president of Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra said they held a photo exhibition of A-Ma Belief and Customs for Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, as well as the relevant themed symposium on “A-Ma Belief and Customs and the preservation of intangible cultural heritage”. At the A-Ma Festival, there is also a line of exhibition boards displayed beside the performance stage. As told by Mr. Chan, “We expect to enlarge the influence of the event step by step and let more people start to learn about this culture and promote the A-Ma Culture and its related rituals and festivals.”

Similarly, Cantonese Opera is also a national intangible cultural heritage, as advocated by Mr. Chan, the Cantonese Opera troupe head in Zhaoqing, “Cantonese Opera is a typical genre of drama in the Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macau. It is of outstanding universal value which is worth preserving. I do hope people who like listening to Cantonese also like to enjoy Cantonese Opera.”

It is not only the goal of the organizers to promote the ICH, but also of some audience who are interested in promoting the culture with their initiatives. As shared by Ms. Lam,

There is one tourist who always comes to join our event. He also consults us with some background information and then uses it in his publication. As I know, he is doing something related to the documentation of god statues, therefore, he needs to collect data from us…. Each year, we also invite the media and journalists to help us promote the culture. As such, both the scholars and media therefore tell

241 our religious story to the public. In another way, they help promote the belief and customs. (Vice-president, Ms. Lam)

The efforts of promoting ICH also involve in the long-term plan of the organization. Mr. Yip revealed that, the new circle of organizing the annual event starts when this year’s event completes. Apart from the organization of the annual event, they also plan to organize a Na Tcha Belief and Customs forum among all university students in Macau, as well as some photo exhibition and creative drawing competitions. All these events aim to promote the Na Tcha Belief and Customs among the public. Furthermore, Mr. Yip told that,

As benefit from the location of Na Tcha in the Historic Centre of Macau, by involving Na Tcha Belief and Customs into the tourism related activities is also a way to promote a traditional culture in Macau. It is hoped people come to Macau not solely for gambling, but also involve in the local celebrations…It is expected that Na Tcha Temple can become an influential one which encourages other temples to join together in promoting temple culture in Macau. (President, Mr. Yip)

6.2.4.1 Strengthening community relations

The event is regarded as a platform to let the local community gather together and promote the harmonious relationship among them. Mr. Chan, the council president of Chinese Opera Association of Terrestrial and Maritime Dwellers of Barra said, “Many old residents especially come back from other places to join the Cantonese Opera. We organize this Cantonese Opera to create a platform for neighbors to enjoy the Opera, at the same time, they can communicate with each other.” Mr. Cheong, the vice-president of Fresh Fish Traders Association of Macau also agreed that,

The distribution of the longevity rice and the drunken dragon dance are all community-based activity which helps create a harmonious environment among neighbors (Figure 6.4). Even the fishermen who

242 sell fresh sea food in market are business competitors in daily life, they come to help the event without any conflicts and they work together to make the event success. Therefore, the organization of the event is seen as a way to strengthen the community relations and promote harmony. (Vice-president, Mr. Cheong)

Figure 6.4. Distribution of the longevity rice (Source: author) Overall the organizers realized their expected outcomes of the event. As referred back to the tourist perspective in Chapter Five, tourists were impressive and memorable with the event components like performance, culture, performers and the event settings. These components indicated the outcomes of the necessary preparation by the organizers. Because during the pre-event stage, organizers are the key persons who coordinate the entire event elements to make sure every step is operated in the right track and for the better performance on-site. Such efforts were input continuously in the on-site stage when organizers gave every support to the performers. Since tourists found the experience is spontaneous, apart from those tourists who had previous similar experience, majority of tourists found such experience was fresh and the post- event experience also revealed that they altered the image of Macau and got

243 surprised with such rich cultural deposit of the city. As a result, organizers realized its purpose of ICH promotion. Furthermore, as revealed by the organizers, the event received a lot of local support as volunteers. Some tourists also observed the enthusiastic participation from the local people. The expected outcome of strengthening the community relations was also achieved. In general, tourist delightful enjoyment cannot leave without the effective input by the organizers. Tourist perspectives on their ICH experience embodied their recognitions of the organizer’s involvement with their important role in experiencescape.

6.3 Performer perspectives

Apart from the organizers, performers are another key stakeholder in delivering the experience within the ICH experiencescape. They play important roles during the event when tourists arouse intuitive feelings to the ICH experience while enjoying the programs. Therefore, the performer’s experience of ICH needs to be investigated as to better understand the ICH experiencescapes as a whole. Interviews were conducted with a total of five performers. These were: Mr. Loong, a famous Cantonese Opera Actor who performs in the A-Ma Festival; the team leader of Drunken Dragon Dance, Mr. Yuen and the Drunken Dragon Dance performer, Mr. Lee in the Feast of Drunken Dragon; the person who held the statue of Na Tcha, Mr. Lee and the performer of the lion dance, Mr. Sing in the Feast of Na Tcha. Their responses were sorted into different themes. Similarly, the performers had some common ground with the views of the organizers, particularly at the core of cultural preservation of traditions. It is not surprising that the performers and organizers shared similar thoughts, because most performers belong to their respective associations. These associations are the main organizers of the events. They have a standing relationship for the sake of a shared goal.

244 Nevertheless, there is no clear division between perceptions of the pre-, on-site and post-event stages. Performers did however mention their preparation work, on-site performances and expected performance outcomes, which equate to the three continuous stages of the event experience. In the same way, the performer’s perceptions are also presented in a diagram with listed attributes for review (Figure 6.5).

Figure 6.5. Overview of performer perspectives (Source: author)

6.3.1 Cultural preservation

Apart from the previously mentioned inscription status, the organizers highlighted the importance of preserving traditional culture. The performers provided examples of the character-defining elements which distinguish their cultural traditions from others. The performers emphasized the necessity of preserving and treasuring cultural practices.

245 Mr. Lee, the drunken dragon dance master shared that,

The drunken dragon dance is different from other forms of dance. It is an art of Kung Fu. The normal dance as we know has certain mode and posture to follow. However, drunken dragon dance is more like a manifestation of the spirit and manner. I feel proud in participating in this meaningful work as I am one of the members who transmit this practice from the elders. I do hope I can keep up the tradition and pass down to the next generation.

The parade of those children on the top of the pillar in the Feast of Na Tcha is a traditional celebration activity. However, this activity disappeared for nearly 40 years during the Cultural Revolution. The traditional practice has recovered more recently. As revealed by Mr. Lee, the performer in the Feast of Na Tcha, “It is part of the Na Tcha Belief and Customs, which also includes the intangible cultural heritage. By revealing this activity to the public, the young generations would know how the traditional practice looks, how the ritual customs are kept and they will not forget it.”

Many performers continue to practice traditional culture because they expect to preserve traditions without considering personal benefits or considering the audience. Aged in his 20s Mr. Sing is the son of a lion dance master, he said, “I learn the dance from the elder generation. I feel it is meaningful to join this event. I follow the step of my father. I am so happy to transmit this culture.”

The participation of the young generation is also mentioned when the actor Mr. Loong was asked about his perception on the preservation of Cantonese Opera.

Each generation has people in young ages. The young people will grow old. It is the same for our performers. We have young actors. There are young audiences who follow them like the elders follow us as well. It is like a cycle of passing down to the generation.

…

246 Although people may say that Cantonese Opera declines these years, in fact, it still has audience now. I have to say, there are impacts to the Cantonese Opera these days especially when people have a lot of entertainment to choose from, such as the free media, Karaoke and online games. These new entertainments distract people from the Cantonese Opera. It is not like the old times when people had limited entertainment to choose from.

6.3.2 Preparing for the performance

What is different from the event preparation by the organizers, the performers mainly concentrate on the preparation of their own performance. The professional performers are crucial to accurately express the essence of the performance. As such, they need to practice and coordinate with other performers. In most cases, it relies on the years of experience when the performers can handle the sophisticated situation they may encounter during the performance. The performer of Drunken Dragon Dance, Mr. Lee, is an experienced Kung Fu Master from the young ages. He has the basic skill of fists and feet, which benefits the practice of the Drunken Dragon Dance as he said. Normally, the team practices the Drunken Dragon Dance third times a week. When it is close to the event, the schedule of the training is tide and frequent. In practice, the performers are preparing the performance quite often, which is not restricted to the event day only. Mr. Lee also shared a lot of the essence and the basics of the performance.

When the troupe head of the Cantonese Opera from Zhaoqing, Mr. Chan referred to the cooperation with the current performing teams,

We are good team workers with Mr. Loong and Ms. Zeng, these two famous Cantonese Opera actor and actress. In fact, we are three teams working together to present the performance. One is led by Mr. Loong from Hong Kong, called ‘Kam Lung Cantonese Opera’, one is led by

247 Ms. Zeng from Macau and our team from Zhaoqing…In essence, a good Cantonese Opera depends on the performers who can remember the actor’s lines expertly and make an accurate and vivid expression to convey meanings of the story.

The program arrangement is another step that is taken by the performers. For instance, the Cantonese Opera should fit the theme of the celebration. As noted by the Drunken Dragon Dance team leader Mr. Yuen,

In the past, there is no wine spraying when performing. Because in the old times, the wine is expensive. It is not easy to drink except on the special occasion. So, when it comes to the performance, they drink down. However, in order to pursue an aesthetic effect and at the same time, to keep the dances clear in mind, they choose a way of wine spraying nowadays.

It is evident how the performers arrange the program to attract the attention of the audience. Apart from preparing the program and the necessity of preparing the performers themselves, the performers also need to prepare the cloth, make facial makeup and prepare various stage props used in the performance. All these preparations make the performance complete. As told by Mr. Loong, the different roles of the Opera performers need to have their own makeup and cloths which fit the characteristics of the role. The facial makeup and matched clothes are supplementary to the performance for the audience to better understand the story and characters.

The refurbishment of the props is necessary as told by Mr. Yuen, “We need to pursue a detailed perfect on the props we use. Some old props have already become an artefact which witnesses the growth of our performance. Due to the fact that some props are made of wood, they easily get mould, therefore, we need to refurbish some props as necessary.” Although these are minor things compared to the entire performance, it could be seen that these professional performers take seriously the tradition and respect their performance.

248

6.3.3 On-site performances

From the sharing of the performers, the on-site performance reflects the performer’s engagement and their cooperation with each other. In the meanwhile, the performers pay attention to the interaction with the audience. Mr. Loong, the Cantonese Opera Actor also shared a lot of stories on how he interprets the role he plays. To cut a long story short, it tells how he engages himself in the role of the story and he finally interprets the role to the audience and stimulates the mood of the audience involvement in the story. Mr. Lee, the drunken dragon dance performer also emphasized the importance of full engagement in the performance. “The performers need to pay high attention to their own performance when dancing and imagine themselves as part of the dragon and vividly mimic the drunken mode of a dragon.”

Mr. Loong and Mr. Lee also noted the importance of cooperation with the other performers as a team, especially for the head and the tail of the drunken dragon. The drunken dragon dance always plays in pairs, a head and a tail are separated controlled by two persons. These two performers need to cooperate with the partner and let the dragon moves in the same direction. Furthermore, the drunken dragon dance performers also need to cooperate with the drum player in order to make sure the movement follows the drumbeats. At the same time, the drum beats can assist the performers to concentrate on the performance. The meaning of a fast drumbeat and a slow drumbeat is different to the performers. The different drumbeats can help the performers to adjust the pace of the movement and gesture.

The interaction with the audience is another aspect as stated in the on-site performance. Actually, the interaction relies highly on the nature of the performance. If it is a performance staying in one spot, it is possible to leave space and time for the interaction, however, for the performance like parade, as the entire team moves together along a certain route, it is hard to let the

249 performers stop and interact with the audience during the performance, unless the performance stops at one point and leaves time for the interaction. Therefore, the performers who mentioned the interactions are Cantonese Opera and Drunken Dragon Dance. Mr. Loong said, “During the performance on stage, we will pay attention to the reaction of the audience. We will interact with them when appropriate. For instance, asking the audience to answer some questions from the actors”. What is different from the Drunken Dragon Dance, Mr. Yuen said, “The interaction is only arranged till the end of the performance, when the performers finish their dances. They start to talk to the audience and invite them to hold the props for a trial. Sometime, we will also give the red string we wear to them.” Mr. Sing also told that the audience always invites them to take a photo with them during our break of the performance.

6.3.4 Expected outcomes

Just as is the case with the organizers, performers have their post-event experience in the form of expected outcomes, which will also influence their involvement in the ICH experiencescapes in the next annual cycle. The performers expect that traditional practices will be durable and their expected outcomes focus on how performers can promote culture to the public through their performances. These expected outcomes include promotion of ICH and cultural cognition.

6.3.4.1 The Promotion of ICH

Like the same as organizers, performers do expect to promote the ICH by considering the long-term development of the performance. If the performance is not financially or socially supported, it is difficult to sustain in long term. Mr. Loong, the Cantonese Opera Actor said, “The government has increasingly put efforts in the art development of the city. Although Cantonese Opera is only a small proportion of the art industry, it still gets a piece of the main source. This

250 is already a good start.” Similarly, Mr. Lee, the performer of Drunken Dragon Dance also said,

Through the promotion of the traditional culture, more and more people start to pay attention to it. Once people know about it, we get the opportunity to raise the interests from the public, even the young generations to get involved in the preservation of the culture. We expect the different associations and educational institutions can join us in the educational work to the public.

As shared by Mr. Lee, the Macau Government also invited them to travel overseas to different places like France, Portugal, Shanghai and Zhongshan to perform the Drunken Dragon Dance. The performance received great praise from outside. Even in the small scale of promotion, each individual from the public can act as a channel of promotion for the culture. Mr. Sing said, “We always welcome the audience to take photos of our performance and the different decorations or props. If they tell others or share with others of our culture, it is indeed a way of promotion. It is a way to let more others start to know our traditional practice.”

Since foreigners may join the Chinese traditional cultural practice, the performers perceived that “We offer another way of culture to let the foreigners get to know China. Except taking the food or visit the physical sites, these cultural programs are normally attractive to the foreigners.”

As a summary, from the performers’ perspective, cultural preservation is still located at the core of their performance. In the continuous stage of performer’s experience, during the preparation stage, the performers need to prepare everything in order to ensure a better delivery of the performance. Even at the on-site stage, they still need to fully engage in their performance and may consider the interaction with the audience. All these are aiming to achieve a cultural cognition among the audience to better understand the traditions and in further to promote the ICH with a large influence.

251 6.3.4.2 Cultural cognition

The audience is expected to recognize the culture or at least to acquire a basic knowledge after appreciating the performance. As Mr. Yuen, the leader of Drunken Dragon Dance said,

During the parade, we won a lot of applause when the performance is vivid and exciting. Once our performers receive such applause, we feel satisfied. It is also a way that people start to appreciate and recognize their own culture. I do hope, people could understand the spirit of the traditional Chinese folk art and Drunken Dragon culture through our performance.

It is not only the performers’ own wishes, but also the performers told that the Macau government also raises its attention to the intangible cultural heritage of Macau. Mr. Sing, the lion dance performer said that “The government authorities also invited us to join the meeting with the council members and discuss with us how we can work together to promote the traditional culture.” It indicates how the different parties in the society gradually recognize the importance of ICH and its relevant practices.

By linking to the tourist perspectives, it was not surprising that performers also realized its ultimate goal of promoting ICH because they shared the same interest with the organizers. The only difference is that performers concentrate solely on their performance. The accurate delivery of the ICH characteristics was what they expect to implement during their performance. As a result, tourists generated the most memorable experience because of the performance and its relevant components. In practice, the performance cannot be separate without the ICH bearers. It is like the difficulty in separating the tangible and intangible elements of heritage as both perceived as the integral parts of the ICH. How tourists were impressed on the props, forms and settings cannot be viewed separately from the performance itself. As such, the performers are key players in connecting the tourist perspectives of ICH experiencescapes. Tourists also expressed that they praised the hard work and the engagement of the

253 performers during the events.

6.4 The local community perspective

Apart from the interviews with organizers and performers, the researcher also interviewed local shop owners or employers whose businesses operate near the event venues. This local community group has had the closest opportunity to observe the event over many years. They are physically involved in the experiencescapes of the ICH and their responses are valuable in understanding the local community’s experience to the ICH to some extent. Three local shops were interviewed in the A-Ma Festival. Another three local shops were interviewed in the Feast of Drunken Dragon and 11 local shops were interviewed in the Feast of Na Tcha. The reason why there were more local shops interviewed in the Feast of Na Tcha than the ones in the previous two festivals is because the Feast of Na Tcha lasts for a longer time, which allows the interviewer to talk to more local shops who witness the ongoing performance. These shops include food and beverage, pharmacy, souvenir and cloth, ranging from the old to the new ones, as to understand how different local communities perceive the events. As a limitation, not all nearby shops were successfully interviewed by respecting the interviewees’ willingness of participation. In general, the interviewed local shops were all positive to the events. They told that they never join the pre-event preparation work. They mainly act as spectators when the event is on, because they need to take care of the business. So they only reflected their on-site experience. Based on the responses of the current local shop interviewees, they have an intuitive feeling of the lively atmosphere of the event. They also develop an appreciation of the traditional culture. Their evaluation to the ICH events is that they think the events benefit local tourism development.

254 6.4.1 Lively atmosphere

As the most intuitive feeling of the event, the local shop interviewees said that they feel the lively atmosphere in general when being asked about their experience of the event. Due to the fact that the local retailers need to take care of their businesses, they are restricted to enjoy the event freely like tourists. They can only see and enjoy the event when the performing teams passed by or they can take a look at it from their shops. As told by a cookie shop employee near the A-Ma Temple, “When the business is not that busy, I looked at the event in front of the door. I found the event is very lively, but I have to run the business, so I cannot enjoy that long the event.” The owner of a local food shop also mentioned that “there are lion and dragon dances during these local festivals. The atmosphere is always lively. During the opening of the new shops, there is also lion dance performance. It is the habit of the local community.” The same feeling as perceived by the owner of the durian shop, “I found it very good to keep such tradition. It attracts many people to join it and it is very lively.” Even the employee from the pharmacy also found the event is quite alive. “We don’t even go out of the counter and we can see the performance, as the performance team will pass by. It is a good thing. We need to support.”

6.4.2 Cultural appreciation

The event is held on a grand scale and in most cases, the crowded environment may block the way or be surrounded by the audience. It may disturb the business to some extent. However, most of the local shops are quite understandable to the situation. It indicates an appreciation for local culture and its ritual celebration. Like what the pharmacy employee expressed, “Because the people line up here for the distribution of the rice, it causes the block of the entrance to the shop. But we are not mean to complain, as we know the event is only held once a year and the locals are quite happy. Therefore, we understand that.” The local fruit stall owner also said, “It is quite a good thing of organizing such event. It brings the traditional atmosphere.” The word

255 “traditional” is also frequently mentioned by the local interviewees, as the locals also recognize such event as a traditional celebration that represents the local culture. Some local interviewees are familiar with the event, as they mentioned they saw such celebration when they are young, but they also admit that the traditional celebration is quite rare to see currently. A local shop selling herbal tea even explained to the interviewer her understanding of the meaning of the lion “caiqing”. It shows the local community recognizes the local culture and they appreciate the different traditional celebrations and are quite understandable to the crowd situation during the event.

6.4.3 Benefits for tourism development

Since the local shops are running the business in the tourist spots, their main targets are the various tourists. If the organized events can attract more tourists to join, it may bring more people to the tourist areas, which will benefit tourism development of the city. However, the local retailers reflected that there is no specific influence on their business then.

The event is good for Macau, especially when there are events that last for longer time, MGTO will organize different programs in the tourism areas. It is good for the tourism development of the city, as the tourist arrivals may increase during the event days, however, there is no obvious influence on the business. (Ma Kok Cafe shop owner)

Similarly, the owner of the local food shop also agreed that “It is necessary for the city to create a unique cultural image to the tourists in order to attract them to come to the city and enjoy nice tourist experience during their stays. Therefore, the government needs to put efforts in the promotion.” In terms of the promotional efforts, the owner of the herbal tea shop also mentioned that,

The government should not solely pay attention to the hotel and gambling industry and ignore the old districts, like us. In fact, Macau has diverse cultural aspects, however, it gives the image of the city as a

256 gambling city to most tourists. Even some tourists who like the historical culture, they come and ask us about the schedule of the event. As a local, I also need to check the schedule then. You could see how bad the promotional work does. Of course, I do hope, the government can organize a more local event and bring more positive influence to the street.

As a summary, the local interviewees from the shops near the venues of the events mainly engage in the on-site experience. Although they may not fully engage in the entire event and follow the parade like tourists, their reflections still reveal a lively atmosphere of the event environment. No matter how crowded the environment is, they are tolerant of the event and express an appreciation of the culture. They admit the event is beneficial to the tourism development of the city, but they do not perceive such can influence their business significantly. However, as a local, they also raise their suggestions to the better development of the city to promote more local culture to the outsiders. Such concerns cannot survive without government support.

Compared to tourist perspectives, local retailers are experienced spectators who witness the development and celebration of the events along the time. Obviously, they were not surprised with the event or impressed by any particular components, rather they provided an even broader perspective than tourists who focused more on the long-term development and impacts of the ICH on its potential benefits in contributing to the tourism development in Macau. Apart from recognizing the ICH as a basic cognition of the local culture, the local retailers have expanded their emotions on the appreciation of the local culture. However, since most tourists joined the event for the first time, they focused on the experience in every detail (decoration, props, colors) of the event. As indicated from the interview findings, there was lack of social interaction between tourists and the locals on-site. As a consequence, their perspectives cannot exchange due to the disconnection in the communication. For this reason, the exploration of ICH experiencescapes in various

257 stakeholders’ perspectives can then reveal the need for creating opportunities for the social interaction between the locals and tourists. By realizing that, locals can share their deep understanding and feelings of the events to tourists. As a result, ICH promotion as expected by the organizers and performers can be pushed through the local efforts. The engagement of local retailers in the construction of ICH experiencescapes can be more than it is now.

6.5 Government perspectives

The government is another stakeholder involved in shaping ICH experiencescapes. Although tourists cannot get in touch directly with this group of stakeholders in the event like organizers or performers, they somehow passively receive promotional materials from the government. Furthermore, government authorities have close connections with the organizer, thereby engaging in constructing the ICH experiencescape. The data collection extended to two relevant government departments - Macau Government Tourism Office (MGTO) and Cultural Affairs Bureau (IC), which are responsible for promoting Macau’s tourism products, services and development and producing legislation and promoting cultural events in Macau separately. Under the terms of Decree-Law of Macau, the different departments under MGTO and IC take charge of the corresponding area in their only responsibilities. In this research, the Destination Marketing Department, Tourism Product and Events Department and Organizational Planning and Development Department in MGTO and Department of Cultural Heritage in IC are closely related to the main topic in this research. Therefore, the representatives from these departments were approached and interviewed. In MGTO, two representatives who are separately from Tourism Product and Events Department and Organizational Planning and Development Department were invited to join the face-to-face interview on 3 November 2017. Although the Destination Marketing Department representative was absent, the opinions were conveyed by his colleague in the face-to-face interview. The interview

258 lasts around one and a half hours. On 7 December 2017, the representative from the Division for Research and Planning in the Department of Cultural Heritage in IC was interviewed. This representative is responsible for the work close related to ICH in Macau, who knows the practices on ICH protection and promotion better, and the Division of which mainly carried out studies on tangible and intangible heritage in Macau and updating the inventory list of the heritage in Macau. The interview lasts around one hour and a half.

A summary table was presented to briefly introduce the main standpoints of MGTO and IC and their contributions in the separate experience stages (Table 6.2).

Table 6.2. Overview of government perspectives (Source: author)

Government Pre-event On-site Expected outcomes authorities experience experience MGTO  Finance Little  Cultural tourism support intervention development  Promotion &  Provide diverse marketing cultural resources for tourists  Attract revisitation behaviors  Increase the visibility of cultural events IC  Finance  ICH cognition support  ICH transmission  Promotion &  ICH preservation marketing  Consultation & cooperation

6.5.1 The MGTO perspective

MGTO has its Tourism Fund which provides subsidies to support the individuals and local registered nonprofit organizations to organize the events that are beneficial to present the diversity of tourism resources in Macau containing the areas of sports, music, photography, retailers, culture and electronic games (Macau Printing Bureau, 2017a). In the cultural area, the

259 majority of beneficiaries were Chinese Opera associations (Wilhelm, 2017). The Cantonese Opera is indeed the main component of the performance in the three investigated events in this research, as well as the recognized ICH item in Macau at the regional, national and international levels, which showcases the importance of such cultural resource in promoting the diversity in Macau. The full list of sponsorship details (including the name of fund recipients and the amount of the funds) is released to the public regularly in the Macau Government Official Gazette (Macau Printing Bureau, 2017b).

6.5.1.1 Pre-event experience

As revealed by the informants, MGTO mainly involves in the pre-event stage of the tourist experience. It undertakes the role as one of the sponsors of the event and of promoting the event information through its own promotional platform and channels. The local associations can raise their requests for subsidy from MGTO. Their event information can also be released through the official promotional channels.

We have a Request for Subsidy for Association Activities Plan. Those associations which organize ICH related events can apply this program and submit all required application documents for our approval. We will review them all and compare to their previous organized event outcomes for a complete consideration and then decide whether to approve or not. (Representative from Tourism Product and Events Department in MGTO)

Apart from the subsidy, MGTO also puts promotional efforts to the events, which is not only limited to those application events. In fact, such promotional efforts are applicable to all year-round events, which are included in the event calendar as posted on the official website. More specifically, the representative from the Research and Planning Division (under Organizational Planning and Development Department) revealed that they use soft support, the different

260 channels (e.g. mobile Apps, website and online social platform) to promote the local events to let more tourists know about the events, and also disseminate the information to Macau tourism office representatives overseas through the local media or share with the local travel agents for their package tour planning. It is considered a win-win situation between the government and the organizers since the organizers can get benefits from such promotion. Meanwhile, the government can diversify tourism resources by promoting local ICH events.

The reason for supporting the local ICH events is mainly because these events are all organized by the local nonprofit associations. As for the benefits of the long term development of the event, financial support is a critical element for its sustainability. It is also meaningful to support such event in long term as reflected by the representatives from MGTO. ICH as part of the culture, as well as with its significant recognized status, also provides an important tourism resource for Macau. What’s more, these ICH related events have been organized for many years. By considering its importance for transmission and also for the benefits of the tourism promotion of Macau, MGTO has also sponsored the events for long. These are all possible considerations for MGTO to support and promote the ICH related events. However, there is no confirmed list of items to support annually. It depends on the initiative of association itself if the application is submitted for consideration. In essence, MGTO will support all those events which can present the cultural diversity of the city and are beneficial to the tourism development of Macau.

The three entitled ICH events are initiated by the local associations as the local associations are the main organizers which dominate the whole event because the initiatives of holding the events are originally from the local associations and being celebrated by the local community. Compared to the other grand cultural events, this group of people is the most appropriate one to hold the event. Each year, the local associations have their own plans and arrangements for the celebration. MGTO also admitted the importance of keeping the traditional practices and respect the local community to organize the event in

261 their own rights. Therefore, the role of government authorities solely act as one of the sponsors in the whole ICH event, and they also provide assistance in event promotion.

6.5.1.2 On-site experience

Government involvement in the on-site experience is limited. Due to the role that it plays in the entire event as sponsor, MGTO is less involved during the course of the event. Sometimes, there will be representatives invited as guests to join the opening ceremony of the event. As reflected by the interviewee, MGTO assigns staff to the event venue to monitor the ongoing progress and takes record to see if the event content is organized to conform to the original submitted proposal for the fund application. At the same time, the participation condition of the audience among locals or tourists is also observed. As such, MGTO plays an observer rather than a participant during the event.

6.5.1.3 Expected outcomes

As with other stakeholders, government has its own expected outcomes of ICH events. According to the government long-term development plan - 12th Five- Year Plan (2012-2017), it is proposed that developing cultural tourism and promoting Macau as a destination that can attract a diverse tourism markets. As such, MGTO also emphasizes the importance of utilization of various tourism resources to promote the cultural diversity of Macau. As the slogan of Macau tourism promoted as “experience” Macau, MGTO puts its efforts into providing all possible opportunities for tourists to experience the city in different angles. As shared by the representatives from MGTO,

What is different from the tangible objects, like souvenirs, experience is something that cannot be brought back home in a certain form. It cannot be touched, seen, but can be felt. If tourists want to experience the

262 experience again, they need to come back again. By doing so, it is expected tourists can return to the city many times, especially during the different times of the year, and also they can stay longer in Macau. Similarly, culture is a typical example, it is difficult to produce a certain product related to culture. It is an authentic experience that can only be felt by oneself, which cannot be easily transferred through other forms. Therefore, we promote a way of “experiencing” tourism during their stay in Macau.

In order to realize such purposes, MGTO has gradually enhanced the cooperation with other government departments, like IC and the Sports Bureau. Through combining the various events across the fields or assisting with other departments for the non-tourism events, it is regarded as a potential way to attract tourists to join the event in future. For instance, the organization of Marathon and Light Festival are adjusted to schedule in the same period to enlarge the influence and effects of both events. Likewise, in response to the annual international museum day, the government organized the Museum Day Carnival with the theme of “the mobile museum – Red Market X Drunken Dragon Festival” during the Feast of Drunken Dragon (IC, 2017a). Therefore, with the joint efforts of different departments in event promotion, the effects of the events can be expanded. From the perspectives of MGTO, all events that are potentially beneficial to the tourism development of the city are encouraged, promoted and supported as these may contribute to create the diversified image of Macau.

The representatives from MGTO also expressed their perceptions to the organization of ICH related events in Macau. Due to the fact that the ICH events are the community-based cultural expression, which has a strong cultural base and practice for many years, the government did not participate in the event organization in the beginning. When the community realizes the necessity of enlarging the scale of the event, they may need the external support like the government in terms of legislation, financial, manpower or other forms of

263 support, in order to reinforce the impact to a wider audience. As an official tourism authority, MGTO promotes diverse tourism events to the main target – tourists. In order to attract the potential tourists who are interested in the local cultural events, MGTO involves in the efforts of promotion. As such, all current ICH-related events are included in the promotional materials. However, it depends on the local association itself if it attempts to involve MGTO in the organization of the event or not, and the local association reserves the right to decide to what extent MGTO is invited to be involved in the event. The reason for this is reflected by MGTO as to respect the nature of the community-based cultural practice and to leave the decision to its original community who was involved in the tradition at the beginning. Since the local community has already had a solid foundation with charisma, it also keeps its own core value in organizing the events and rich experience. By forcing a local cultural practice to involve in tourism environment and become a tourism resource is not considered an appropriate way for its sustainable development, as reflected by the representatives. Whereas, it can be determined that the organization of the ICH related events is encouraged by MGTO as it enriches the cultural resources in Macau. Therefore, MGTO attempts to assist the local communities when any requests are raised. As a summary, MGTO expects to provide every opportunity to promote different aspects of Macau and involve various cultural and tourism resources in the inventory for tourists to choose. By achieving such, it can satisfy different tourists’ needs and attract their repeat visit behaviors.

These years, MGTO put a lot of effort into decentralizing the congestion to the central area of Macau. Apart from visiting the famous sites, it is also expected that the tourists can experience different cultural aspects of Macau, like the intangible culture and realize that Macau is more than gambling and Ruins of St. Paul’s, but it also contains rich cultural resources to appreciate.

It is also the expectation from the MGTO to increase the visibility of various cultural activities among tourists, to further alter the image of Macau as not

264 only about gambling or shopping. It is expected that the tourists can introduce the enjoyment of Macau to their relatives and friends and encourage them to visit Macau frequently or come for the events particularly.

6.5.2 The IC perspective

The IC perspective mainly reveals the efforts on the preservation and promotion of ICH in Macau. In fact, the Department of Cultural Heritage in IC deals with cultural issues in all aspects. Therefore, in the following summary of the responses, it could be seen that apart from ICH, the other forms of culture are also involved in their efforts in developing the cultural diversity in Macau.

In common with MGTO, IC also has the Cultural Fund to support the local NGOs and communities to organize all kinds of non-commercial cultural arts activities (including the performance arts, visual arts, art education, cultural heritage (both tangible and intangible), literature, academic research, traditional cultural events) in Macau which is entitled as subsidy programme – Financial Support for Local Association Activities/Cultural Projects Programme. This programme aims to promote the local cultural diversification, support the local art, improve the cultural environment and fulfill the local community’s cultural atmosphere in further to enrich the cultural value of the city and to enhance the sustainable development of local culture (IC, 2017f; Macau Printing Bureau, 2017c). The funding details can also be found in Macau Government Official Gazette Year (Macau Printing Bureau, 2017b).

In terms of the supporting forms that IC provides to the ICH related cultural events in general, there are two main streams, as expressed by the representatives as “active” and “passive”. The subsidy programme is considered as a passive way to support because the ICH is local-based culture, which reflects a typical character of its origin. The locals have the predominant power to decide its ways of presenting the culture. Each year, the local community has its own practice in preserving and promoting the culture. Instead of intervening

265 in the ICH events in its authentic patterns among locals, IC plays a passive role in providing the subsidy to support the events in a financial way. The local community can apply either annual fund or individual project subsidy program to get the approval from IC. The targeted three ICH events mainly involve the application of the annual fund; only when there is special arrangement on strengthening the promotion of the ICH item or other special occasions, such as celebrating the anniversary, the local community applies for the individual project support from the government. The other form of supporting is to provide either technical, educational and promotional support or assistance to the local communities when any concerns or requests are raised. Such assistance as providing the venues for holding the events, documentation works to the ICH items and academic supports to the ICH related research and paper preservation to the historical music score of Taoist music. The approval and details of every support request will be considered case by case.

IC plays an active role in approaching the local community for collaboration. In previous years, IC attempted different organized forms of cultural activities to promote each ICH item under a certain theme, among which the three ICH items were also included. There are several typical examples of collaboration with the local communities in organizing the side events (i.e. lecture, symposium, exhibition, and workshop) under the theme related to A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon and Feast of Na Tcha. In celebrating the 10th anniversary of the inscription of “The Historic Centre of Macau”, a series of programs were organized on the theme of “The mobile museum – A-Ma Bamboo Theatre” (流动的博物馆 ─ 妈阁大戏棚), including the opening ceremony of the 2015 International Museum Day Festival, themed exhibitions on festivals, beliefs and crafts of fishermen in Macau, workshop on experiencing the Cantonese Opera and lectures in Largo do Pagode da Barra (the square where A-Ma Festival is held) from 17 – 21 May 2015 (IC, 2015c). The exhibition of “The Soaring Dance – Drunken Dragon Festival in Macau” (醉舞龍騰 — 澳門魚行醉龍節) was organized to introduce the traditional dragon dance and its ancient folk culture as the temporary exhibition in Macau

266 Museum from 19th January to 15th April in 2012. A book associated with the exhibition was also published to document this folk custom under the same name of the exhibition by Cultural Affairs Bureau and the Macau Museum (Macau Museum, 2012). In order to safeguard the transmission of Na Tcha Customs and Beliefs, Cultural Affairs Bureau got the support from the Na Tcha Temple Association and the surrounding neighbors and opened the Na Tcha Exhibition Hall in 2012 for both locals and tourists to learn about this custom through appreciating the exhibits related to the custom (IC, 2012). Such cooperation as expressed by the representative “it is quite meaningful for the opening of the exhibition hall, because it is the joint efforts of the official government and the local community. We do hope such ‘hardware’ can combine with the soft culture (Na Tcha custom) to better present this cultural tradition to the locals and visitors.” Apart from these highlights, the person from IC also provided a lot of other collaboration projects showcasing the government support to the ICH preservation and promotion. The purpose of supporting the ICH related events as expressed,

First, it is expected to preserve the ICH in order to make sure ICH can sustain for long. At the same time, we need to preserve the cultural diversity of Macau, therefore, we do support different types of ICH. Second, we express our respect and attach great importance to the local community who practice this traditional custom through our supporting efforts. Third, we expect more and more locals to join the ICH events and know about these events through our promotional efforts. The ICH items are not only important to the local community who practice them, but also the locals, even the educational and research institutions in Macau, art groups, academic groups and all levels of the society can possibly join the events and make their own efforts to support the ICH. (Representative from IC)

267 After having a complete understanding of the initial thoughts of IC in its supportive efforts to the ICH, the following contents elaborate the detailed engagement of IC in the three captioned events in the separate experience stage.

6.5.2.1 Pre-event experience

Similarly, IC involves little in the preparation work in the pre-event stage as MGTO. Its main effort was given to the financial support of the events in general. As explained, these three ICH events are rooted in local community. In respect for the customs, IC leaves the ownership of the culture to the local community to use their own ways to celebrate the traditions. Furthermore, the events have been organized for years. IC believed the organizers are capable enough to handle the entire program of the events. Their assistance would only be given when there is special request raised by the organizers or in the occasion as discussed before, when IC approaches the local community for collaboration. In such case, IC’s role is either organizer or co-organizer of the themed events. If it is organizer or co-organizer, the efforts are not only limited to the financial support, but also other resources like manpower or technical support of the events. Otherwise, its role is limited to sponsor only. Another reason for this,

ICH has a solid community base, which also has a strong initiative from the locals once it gets the inscriptions on the ICH status in both local and national level. We don’t want to give pressure or misconception to the community that we expect to intervene their culture. Therefore, we currently stand aside and act as a supportive role to the events. Whenever the local community needs help, they can raise their requests for our support and assistance. Then we will take them seriously and consider to help by analyzing the real situation…Furthermore, the local community who is experienced organizing who practices the tradition for long, we feel comfortable to let them do it. (Representative from IC)

268 The collaboration of IC and local communities is not facilitated in regular base as IC expects to allocate the resource to different kinds of ICH items. Therefore, different themed events were organized to help promote various ICH items coinciding with the grand occasion or important dates, such as the International Museum Day, Art Festival and Anniversary of Macau’s return to China. In 2017, in response to the International Museum Day, IC organized the themed event of “The Mobile Museum – Red Market X Drunken Dragon Festival” in collaboration with Macau Fishmongers Association on the same date of Feast of Drunken Dragon Festival in the Red Market (one of the buildings of architectural interest listed in the classified immovable properties by Macau government) (Cultural Heritage of Macau, 2017). The area where the event was held in the inner harbor which used to be Macau’s main commercial district and represented the authentic Macau. With respect to the traditional practice of the Feast of Drunken Dragon Festival, the Carnival was set up aside the Red Market which did not interfere with the regular programs organized by the Association. The purpose of the collaboration was expressed by the representative of IC as,

Each year, there are many important festivals or events to celebrate in Macau. IC also takes the opportunities to promote the traditional culture, art development and cultural heritage (including ICH). During the themed events, we can combine different cultural elements in one or arrange the different programs for the audiences to enjoy a wide range of culture, such as including the different ICH elements. Therefore, we approach the local community for such cooperation to raise a synergistic effect that enlarges the impacts of the event in general. The promotional effects can also be optimized using such themed event.

Not surprisingly, the promotional channels focus on the media (including paper media and online platforms) in disseminating the event information to the public and also through the main transport. It is noteworthy that IC highlights its strategies in utilizing the different channels targeting the audiences at all

269 levels. For the elders who rarely use the online platform, IC promotes the events using the traditional way of broadcasting. On the contrary, the online media focuses on the younger generations who frequently used the channels for receiving the messages. Furthermore, in order to increase the exposure to the public, various banners are posted in the public area including the advertising on buses, on the lamp posts and in the squares.

In a macro view, although IC involves little in the pre-event stage of the annual event apart from the financial support, it puts a lot of effort in the inscription work before these three ICH items get inscribed, including the consultation work, research assistance on preparing the application document (i.e. write the recommendation letters, find experts to assist the community). IC plays a role as a pusher to the successful nomination to the inscription list at both local and national level. Such efforts contribute to safeguarding the traditions sustainably in a solid base. With an inscription status of the ICH items, IC can even better undertake the preservation and promotional works in all aspects, including the legislation efforts in making the official guidance of preservation work according to the national and international charters, providing financial, technical and cultural support to the events and the other possible efforts in promoting the ICH items to the public in the long term. These are the sharing from the representative from IC on its efforts in the pre-event stage.

6.5.2.2 On-site experience

As emphasized before, the involvement of the IC is little in the on-site experience, which is the same as MGTO. The idea is to respect the tradition and let the local community celebrate the traditional practices in their own ways. The IC representatives are invited to join the opening ceremony as a way to join the on-site experience. The staff from IC may also join the event on-site to record if the events follow the same as submitted in the fund application. But it is not compulsory, because there are various cultural activities all year around and hundreds of sponsored projects; it is impossible to monitor every event on-

270 site, as shared by the informants. No matter whether the staff is assigned on-site, the organizers are required to submit the report after the events to summarize the outcomes of the event and the detailed financial statement for the government departments to review.

6.5.2.3 Expected outcomes

The expected outcomes of the ICH events can be summarized as a flow of ideas to gradually encourage the audiences (both locals and tourists) to understand the existence of ICH items first, and then to recognize the value of the ICH items and finally start to safeguard the ICH items. In order to realize such outcomes, IC shared its orientation of organizing the ICH events. Since the Department of Cultural Heritage is in charge of both cultural heritage and ICH, the initial idea was to organize cultural events in the historic sites in Macau to provide visitors with an opportunity to appreciate both tangible and intangible cultural heritage. The strong cultural evidence of tangible structures is regarded as a way to create a unique atmosphere for ICH’s appreciation. The intangible elements can in return make the tangible structures come alive. “It is a combination of the software (intangible) and hardware (tangible) to present the value of both tangible heritage and ICH to the locals and tourists.”, as explained by the interviewees.

A critical concern raised by IC on the difficulty in the ICH transmission, although the current listed items are yet being threatened because of the continued practice. However, IC also reveals its standing on the future plan in safeguarding the ICH and supporting its relevant events. All these efforts are input continuously in the long term. First of all, IC will continue to launch the public consultancy to gauge public views on five newly nominated items in the ICH inventory list. The efforts on discovering new items to the list will be continued. Once there are new items, more and more resources will be input to the preservation work to the ICH. In short term, IC will undertake the preparation and consultation work on promulgating the qualified inventory

271 items to the list of Macau’s ICH. Furthermore, the promotional efforts on ICH will be organized through the collaboration work with the local communities. IC provided an example that it currently cooperates with the Macau Bouncers Association, which is in charge of the newly nominated ICH item - the Craft of Bamboo Scaffolding on providing the technical support in the documentation work on this handicraft. More opportunities will be provided to the ICH items to present and promote its culture through the themed events.

The linkage between the tourist perspective and government perspective is not that direct as other stakeholders besides tourists and government play independently in their own roles. Government does not have direct contact with the tourists. The linkage is established through the promotional channels when government puts effort in disseminating the tourism messages to the tourists. Tourists can then perceive the message intuitively even though tourists may not directly link such message with the government efforts. They mainly perceive the direct persons or organizations who they view on-site. This can be used to explain that most tourist perspectives are linked to the organizers and performers who they intuitively connected with. Despite such disconnection, the role government plays in the experiencescape cannot be overlooked because the organizers revealed the importance of its connection to the government that they need the assistance from the government in supporting the ICH. The connection between the government and organizers is recognized as an inevitable one in the pre-event stage. It can be concluded from this insight that not all stakeholders directly connect to tourists, but the stakeholders among themselves supplement each other in constructing the ICH experiencescapes as an integral part. Every stakeholder may affect the tourist perspectives of the ICH eventually. Because tourists perceived the event as a whole, but not view the events in segments by linking the responsible part to each stakeholder and then evaluate.

272 6.6 Chapter summary

This chapter has summarized other key stakeholders’ experience of the ICH event, including the organizers, performers, local community and government. Their perspectives complement the understanding of tourist perspectives on ICH experiencescape. In fact, each of these stakeholders play a different role in the construction of ICH experiencescape. Their links to the tourist perspectives were revealed differently. Comparatively, the organizers and performers are the direct stakeholders who are closely involved in the same experience environment with the tourists where tourists can actually observe their performance and their enjoyment on-site. Most tourist perspectives were generated during this stage. While, during pre-event stage, organizers and performers also input a lot for the construction of ICH experiencescapes before tourists come. These preparation works are also critical in influencing the tourist on-site experience. Such pre-event experience mainly comes from their persistence of cultural preservation. Tourist participation is seen as a way to promote ICH. Therefore, tourist engagement in the ICH experiencescapes can increase the opportunity for the recognition of ICH, which also helps achieve the organizers’ and performers’ expected outcomes.

The local retailers play as observers to the ICH experiencescape. They mainly revealed their on-site experience, since they were rarely involved in the pre- and post-stages of experience. Their perspectives are currently isolated from the tourist perspectives due to the lack of social interactions in between. Their experience of the ICH event was deeper and more far-reaching than tourists which can be utilized in future when the connection with tourists is bridged. The government authorities also act critically in the pre-event stage because of their cooperation with the organizers. Although they did not directly connect with tourists, their financial support is an essential element in the construction of ICH experiencescapes, together with other stakeholders. Without its support, the organizers cannot deliver the ICH experience in a desirable way by the restriction of funds due to the fact that the government respects the community-

273 based ICH properties. Their efforts in supporting the ICH mainly involve in the pre-event stage where various promotional channels are also utilized to attract the audience. The role MGTO plays aiming to create a lively experience to the tourists through providing diverse cultural resources, among which ICH is utilized to become part of the properties to showcase the cultural diversity in Macau whereas, IC emphasizes the importance of ICH transmission. In order to let more locals and tourists to get to know the ICH, various opportunities are provided to get them engaged in the appreciation of the valuable cultural practices. It is not difficult to find that the willingness to enlarge the audience and encourage them to “experience” the culture are reached in common. All these different stakeholders act in their own roles in the construction of ICH experiencescapes, no matter how strong such influence has direct effects in shaping the final presentation of the ICH events.

274 CHAPTER SEVEN – DISCUSSION

Drawing upon the interview findings, this chapter will discuss the results that were presented in the proceeding chapters and figure out what constitutes the ICH experiencescape from the perspectives of various stakeholders and drawing upon the experiencescape literature. The contents will be organized by discussing the various stakeholder perspectives and then combining the perspectives to discuss the ICH experiencescape constructs.

7.1 The ICH experiencescape from the tourist perspective

7.1.1 Pre-event experience

Most tourist interviewees had little expectation about their Macau trip and view the city as small and easy to explore quickly. It doesn’t require much pre- planning. When asked about their trip expectations prior to travelling to Macau, tourists appeared hesitant since they had never thought about it, not to say, the expectation of the unexpected event. Almost all were there by coincidence. Previously, as discussed in the literature review, based on the cultural tourism typology by McKercher and du Cros (2002) (Figure 2.1), this typical type of tourist is serendipitous cultural tourists. This segment of tourists refers to those tourists who have little or no intention to consider culture in the decision to travel, but when they are at a destination, they had a deep experience. Although the model was built on a broad scale of judging the importance of culture in the travel decision-making process and studying destination experience in general, it can also reveal a similar phenomenon as reflected in the results of this research in the decision to participate in a local event at a destination. Huang et al. (2014) also had a further study on this notion of serendipity, as they found free independent tourists had a higher preference for serendipity than those

275 tourists who followed a travel plan. This type of tourist not only has an unexpected motivation, but also is able to enjoy pleasant and meaningful experience in the accidental activities eventually. Cary (2004) expressed such tourist moment as a self-discovering process of one’s experience. The results from this study also proved such phenomenon.

Most interviewees revealed non-purposeful behaviors for joining ICH related events. This group of serendipitous cultural tourists was motivated and evolved their experience in participating in the ICH related events in Macau by different stimulations. As was previously discussed, these include elements from the physical environment such as sound and the lively atmosphere, curiosity to know what happened and experience and learn a local culture. Stylianou- Lambert (2011) proved that more motivated tourists tend to engage in the cultural attractions at a deeper level and most are likely to obtain a meaningful experience. These various stimuli may be categorized as physical and/or psychological. The physical stimuli arise from the physical environment. Tourists decided to go and look because they were attracted by such physical elements. Whether tourists stay longer for the event depends on their psychological need to explore, learn and experience a local culture, regardless of whether they are from similar or different cultural backgrounds. They are curious to learn about a different culture when the event is unfamiliar. This is an evolving process during the pre-event experience. When tourists decide to join the activities spontaneously, their interest in the event is stimulated.

During the interview process, some tourist interviewees who are from the south coastal area of China (Guangdong, Fujian, Hong Kong) or Taiwan where their own culture has similarities to Macau also revealed their experience on the previous similar events. They evoke a nostalgic feeling that is attached to a familiar culture. Even for a few tourists who did not share a similar cultural background, they recalled their memories on any previous travelling experience when they encountered similar event components in other destinations (e.g. lion dance). Although the events are not accurately the same, the current event

276 stimulated their thoughts to compare the experience they had before. However, the current interview findings have not confirmed a certain pattern exists between the spontaneous event participation and the previous similar event experience. Although most tourists join the event spontaneously, not all of them have the previous similar event experience. It depends on the tourists themselves if they are from a similar cultural background or if they have similar travelling experience. Even tourists who from a similar cultural background, does not necessarily link to a previous similar event experience. In the study of ICH experiencescape, this study found that since tourists joined the ICH events spontaneously, they reveal little pre-event experience, but some of them possibly link their previous similar event experience to the current ICH experiencescape. It indicated that ICH experiencescape is not only limited to the physical space, as referred by Appadurai (1996) and O’Dell (2005a), it may also involve tourists in the imagined environment where tourists can connect their current experience with previous similar experiences.

7.1.2 On-site experience

When it comes to the on-site staging of the experience, tourists participate in the event with more immersive feelings and experience. They also made detailed observations about the physical and social environments. Different cultural tourists vary from each other in the level of enjoyment depending on the different activities they join (Dolnicar, 2002). As discussed, the participation is either physical or emotional engagement ranging from the shallow experience to the deep experience depending on how the tourists choose to join the event. If more emotional engagement to the event, the tourists indicate an intention to memorize the event.

Based on Campos et al.'s (2015) conceptual framework, the psychological states and processes in the model of on-site experience referred to all possible psychological feelings and were not classified clearly. This is perhaps

277 understandable because the model was intended to guide future applications. The frame deliberately leaves space for applications in different contexts and different research field. The framework relies on other researchers to develop applications in a variety of research contexts. As has been found in this study, tourist interviewees who joined ICH events reached a variety of psychological states. These states cannot be simply categorized. The implicit meaning of the psychological feelings associated with ICH needs to retain and be accurately expressed. Although the previous literature has not consolidated the various manifestations of the psychological states, these psychological responses, in fact, can be sorted in a more systematical way, which can be presented in a more concise idea on how tourists reflect their psychological feelings in different ways.

Drawing upon previous studies (i.e. Kwon & Vogt, 2010; Pike, 2002) which discussed the tourist psychological feelings, the most commonly agreed assumption is that tourists’ psychological feelings may be categorized into cognitive and affective responses respectively. These responses reflect attachments to the environment and places. Such cognitive and affective dimensions have been applied in the study of attitudes, marketing research and destination image (Kwon & Vogt, 2010; Pike, 2002). Cognitive responses refer to the total information that is known about an object by an individual. It reveals one’s awareness or knowledge of an object. The object can be a destination, a physical object, any environmental features (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Fishbein, 1967; O'Neill & Jasper, 1992; Pike & Ryan, 2004), which can also be an event.

Affective responses can also be applied to the destination experience (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997). The growing recognition of consumption of experience has confirmed that affective and sensory stimulation are associated with tourism experiences (Dias, Correia, & Cascais, 2017; Hirschman, 1984). Affective responses may be conceptualized as the emotional states of mind that reveal tourists’ emotional interaction with the environment (McIntosh & Prentice,

278 1999, p. 607). It is suggested that cultural tourism experiences involve both cognitive and affective responses (McIntosh & Prentice, 1999). The evaluation of the trip or the outcomes of the travel are the cumulative effects of a tourist’s cognitive and affective responses to a product or service (de Rojas & Camarero, 2008). As indicated from the tourist responses in this study, their complex psychological states can be sorted into the following cognitive and affective responses.

7.1.2.1 Cognitive responses When tourists shared their event experiences on-site they referred to their images of the objects in the physical environment that they have observed during the event, including the lively atmosphere and traditional event settings as well as their images of the intangible elements of the performance. Some event attributes were observed by tourists as surface phenomena, like the performance components, performers and the enthusiastic participation from the audience. These cognitive responses reveal tourist’s awareness of the environment features of the event and the performance.

7.1.2.2 Affective responses Compared with the cognitive responses, the affective responses are richer and more diverse. These have been discussed in the data analysis as; their thoughts on learning about traditional culture, realizing the importance of preservation, appreciating the local culture, the power of religion and other psychological states as obtained from the events (e.g. fresh, surprise, sincere). With the influence of the cognitive responses on the physical environment, mainly generated from tourist observations of the physical environment and the involved people, tourists then evolve in a process of forming affective responses. The affective responses arise from the experience with physical attributes. In destination marketing research, the cognitive component has been

279 shown to be an antecedent to the affective component because affective responses collect all emotional experience or preference toward the product, service or environment attributes (Derbaix & Pham, 1991; Gartner, 2008; Ryan & Cave, 2005; Vogt & Andereck, 2003).

Affective responses are progressive feelings over the previous expression on the simple objects, which put forward the experience to a further reflection on how the participation in the local events has an influence on themselves and to their trips. It reveals how tourists go through a psychological process of sorting out the message they received from the event and then express the experience in their own words after consideration.

7.1.3 The post-event experience

Being influenced by the cognitive and affective feelings during the on-site experience of the event, tourists provided an overall evaluation of the event and also raised their behavioral intentions as to indicate the likelihood of joining the similar event or revisit the city in future. As similar to the pre-event experience, there is no predetermined structure of the post-event experience. In general, the post-event experience concludes tourist’s evaluation of the event, which also influenced them on the perception of the city. Therefore, tourists had memorable experience of the event because of such impressive experience with ICH, which also alters their destination image of Macau. To most of the tourist interviewees, it is the first time they encountered the event, they were surprised and impressed by the ICH elements of Macau. Therefore, it gives an opportunity for them to rethink the destination image of Macau with more cultural deposit and diverse surfaces to explore. In general, their responses are mostly positive, which leads to a positive behavioral intention as tourists may consider joining other similar events in future, willing to revisit the city because of the good experience and recommend the event and trip to others.

The most significant findings of the present study relative to the previous

280 tourist experiencescapes framework are that the results present the tourist experience in a wider context when applied to the ICH setting. Instead of highlighting the on-site experience, tourists hold rich reflections about their pre- event and post-event experiences. Compared with previous work the contents of the entire tourist experience become complete. In practice, the framework on tourist experiencescapes is far more complex than Campos et al.’s work. The pre-defined framework by Campos et al. (2015) failed to highlight the key feature of tourist experience as a continuous process through different stages. Such complex experiences cannot be reduced to the on-site experience which only encompasses three components (participation, social interaction and psychological states). The present study has revealed that tourists who joined the events have continuous immersive feelings toward their experience from the beginning to the end.

7.1.4 Conceptual framework of ICH experiencescape from the tourist perspective

The entire process of how tourists experience ICH-related events may be presented as a conceptual framework that reflects how the experience emerged through the travel process from the pre-event, on-site and post-event stages. In the pre-event stage, tourists have no prior knowledge of the event, are visiting the place for sightseeing purposes and this coincided with an event, which they join spontaneously having been attracted by the different physical stimuli. They gradually generate interest in the event because of various psychological needs, such as curiosity and learning a different culture. After joining the event, tourists opt for either a physical or an emotional engagement with the event during the on-site stage. Irrespective of their choice of participation, tourists have the cognitive and affective responses that reflect their event experience. Relative to the cognitive responses, tourists have richer reflections on the affective aspects. This suggests that ICH related events can evoke tourists’ emotional feelings more than surface observations of the physical attributes.

281 The cognitive and affective components of the feelings are interrelated as the psychological responses derived from the observations of the environment features. During the post-event stage, tourists evaluate their experience of the event as being impressed by the event and which in further alters their impression of Macau because the event offers a special angle for them to learn about cultural aspects of the city, with which they are unfamiliar. The good image of the event and the city stimulate the tourist’s behavioral intentions of joining the similar events in future, revisiting the city and recommending to others. The above explanatory notes are elaborated in the following flow diagram in order to reinforce the sequencing of the different elements concisely (Figure 7.1). As a limitation, it has to be said that the spontaneous activity of the tourists applied to most interviewees in this research. However, it may not apply to the whole population. This may also be a limitation of the generalization of a qualitative study. But at least the study gives a forward- looking insight of the phenomenon of tourist’s ICH experience in Macau as a spontaneous activity for the serendipitous cultural tourists.

Figure 7.1. Conceptual framework of tourist experience of ICH related events (Source: author)

282 7.2 Other perspectives of the ICH experiencescape

Other stakeholders’ perspectives complement the understanding of tourist perspectives on the study of ICH experiencescape. At a core of organizing events, performers and organizers highlighted the importance of cultural preservation. According to both groups this is a prerequisite of long-lasting events. Performers and organizers frequently emphasize the importance of a solid base to preserve traditional culture. During the pre-event stage, the preparation work relies primarily on the collaborative efforts of organizers and performers, along with government authorities for funding and arranging venues. In assisting their preparations event organizers emphasize the importance of local involvement. Such continuous support is also praised during the on-site stage. Compared with the organizers, performers are more likely to concentrate on their own arrangements for performances. Such preparations rely primarily on performers’ practicing of performance skills and attention to performance details including refurbishment of the props.

Performers highlighted their importance during the on-site stage seeing the performance acts as an indispensable segment of the entire event to ensure that atmosphere and details can be presented desirably for enjoyment purposes. In order to present a better performance to the audience, the performers need to fully engage in the performance and cooperate with other performers in a solid team spirit and unspoken consensus. The surrounding local shops to some extent represent a perspective from the local community. They are mainly involved in the on-site stage where they could feel the atmosphere of the event, and they also appreciate the traditional cultural practices. The organization of the event as presenting the cultural diversity of the city is perceived by the local community as a way to benefit the tourism development. Local support for the event is also appreciated by the organizers and performers as included in their expected outcomes.

The expected outcomes as revealed by the organizers and performers can be regarded as the post-event perceptions because they review the impacts of the

283 entire event. The organizers anticipate that the event can promote ICH to the public and strengthen community relations. Similarly, the performers agree with the promotion of ICH and expect that the culture will receive more recognition from the audience. This is viewed as a way of disseminating the spirit of the culture and of allowing more people to know, understand, explore and spread the cultural traditions for the benefits of its long-lasting development.

Regarding the roles of the government authorities in the creation of the experiencescape, both MGTO and IC play an essential supporting role in the finance and promotion, in particular in the pre-event stage where a lot of resources are allocated to promotion and marketing. Although such participation is indirect, it is indeed an indispensable link to the smooth expansion of the events. Therefore, the official recognition of the importance of ICH events is also encouraging to the ICH bearers; although such support is invisible to some extent, it does, in fact, actively promote the ICH in its own way. MGTO helps promote the ICH to the tourism industry, while, IC helps spread the value of ICH at large through various themed programs to make it alive and at the same time, bring the opportunity for the audience to interact with ICH. All these efforts aim to promote the cultural diversity of Macau and provide the platform for the audience to “experience” the culture in a lively way. During the event, MGTO and IC involve little in the organization work, they rather play as “observers” or are being invited as “guests” to the event. The reason has been firmly emphasized by both parties for respecting the community-based culture with as little intervention as possible. From the angle of MGTO, ICH acts as a unique cultural element that helps enrich the diversification of the destination image of Macau. It may attract a diverse tourism market who are interested in the local culture, through which tourists can choose from various cultural activities to join, in further to stimulate their interest in the local cultural activities and their willingness to stay longer or repeat visiting behavior. As a government department in charge of the cultural development in Macau, IC’s attention is not only on ICH, but also tangible

284 elements and other forms of culture in order to protect and promote the cultural and social characteristics among locals and tourists. IC adopts a progressive process to understand the items first and then recognize the values in order to realize its ultimate goal of encouraging all level of the society to join in the efforts to safeguard the ICH items. ICH in Macau is currently mainly dominated by local NGOs and embraced by Macau residents. As indicated from the findings of this study, tourists reflected their interest and acceptance of the local culture in Macau. The majority of them who enjoyed the events for the first time are satisfied with the experience. It indicated that ICH events have the potential to extend to a larger group of tourists. This is also what the current stakeholders expected to enlarge the impacts of ICH and bring more audience to appreciate it and recognize the importance of the local culture. Although the understanding of the ICH is limited to the group amongst coastal areas in the similar social practice background at the current stage, with the faster development of tourism at a global scale and the convenient connection in between the cities (e.g. Greater Bay Area), the spread of local culture is no longer restricted within the physical boundaries. In fact, tourists who are familiar with the culture can work as sources to share through social interaction the understanding and experience to others who do not know. The concept of experiencescape in practice can embrace even more perspectives and stimulate experience exchange than it is now. There is a growing number of ICH items being recognized on the global scale like the inscription in the UNESCO inventories. A regional culture is not limited to the people within its territories, but gradually being known by the outsiders. Such recognitions can also be consolidated through the integration across the regions. The detailed implications will be elaborated in the conclusion chapter in section 8.2.1.

7.3 Chapter summary

On the basis of the detailed analysis of the interview responses in Chapter Six, this chapter consolidates the main research findings in a concise way. The

285 evolving process of tourist experiencescape from the tourist perspective was elaborated in a conceptual framework, which concisely explains the tourist experience of ICH in three travelling stages. The opinions from other stakeholders including the organizers, performers, local retailers and government departments were then presented to indicate the degree of their involvement in the formation of tourist experiencescape. The organizer of each ICH event is the main player in providing the ICH experience and also acts a coordinator among other stakeholders like the performers and government departments. The organizer needs to invite the performers and coordinate with them on delivering a better performance. It also needs to apply the funds from the government departments and raises their concerns for help when necessary. The performers are the ICH bearers who are also the key persons conveying the ICH spirit to the audiences. Tourist’s ICH experience mainly relies on perceiving the message delivered by the performers. Therefore, the precise expression of the performance depends on the performers’ capability and years of practices. The local retailers are the group closely involved in the experience environment of ICH, whose opinions also reflect the local’s perspective to some extent. Their supportive attitude and behavior indicates that the ICH events do receive a solid social basis among the locals, which ensures a certain group of audience in passing down the culture. However, in order to enlarge the influence of the events, the government departments play the critical role in the promotional efforts, as they possess a series of media resources and a visible platform. With the government’s recognition of importance status of ICH and the continuous official support (including finance, manpower, technical assistance, and consultancy) to the local community, it makes the organizers feel relieved and powerful in sustaining the tradition in a long term and carrying out the relevant educational and promotional activities with support.

286 CHAPTER EIGHT – CONCLUSIONS

Cultural heritage has been frequently mentioned as an important resource for economic and social development (Butler, 1996; Geertz, 1973; López-Guzmán & Santa-Cruz, 2016a). It has been utilized to attract tourists who pursue a meaningful, flexible and spontaneous experience in the destination. ICH as part of the culture, whose resources are also consumed as mobile assets that provides an experiential experience in various forms. In the case of Macau, a World Heritage City with its strengths in cultural tourism and long-term plan for developing cultural diversity; apart from its famous tangible heritage, it also possesses important ICH resources which receive national and international recognition worldwide. Such intangible cultural assets also gradually become tourist resources being enjoyed and favored by tourists. However, the relationship between tourism and ICH has not yet been fully addressed, especially in the new raised concept of “experiencescapes”, when the entire space of experience needs to be explored and explained. With the aim of exploring both the supply and demand perspectives on how ICH can enhance tourist experiencescapes throughout all stages of the tourists’ travel process, the study selected three typical local ICH events which obtain both local and national recognition as representative items in Macau to investigate the tourist experiencescapes. During the survey, all types of stakeholders who were directly involved in the experience environment were approached to share their experiences to the ICH event separately, including the perspectives from tourists, organizers, performers, local retailers and government authorities. In this concluding chapter, it will firstly highlight the critical findings of the research through revisiting the research objectives to see if they have been achieved, also revisiting the research questions to see if the answers have been figured out. The conceptual framework is then refined and the contribution to the previous framework will also be emphasized. Secondly, the significance of the study will be presented in three aspects - method, theory and management.

287 At last, the limitations and recommendations for future research will be raised as the closing remarks to the study.

8.1 Major findings

Experiencescapes is an emerging concept, which lacks attention and practical analysis in the tourism context. It is either referred to as a term without further explanation or a side study that remains at the theoretical stage without practical significance for the application. Even sometimes, the term experiencescapes is not mentioned, but only the characteristics of experiencescapes were slightly mentioned. As is commonly agreed, experience is subjective, intangible, personal and unique to the individual, which reflects one’s memorable, special and emotional responses to the entire experience environment. In reality, a growing interest has been made to explore the experiential and sensory stimuli associated with scapes (Hultman & Andersson Cerderholm, 2006; Margaryan, 2016). Experiencescapes, in fact, can be used as an analytical tool to explain how the different parties involved in the consumption process an experience. Different from a descriptive manner as general studies on tourist experience, the experiencescapes have been discovered in depth through exploring the entire process of event experience; at the same time, it involves the perspectives from various stakeholders who join the experience environment and play important roles in creating the space of experience. All these views make it complete to understand the ICH experiencescapes under the context of Macau. Due to the limited studies on this topic, this study addressed the research gap and applied it in the area that has not been covered yet in the tourism context.

288 8.1.1 Refinement of the Conceptual Framework

Based on the key findings in Chapter Six and Chapter Seven, it is needed to make a modification to the proposed conceptual framework in Chapter Two since this study involved various stakeholders in the construction of ICH experiencescapes. Their various opinions cannot be easily presented in diagrams because each stakeholder represents a different interest and focus. Instead of presenting all their opinions in one framework, it is better to refer to the descriptive results to better understand their opinions in all aspects (refer to Chapter Six). The tourist perspectives can be further consolidated in the refinement of the conceptual framework, which the differences have been pointed out between the proposed and the revised version of the conceptual framework (Figure 8.1).

289

Figure 8.1. Revisiting the conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes (Source: author)

290 In the above figure, there are clear remarks on the changes between the proposed conceptual framework and the refined one. In general, the stakeholders have been merged into four main stakeholders according to the real situation of ICH events in Macau. As discussed previously in Section 2.4, based on the UNWTO’s first comprehensive baseline research on tourism development related to ICH, it highlights a series of key stakeholders who may be involved in the scope of ICH related tourism, which has been previously included in the proposed conceptual framework. After the investigation of the case of Macau, these stakeholders have overlaps in management roles. MGTO is not only the public sector tourism organization but also the DMO in Macau. NGOs are the local associations which are also the organizers of ICH events. Private sector tourism operators are those local retailers who operate tourism business in the Historic Centre of Macau, who are also representatives of the local communities. ICH creators and bearers are the experienced performers apparently. As such, the previous categorization of the key stakeholders has been incorporated into four key ones in the study of Macau, namely organizers, performers, local retailers and government authorities.

In terms of tourists, the key stakeholder in the study focus, their opinions were highlighted separately as representing the demand side of the ICH experiencescapes. Compared to the previous conceptual framework on this part, the refined one has further supplemented the proposed work with additional components, in particular the pre-event and post-event experience. In the pre- event experience, spontaneous activity and previous similar event experience were added to indicate the event participation is a spontaneous activity and tourists were attracted by various stimuli, which gradually prompted tourist’s interest in the event. Some tourists possibly engaged in an imagined environment where they connected to their previous similar event experience while joining the current event. Since such behavior is not observed in a major pattern, this attribute of previous similar event experience was in hidden line to indicate the possible emerged phenomena in the pre-event experience. Although the examined concepts in the proposed conceptual framework have been

291 developed based on the relevant literature reviews, in the on-site stage, “social interaction” was excluded as there is no obvious manifestation of this component based on the research findings discussed in Section 5.3.2. The psychological states and processes were expanded into cognitive and affective responses, which more accurately and concisely express the tourist ICH experience. Same as pre-event experience, the post-event experience has been filled with three components – memorable events, the image of Macau and behavioral intentions, which reveals tourist’s most memorable part of the event and their evaluations. At the same time, such impressions influence their behavioral intentions which can be indicated by their revisit intentions and willingness to recommend. As a summary, the refined conceptual framework basically conforms to the main structure and relationship of the proposed one. But it improves the previous work by adding the missing components, examines the pre-defined framework in practice and adjusts it accordingly by considering the facts of ICH experiencescapes in Macau. Although the current framework of ICH experiencescapes was based on the study context in Macau, the main structure of which can also be applicable to other destinations where ICH was utilized as cultural resources to build, expand and redefine destination branding. There are currently 117 countries with ICH designations (UNESCO, 2018) which UNESCO recognizes the register of good safeguarding practices. These countries are possibly forming their own ICH experiencescapes in the tourism context. Therefore, the current refined framework acts as a pilot study, which attempts to outline the ICH experiencescape for the benefits of other places with ICH designations.

8.1.2 Revisiting research objectives and research questions

This part focuses on summarizing the findings of the study to address the aim of the study and to answer the research questions. The summary table is outlined in Table 8.2. The aim of the study is to explore processes of constructing tourist experiencescapes in order to understand how ICH can

292 enhance tourist experiencescapes throughout all stages of the tourists’ travel process. In order to achieve such aim, the study needs to answer the main research question, how are Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) experiencescapes constructed (through the interaction between different stakeholders and tourists)? The question can be answered when the sub- questions are solved.

As shown in Table 8.2, to achieve the first research objective on how ICH experiencescapes are constructed through the joint actions of different stakeholders (RO1) and to answer the first research question (RQ1), one needs to examine both the demand and supply aspects of ICH experiencescapes. The demand perspective refers to the tourist perspective. A proposed conceptual framework was generated to summarize all 47 tourist responses on their pre- event, on-site and post-event experience. The supply perspectives are the stakeholders (other than tourists) who are directly involved in the event environment that provides the experience or participate in the steps where the experience was produced. There are totally 31 stakeholder’s opinions analyzed. In case of ICH events, these stakeholders are organizers, performers, local retailers and government authorities. ICH experiencescape is the joint effect by all these stakeholders. Tourists are the audiences and organizers and performers are the key players in delivering the ICH experience for the enjoyment of the audiences. The government authorities mainly provide assistance to the events in financial and promotional support. Such supports ensure the smooth organization of the event, at the same time, enlarge the visibility of the events through various promotional channels. Local retailers are the fixed players who stayed in the space of event experience for years. They are already parts of the experiencescapes. In the meanwhile, their opinions also represent the local attitude to the ICH events in particular when the events are held in the tourism areas.

The Historic Centre of Macau is the busiest tourism area in Macau that represents the cultural fusion between the western and eastern culture which

293 can be seen from its tangible architecture in the area. For instance, the Moorish Barracks, a neo-classical structure, was originally built to accommodate a regiment from Goa, Portugal and India. The Mandarin House, built in traditional Chinese courtyard-style architecture was the residential compound home of a prominent Chinese literary figure, Zheng Guanying. The fact that these two sites co-exist in the same district creates a unique environment for tourists to experience and enjoy Chinese culture. Some tourists in their interviews mentioned the surprise of such combination when they found the traditional Chinese cultural events held in the western structure settings. As such, it can be indicated that the physical environment also becomes part of the experiencescape which creates a unique impression among tourists. Furthermore, the event venues are the most appropriate assembly points where the tourists possibly come across the events when they travel around. Therefore, the ICH experiencescape is constructed by the different involvements of stakeholders and also facilitated by the environment itself. These components are all indispensable in presenting the ICH experiencescapes in a complete way.

In an attempt to achieve the second research objective and answer RQ2, the major findings of the research were highlighted from both tourist and stakeholder perspectives to elaborate in details how different stakeholders involved in the construction of ICH experiencescapes in different stages. The interview findings have resulted in the evolving of the conceptual framework, which has been outlined in Section 8.1.2. Firstly, in terms of the tourist perspectives, compared to the pre-defined conceptual framework in Chapter Two (Figure 2.7), the pre-event and post-event experience are missing. These parts have been supplemented from the interview results that the ICH event participation is a spontaneous activity for tourists because tourists do not join the event on purpose. Due to the fact that ICH events are organized in the Historic Centre of Macau where tourists concentrate in the busiest area, tourists visited the sites and encountered the events by chance. Various stimuli attract tourists to generate interest in the event. Some tourists may connect their current experience with their memories of previous similar events. Although

294 such experiences were not commonplace amongst most tourists, the phenomenon of linking the current experience with previous similar experience may indicate that tourists engage in the imagined environment through ICH experiencescapes. Tourists choose their own ways to stay and join the events, which are either physical engagement or emotional engagement, or through both ways. The difference is on how deep the tourists involve themselves in the enjoyment of the events. It is worth stressing that few tourists have ever had contact with others, only in exceptional cases when tourists need help or raise their requests by asking the locals about the event and its relevant rituals. It depends on the tourist initiatives in bridging such communications. The outcomes of the participation were that tourists had complex cognitive responses to the physical environment they were impressed with, such as traditional event settings, performance and professional performers. Under the influence of the strong cognitive feelings, tourists progressively generated rich affective responses that collectively reflect all emotional preferences toward the physical environment, for instance, local cultural appreciation, importance of preservation and the power of religion. As a result, tourists found the event experience memorable, which also let them experience a different Macau and further alter their destination image of Macau in general. Most tourist interviewees were positive to the entire event experience and to the city. They may consider joining other similar local events in future and have the possibility to revisit the city again.

Stakeholders other than tourists play different roles in providing the tourist experiencescapes in their own responsibilities. The following table clearly illustrates the different level of involvement of each stakeholder in the three stages (Table 8.1). There is no clear partition of the three stages among these stakeholders. Their preparation work is interconnected and coherent. The entire event cannot be complete without any missing of the event attributes (e.g. decoration, performance, promotion, performers). However, it can still be presented in stages based on the time when each stakeholder starts to join the event in their own way. In terms of the post-event stage, each stakeholder

295 shared the expected outcomes they would like to achieve after the event. In respect of such post-event experience, it continues affecting the way these stakeholders join the event in the pre-event and/or on-site stage for the next years. For instance, the organizers expected to promote ICH through organizing the traditional events in Macau; as such, the pre-event and on-site experience need to be provided in a way that helps realize such purpose.

The organizers are the key stakeholders who dominate the whole conceptualization and delivery of ICH events. In principle, these ICH events have their origins in the local community. They are of strong community base among the public and other stakeholders. Therefore, the government authorities leave the decision making to the local community to determine the way they plan to organize the events. Thus the involvement of government authorities in the on-site stage is less. Performers are the indispensable part of the events whose role is of critical importance involving the entire stage of the event as organizers. What is different from the organizers is that the organizers concentrate on the event in general, while the performers put all their efforts in the organization and coordination work in the performance. Since local retailers are located in the experience environment of the event, the existence of which contributes to the creation of the space of event experience. At the same time, they are the audiences of the events who mainly involve in the on-site stage due to the business operation. Their opinions offer another perspective of the local people in their acceptance of tourist participation in the local cultural events and their support of the local traditions in a long run.

Table 8.1. Stakeholders’ involvement across the three stages (Source: author)

Stakeholders Pre-event On-site Post-event Organizer ✓ ✓ ✓ Performer ✓ ✓ ✓ Local retailers ✓ ✓ Government ✓ ✓ authority

296

As to further analyze the research findings and to better achieve the last research objectives and answer RQ3, it is necessary to consolidate all stakeholder’s perspectives and combine the demand and supply aspects in the construction of ICH experiencescapes. In general, ICH experiencescapes are the co-effects of both participants and also the individuals or parties who involve or contribute to the organization of ICH events. The organizers need the participants to join in the space to celebrate the traditions and further generate interest in learning about the culture. The willingness of promoting the ICH was highlighted as a key expected outcome that is commonly agreed among stakeholders. Therefore, those who participate in the ICH events possibly help achieve such outcome. Meanwhile, the participants are expected to enjoy a memorable experience in their participation in the local events, as such experience offers the opportunity to learn a different culture in the destination. Organizers and performers directly involved in the same space with these participants at the same stages. It is not surprising that tourists reflected most perceptions of the event itself and the performers they have seen. In fact, the organizers and performers engaged a lot in the pre-event stage, which could be seen as a backstage when these people prepare the event and performance and coordinate with other parties, the same as the government authorities. Their support is invisible but effective. The financial support was applied in the organization of the event, which can be shown in the details of every decoration. The promotional efforts can also be seen from the different channels they use. Although the effectiveness of such promotions needs to be further proven, it is confirmed that such efforts have been made. As such, ICH experiencescapes are not restricted to space, but also not limited to time. The ICH events are not static one-stop performances, but flowing in nature. Any person who involves in the experience environment is possible to join the events and gain one’s own experience. Even the government does not join the event on-site when the participants were there, whose efforts are also involved in the ICH

297 experiencescapes because of its contribution in the construction of the experiencescapes has already worked in a significant way.

298 Table 8.2. Summary of key findings addressing research objectives and research questions (Source: author)

Aim of study : to explore processes of constructing tourist experiencescapes in order to understand how ICH can enhance tourist experiencescapes throughout all stages of the tourists’ travel process. Research objectives Research questions Key findings RO1: to identify the construction RQ1: How are 1. Proposed conceptual framework of ICH experiencescapes from tourist perspectives in all three stages; of ICH experiencescapes from experiencescapes being stakeholders’ perspective at three constructed in three stages (pre- 2. Stakeholders other than tourists involve in the three stages in varying degrees. stages - pre-trip, on-site, and post- trip, on-site and post-trip trip; stages)? RO2: to understand how RQ2: How are different 1. Tourists are the main investigated targets who joined the events as audiences. stakeholder efforts contribute stakeholders involved in different 1a. In the pre-event experience, festival is an spontaneous activities to them. Part of tourists revealed previous similar event experience; collectively to the construction of stages of constructing tourist 1b. During the event, tourists choose their own way to join the event and generate different cognitive and affective responses; ICH experiencescapes; and experiences? 1c. In the post-event experience, tourists perceived the events impressive, which generates image of Macau and stimulates their behavioral intentions.

2. Local associations are the main organizers to the events, which mainly dominate the entire process of the event. There is no obvious partition of the post-event stages, however, each stakeholder expressed their expected outcomes to the events 2a. Organizers and performers mainly involve in all three stages; 2b. Government authorities involve less in the on-site stage; 2c. Local shop owners mainly involve in the on-site stage. RO3: to recommend how DMOs RQ3: What are the implications 1. ICH events are community based events. Local community's interest needs to respect; and service providers (e.g. of the construction of ICH 2. In terms of spontaneous participation, the visibility of the promotional efforts can be improved; organizers and performers) can experiencescapes in tourism? 3. More opportunities to create the social interactions among the various stakeholders; contribute to the formation of 4. More collaborations for the joint benefits to achieve the expected outcomes; tourist experiencescapes in the 5. Discover and encourage the other potential stakeholders to involve in constructing the ICH experiencescape. context of ICH.

299 8.2 Significance of the study

This study provides a forward-looking insight to the newly explored topic on tourist experiencescapes under the study context of ICH in Macau. It focuses on the sequential stages of tourist experience in the ICH related events by also considering the other stakeholder involvement in the corresponding stages. The main findings which have been consolidated in Section 8.1 also offer important theoretical, methodological and practical implications.

8.2.1 Theoretical implications

Different from the traditional study stream of tourist experience, which solely focuses on exploring the tourist perspective, this study has added to the current literature exploring the topic of experiencescapes which expanded the current framework in a broad sense by adding the perspectives of other different stakeholders. This research has to acknowledged and recognize the previous scholars who worked upon and developed the evolution of the concept of “experiencescapes”, with particular credit to Gunn’s (1972) concept of “vacationscape” in which he first attempted to raise the idea of “-scape”, applying an integrated approach to the management of the tourism system. Credit as well to O’Dell’s (2005a) ideology in addressing a contemporary version of “vacationscape” by broadening the concept of the tourism experience through the use of the term “experiencescapes”. The experiencescapes is a holistic mechanism that provides the entire construction process of the space of experience, through which various stakeholders contribute to its formation work. The current research on experiencescapes is limited to searching the topic in a descriptive and explorative manner (e.g. Ekerljung, 2015; Hall, 2008; Jensen, 2005; Margaryan, 2016), however, it is a good start as these scholars described a broad application of this concept, such as accommodation service (Gyimóthy, 2005), bookshop experience (Hill, 2014), experience innovation (Jernsand et al., 2015) and urban development (Pennings, 2015), all of which

300 provided a lot of inspiration for the expansion and application of this concept. In particular, Campos et.al.’s (2018) conceptual model shed light upon several key constructs and considerations of the experiencescape and as a key reference, it assists the research to further study, develop and improve their work. Although the characteristics of experiencescapes were currently accepted by a few scholars in their preliminary studies to the concept, there is lack of framework which outlines the structure and its construction process of this critical concept. This study has its major theoretical contribution to developing a holistic and systematic conceptual framework of experiencescapes, especially in the context of cultural tourism in intangible forms. It helps pioneer the study of free independent tourist markets in an exploration mode in experiencing the unexpected but memorable local traditional culture in a World Heritage city.

The experiencescape is a dynamic concept which also possesses the nature of experience in a continuously evolving process. This study considers such dynamic nature of experience and offers a complete insight into the entire stages of experience by examining the pre-event, on-site and post-event experience. It improved the current study of tourist experience in one main stage focus (i.e. on-site) that acknowledges the complex nature of tourist experience. It has filled in the missing components of pre- and post-event experience in the current framework, which incorporates multi-stages experience including motivations, various influential factors and experiential outcomes. It is worth mentioning that most tourist interviewees did not join the event by purpose, their spontaneous participation was a particular behavioral pattern as found in this study. Previously, scholars have identified influential factors of experiencescapes which highlighted the possible tourists’ attention to the experience environment including the products and its social and cultural background, physical environment which evokes tourist emotional reactions and tourist expected outcomes of their participation (Mossberg, 2007; Ooi, 2005). This study concluded that tourists who joined ICH experiencescapes reflected the above dimensions. Moreover, given the lack of previous research on the ICH event experience in the tourist experiencescapes, a continuously

301 evolving process of ICH event experience was provided. The conceptual framework as a pioneer study provides a solid base for undertaking subsequent empirical research in other destinations or uses it to compare the results with other contexts other than ICH. To take advantage of the current framework, other destinations with ICH attributes can base on the current framework to apply in their study contexts using the same approach. Furthermore, not only the tourists but also the other stakeholders who are directly involved in the construction of experiencescapes were approached to discuss their thoughts, experience and engagements in ICH management work, which completed the ideas on experiencescapes in a diverse perspective. Such contribution provides a comprehensive view of understanding the ICH experiencescapes in a complete picture, which can generate significant managerial implications to the different stakeholders by considering their thoughts and plans in advance.

What is more, Macau is famous for its tangible cultural heritage, the existing literature has been mainly put on the tangible assets. A lot of emphasis was put on the physical structure in Macau. However intangible cultural resources have increasingly influenced the tourism success of a destination. This study has enriched the current literature of Macau by providing more insights and focus to the intangible cultural assets, which are valuable to utilize in diversifying its current tourist market. It has also provided a more precise approach to examine how a tourism destination is navigated and experienced through the participation of local events in particular areas. By looking at both tourists and key stakeholders perspectives, the defined framework of ICH experiencescapes can stimulate other research interests and academic discussions in this intangible culture field, especially when other studies have similar study contexts as Macau, a World Heritage city with rich intangible cultural assets.

With the current exploration of the Historic Centre of Macau as an example, the current conceptual framework can be extended to even broader context. In March 2017, the Chinese central government announced a plan of “Development of a city cluster in the Guangdong-Hong Kong- Macau Greater

302 Bay Area” which covers 56,500 square kilometers across 11 cities (South China Morning Post, 2017a). The border of the coastal cities is softened and there is great mobility across the Macau Greater Bay Area in a more sharing of experiencescapes. Various opportunities can be provided to conduct different scales of research within the context of experiencescape. With the upcoming completion of Lótus Bridge, which links the Cotai reclamation area of Macau with Hengqin Island in Zhuhai, various large-scale development projects will launch. Such development may decentralize the domination of gaming industry in its impact on tourism development in Macau. As a result, various non- gaming experiences can be offered. In future research, these areas can be used to examine various other scale and context of experiencescapes. For the benefits of future researchers in exploring the experiencescape, this conceptual framework can provide a base to support other studies.

8.2.2 Methodological implications

As described in Table 2.1 (refer to Section 2.3.8), most of the existing studies on experiencescapes are descriptive with little exploration of the application of experiencescapes. These studies mainly used a qualitative approach to explore the possible responses within the study scope (e.g. Agapito et al., 2013; Benckendorff & Pearce, 2012). This approach included phenomenological method (Čomić & Kalmić, 2015), action-oriented method (Jernsand et al., 2015), open-targeted interview (Ekerljung, 2015) and semi-structured interview (Kastenholz et al., 2012). It is not surprising that this approach is preferred due to the fact that the qualitative research method allows for a deep understanding and discussion of the process of idea construction and the exploration of informants’ behavior patterns (Schwandt, 2000). It also offers opportunities to stimulate new ideas and knowledge with more flexibility compared to the static options as listed in a questionnaire (Tracy, 2013). Finally, it allows the researchers to ask for more explanation in an informed manner. This study contributes to the exploration of the topic using an indicative manner, where a

303 further exploration was expanded to the context of ICH. The qualitative approach is the most appropriate as it explores the interviewees’ opinions in free bias, in particular when such approach was applied to explore an undiscovered topic. The study approached the free independent tourists, instead of the group tour, which avoids the data similarity in the responses. These free explored tourists are the most difficult ones to approach, as they have their own itinerary, they have uncertainty in joining the in-depth interview and are possible to refuse or stop the interview at any time they want. But this study proved that it is attainable to use this approach to find the possible tourists to join the interview, as long as enough manpower, time and money are allocated in the research process. Furthermore, from the sampling perspective, the same tourists were asked to share the experience lasting from pre-event to the post- event stage in a continuous process. By doing so, full complete stories can be connected and compared to create the timelines of one’s experience.

In terms of other stakeholders, key persons were successfully interviewed, whose opinions are most representative and critical enough in understanding the ICH situations. Referred to the previous studies, most perspectives are either from tourists or management teams with few studies combining both perspectives in one study. This study explored and explained both perspectives in a comprehensive manner by involving those parties in position. This qualitative approach allows the researcher to understand the complex event experiences in a comprehensive aspect. Since this study has its own scope of target stakeholders in exploring their perspectives, future research can suggest different scopes of stakeholders in looking at the topic at different angles.

8.2.3 Managerial implications

The study has successfully provided a comprehensive consideration of the construction of ICH experiencescapes in the case of Macau. The responses from tourists and other stakeholders are valuable in generating the implication of the

304 management work of ICH and cultural tourism development of the city. As previously stated, Macau aims to provide diverse tourism resources to the visitors coming to Macau, and “experience Macau” is the slogan promoted by MGTO to highlight the importance of the experiential value of tourism resources. As such, ICH as both cultural and tourism assets in their outstanding value, on one hand, it represents the traditions of a local community, of a region and even of a country. On the other hand, it provides a unique destination image distinguishable from others. However, it still remains a challenge to the city to establish its destination images in a diverse way as the dominant images of gambling and shopping have been well known among tourists and to the world. This study offers the following managerial implications to the management teams that can assist them with comments for better delivering the ICH event experience to the tourist market.

First, the results of the study revealed that most tourists joined the event by chance, thereby indicating that more resources can be put in the promotional efforts to increase the visibility of the event to tourists. Although both MGTO and IC have revealed that they have input a lot of resources in the promotional channels, it seems that tourists miss the channels or lack of interest in searching the event information through those channels. Therefore, the question is not on the input of resources, but on the adjustment to the effectiveness of using the resources. It is not hard to see that these resources are mostly on-site when tourists arrive. For instance, the What’s On leaflet can only be collected from the main entrances of Macau – the ferry terminal, airport and barrier gate. Although such information is also available online, people seem rarely to search on the official tourism website. Instead, tourists tend to use more of the social platforms or famous travelling websites for advice. Besides, Facebook has been blocked toward mainland tourists. Mainland tourists are the main tourist source market to Macau, they miss the promotion on Facebook. What is more, there are also social promotional platforms on Weibo or WeChat, the most famous social platforms that are currently used in mainland China; however, the publicity of the event information is not strong enough through

305 those platforms. In such cases, the implications to MGTO are that it can cooperate with the famous tourism booking websites like Ctrip to send the promotion notifications to those tourists who finished booking the air tickets or accommodations in Macau, or simply forward the hyperlink of the official tourism website to tourists through those booking platforms. Tourists can then check the event information before their trips. Even if tourists miss the event information before they come, various channels can also be utilized to increase the visibility of the event after they arrive. For instance, when tourists arrive at Macau, their mobile phones always receive notices from the casinos. Such notification can also be applied in other tourism activity promotion, like an automatic message will be sent to the tourist mobile phones with a list of events during that month for their notice. Besides, it is not difficult to find the city map in the hotels, but not the event promotion leaflets. In fact, the What’s On news can also be distributed to the star hotels – when tourists approach the reception for travelling information, they may notice about the event information. If more user-friendly, such promotional materials can appear in the hotel rooms because hotels normally prepare a useful information package on the desk of hotel rooms. In the age of rapid development of technology, handy, integrated mobile devices in a hotel room, which allows guests to carry out during their stays navigation around the city, surfing the web and calling home for no cost. The event information can also be integrated into the display contents of the handy phone. All in all, there are various ways for tourism managers to blend the event information in every link tourists may contact with. It is similar to how tourists probably notice the opening of new casinos in Macau. The channels where tourists notice the opening of a new casino can also be used as the way to promote the event to the mass tourism market.

Second, promotional efforts should also be made during the on-site stage, to provide participants with more cultural information. When tourists join the event, a few mentioned that they attempted to learn about the events by asking the locals. This shows that tourists are willing to learn about the events. The real facts show that tourists lack channels to learn about the events in detail.

306 Therefore, apart from putting efforts into the pre-event promotion, the on-site guidance and introduction of the event are also necessary when tourists need assistance. In order to figure out this problem, an event information counter is needed when such request is raised. Correspondingly, the software can be used to reduce the manpower, APP or QR code can be scanned for tourists to explore the information independently by themselves. This channel may be favored by young people. Still, the traditional information inquiry counter can be applied to those people who are not good at technological applications. In fact, such event information counters have already been applied at the Macau Light Festivals when the event was organized by MGTO, but not in the traditional ICH events where such events are organized by the local associations. It is understandable that the government authorities expect to leave the right to the local communities themselves to decide how to organize the events. In that case, the government authorities can suggest if such counter is needed or the local associations raise their requests for the government authorities’ assistance to set up such counters, even the organizers themselves can arrange their own manpower or volunteers to take care of the counters. The outcomes of such effort, as expected the organizers would like to increase the public recognition of ICH; this can also be realized through these promotional channels on-site. It is a win-win situation when tourists can reach their purposes of learning about the event, the organizers can promote the value of the event in return.

Third, the purposes of cultural preservation and tourism promotion can be attained at the same time through collaboration among stakeholders. Looking through the expected outcomes by different stakeholders, there are two main streams. One is the organizers, performers and IC, they generally agreed to strengthen ICH promotion, recognize the importance of ICH and to further preserve the traditional culture. They mainly focus on the cultural benefits. The other one is that the local retailers and MGTO pay more attention to the tourism benefits as local retailers perceived the organization of ICH events is good for the tourism development of the city. Although they mentioned there is no significant influence on their business improvement, they admitted that the

307 tourism development of the city affects their business in the long run. Furthermore, the current involvement of local retailers in the ICH experiencescapes is insufficient. It is evident that they only act as another group of participants during the on-site stage. Relative to other stakeholders their roles do not come fully into play when building ICH experiencescapes. They could potentially work jointly with other stakeholders to improve the scope of the experience environment. Tourists currently focus solely on the event environment, which is still quite limited in scope. If the local retailers can engage in more stages in the current experiencescapes, tourists may pay attention to the entire environment. With respect to current scale and the characteristics of the heritage area, the ICH events can engage more participation from the local retailers. Coordinated and themed signage of the events can be added with the help from the local retailers, which can create the streetscapes and a comfort pedestrian zone for tourists who pass by. It can also help attract more serendipitous tourists to join the ICH events. At the same time, the local events raise tourist awareness of the local business - the shopping area where the current heritage sites and events are also located in the same area. The organized events can expose wider audiences to the benefits of local tourism business and contribute to create a pleasant ambience and further stimulate tourist delightful emotions to the area. Tourists then choose to stay longer or repeat visits. As a result, the themed events can realize the promotion of the overall marketability of the place. As such, tourists cannot only enjoy the event experience in a limited space, but also they can expand their attention to the surrounding experience environment. This would enhance tourist impressions of the entire ICH experiencescapes in the district, even in a large scale of the destination image of the city.

MGTO, as the only DMO in Macau, there is no doubt that the tourism promotion is the top priority. In order to achieve that, MGTO expects to diversify the cultural resources and encourage tourists’ revisitation behaviors. In fact, these two aspects of expected outcomes are compatible with each other. By involving the tourists in the experiencescapes, local associations can take

308 the opportunity to promote traditional culture beyond the local groups. They can promote the events to the outsiders who are interested in learning about the culture, who may also act as a source to promote ICH to others they know. By doing so, the organizers, performers and IC can achieve their purposes of ICH preservation. In the same way, local ICH events can be promoted as a unique cultural resource to attract tourists to come to Macau to enjoy the culture, to further stimulate their interest to stay longer or revisit the city at different times of the year. Through this, MGTO can also realize its purpose of promoting the tourism development of Macau. The indication is that these different stakeholders can strengthen the cooperation with each other and exploit the strengths and expertise of each to optimize the impacts of ICH events.

Finally and as a positive development, tourists who joined the interview have largely reflected that they have good impressions of the events and altered their established image of Macau because of the surprise at the rich local culture. As a result, tourists expressed positive feedback and raised their behavioral intentions in future. This is exactly what MGTO expected to achieve through supporting the local cultural events to encourage the revisitation behaviors. In order to maintain such reputation of the desirable experience of the ICH events, all stakeholders are encouraged to continue the good work and create more opportunities to get tourists involved in all stages of experience.

8.3 Limitations and recommendations for future research

Although there are various implications of the study that have been provided, as similar to every research study, this study owes its limitations in some aspects. Some research limitations have been promptly mentioned in previous chapters along with the discussions. Some other limitations are valuable to notice when these limitations also lead to future research to encourage more valuable discussions of the topic and relevant contexts.

309 First, regarding the research targets on ICH items, there are three main ICH items included for investigation which are inscribed at both local and national levels. Although the listing of Macau’s ICH items may demonstrate their significance as representative of the culture and traditions in Macau, it does not necessarily mean that they will become popular cultural tourism resources for tourism development. This will depend on various conditions such as tourism marketing, tourist demand, as well as determined by the ICH itself. If ICH is vulnerable to be destroyed, it will not be promoted as tourist resource as embracing too much audience, for instance, the Patuá language and woodwork. Therefore, the chosen ICH domains are those that have been transformed into tourism resources for consumption by tourists. The results mostly depend primarily on the perceptions of tourists who have known about or participated in any ICH related events or activities. In fact, the remaining items in the Macau ICH list, are also valuable to investigate in the same way, when possible. Based on the current plans by IC, there are five more items included in the ICH inventory list, although they are not yet officially listed in the formal ICH list, as revealed by the representative from IC in the future plan, the government will continue the public consultation work to assess these new items, go through the assessment process and prepare for the inscription work for approval. In this case, it gives more opportunities to the future research to include these items in the research.

There is also possible sample bias in the methodological limitation regarding the sample representativeness and sample size. Due to the resource constraints, the scope of the current interviewed tourists is limited to independent tourists, whose demographic features are not considered as critical influential factors, but the completion of successful tourist interviews is seriously considered to ensure enough data can be collected. Due to the fact that the study used non- probability sampling to find the target tourists on the basis of willingness to respond and participate during the entire process of interview, which is regarded as an easier and more timely technique (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016). Even though probability sampling is considered as generating more accurate

310 findings, because interviewees are more carefully approached, it is time- consuming and costly (Blaikie, 2010). If time and manpower are allowed, it is suggested that the interview targets can be selected to balance the allocation in different regions, genders, ages or educational background. Since the current study has been dominated by Chinese interviewees, it is suggested that the future research can also balance the interviewees in different geographical locations. Although a deliberate number of tourists have been included in the study, it is still not enough to conduct a group comparison among different ICH events, since tourist interviewees in each event turned out to be small. It is therefore encouraged that more tourists can be included in the interview in future to obtain more insights. Again, the difficulty lies in the nature of the event that it is flowing and lasts only a short period of time at each stop; the challenge is on the measures to maintain tourist interviewees’ stay for in-depth interview on-site. The empirical investigation can also be extended to target another segment of tourists as well.

Second, the pilot study in this research proved that it is difficult to obtain tourist responses in three separate stages (pre-trip, on-site and post-trip) because tourists may not join the ICH event eventually, which leads to the failure to approach the interview targets to serve for the research purpose. This is also the biggest challenge that this study failed to overcome. A possible way this study can suggest is to approach those tourists who decide to join the ICH events before their travel. Once the connection has been established with the targets, the researcher can then track the targets along the entire stages of the trip. It is still difficult because it totally relies on the targets themselves to remain with the research. Otherwise, the data becomes invalid.

Third, the current investigation of stakeholders is only limited to those direct ones involved in the construction of ICH experiencescapes in the experience stages. However, since this study is not able to consider every relevant organization, there are also some other indirect stakeholders who may also possibly influence the construction of experiencescapes in various ways, such

311 as the Macau Foundation, which irregularly provides financial support to the local events, even the local donors who may also have different experience ties to the events. The future research can also extend the current scope of the interpretation of stakeholders’ perspectives. Moreover, for the different research focus, such scope of stakeholders may be different as well by considering their roles played in the construction of experiencescapes. It is also suggested that the future research can have different definitions of stakeholders in determining their roles in the experiencescapes for the sake of different research contexts.

Fourth, this study represents a bold attempt to outline the framework of tourist experiencescapes in the context of ICH in Macau. It still remains uncertain if such framework can also be applied in another destination context. The results might have the possible cultural setting bias. In other words, this study may not represent the whole region of Asia, whose regions share a different cultural background. In light of this view, before undertaking the large quantitative studies to examine the validity of the evolving conceptual framework, it is recommended to conduct other qualitative studies in the similar contexts following the same methodology to compare or contrast the findings of this study. If such model can be commonly concluded, the quantitative studies can then be spread to realize the generalization of the results. Besides, the exploration of the tourist experiencescapes framework focuses on explaining the condition of ICH. It may not be widely interpreted for tourist experiencescapes in all other contexts. But it is encouraged to examine the framework on its compatibility in other research focus or cultural settings.

8.4 Concluding statement

This chapter has highlighted the major findings of the study. The significance of the study also further emphasized in its contribution to the current tourism research, particularly in the evolving concept of experiencescapes. It attempted to fill the gap of the missing framework of tourist experiencescapes. With the

312 growing interests in the experiential value of the tourism products, the intangible cultural resources attract tourists with distinctive features. This study has made a significant contribution to conduct the research in the context of ICH. The conceptual framework is one of the few current studies that have attempted to outline the tourist experiencescapes by considering both tourists and other direct stakeholders in one study including the organizers, performers, local retailers and government authorities. In practice, different stakeholders are involved in different experience stages in their own position and responsibility. No matter how much they get involved, it is of equal importance in their roles in constructing the entire experiencescape. This study thus provides a comprehensive view of understanding the construction of ICH experiencescapes in Macau. As such, more effective event experience can be offered through the joint efforts of the stakeholders. Various implications were provided to address the issues accordingly. The limitations of the study were acknowledged to draw the attention of other interested scholars. The future research can be conducted to improve the current study scope by including more tourists or ICH items in the empirical examinations.

Overall this study provides valuable insights on the topic of experiencescapes in the tourism context. As a pioneer study in the field of ICH and cultural tourism, it provides the implications for future research in theoretical, methodical and managerial ways. Although the study may be insufficient in some aspects, it contributes to the cultural and tourism research in its own standpoints with evidence which is worth encouraging.

313

APPENDICES

314 Appendix 1. Guidelines to research helpers

Tasks 1. Conduct at least two qualified interviews with rich information (please refer to the guidelines as below) 2. Compile transcripts of the conducted interviews 3. Ask the interviewees to leave a contact, like WeChat or WhatsApp for follow ups. 4. Any feedback/comments on the survey. i.e. What kind of difficulty you encounter with during the interview? What are your suggestions to improve in the data collection? Any comments on the interview questions? Any observations to the tourists and their behaviors?

Guidelines for interview 1. Be familiar with the questions. 2. Please remember to use an audio recording (through your phone) of your conversations with the targets. Check/Test the audio function first to make sure it records the voice in a maximum volume. Because you will also rely on it for transcripts. But it is better to also take notes of your conversations to remind you on some follow-up questions. 3. Encourage the targets to freely express as much as possible. Ask follow- up questions according to their responses. And then check the question list to ask them. 4. Always remember to ask “why”. 5. Before the event starts, someone may wait for the launch of the activities, you can approach them and ask the pre-trip questions first and try to catch up with the target after he/she finished enjoy and events, or during the period you may think, he or she has already enjoyed most of the performance and ready to response. 6. In case, someone cannot be found before the launch of the activities, approach the targets during the event, as you may find people go in and out enjoy the parade, as long as you consider if anyone is available to respond to the questions and find them. 7. Make sure your target is a tourist before the interview. If yes, you can introduce yourself saying like, “I am now assisting with a PhD research project in PolyU in HK, the study is about tourist experience on the local events in Macau. Can I ask if you can share a little bit time with

315 me on your feelings on the events? If yes, can I use an audio recording for our conversation? The information is only for academic purpose.” At the end of the interview, you can ask that, “Can I have a contact of you, like WeChat, WhatsApp, because I may have some follow up questions to you, like your post-trip perception of Macau.” 8. The souvenir can be distributed to those interviewees you think give enough information to the interview and willing to leave a contact for post-trip interview. Remember to ask them sign the receipt form. 9. Once finish the survey, please send me a copy of the audio record first and with any notes taken, as well as the contract of the interviewees, and then send me the transcripts in a week. You don’t need to translate, just type down in the language of whatever your chat is. 10. Tell me your reflections or feedbacks informally. (i.e. pass me a note, or chat with me then)

316 Appendix 2a. Interview questions to tourists

Warm-up questions 1. Where do you come from? 你從什麼地方來？ 2. Is it your first time visiting Macau? 這是你第一次來澳門嗎？ 3. If it is a repeat visitation, 如果是再訪者， a. How many times have you been to Macau? 你來過澳門多少次了？ b. When was the last time you came to Macau? 你上一次來澳門是什麼時候？ c. How often do you travel to Macau? (i.e. Once a month, Once a year?) 通常多久來一次澳門？（比如一個月一次，一年一次？） d. What is your purpose to travel to Macau usually? 你通常來澳門的目的是什麼？ e. Who are you travelling with? 通常和誰一起來？ 4. How many people accompany you? (Alone or with accompaniment, with whom? Total number of visitors?) 有多少人和你一起？（單獨一個人或和其他人, 和誰一起？一共多少人？） 5. How long will you stay in Macau? 這次來澳門玩多久？ 6. How long have you stayed in Macau so far? How much longer will you stay in Macau? 你已經在澳門玩多久了？還會在澳門玩幾天？

317 Pre-trip experience

1. Why did you decide to visit Macau? 你為什麼來澳門旅遊？ Probe: do you have any itinerary? If yes, where would you go and visit? 你這次來有沒有固定的路線要去哪裡玩？如果有，都是哪些地方？ 2. What are your expectations for travel to Macau? 你對來澳門玩有什麼期待？ 3. Why did you decide to join this event (i.e. A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon Festival, Feast of Na Tcha) in Macau? 你為什麼來參加這個活動（即娘媽誕，醉龍節，哪吒誕）？ a. What are your expectations to join this event? 你對這個活動有什么期待？ b. How did you get to know about it? 你是如何得知有這個活動的？ c. How much do you know about this event? If yes, please share anything you know about it. If not, what do you think of this event? 你對這個活動了解嗎？如果了解，請分享一些你了解到的關

於這個活動的信息；如果不了解，你覺得它是什麼樣的活動？ d. Have you seen any promotions about the event? (e.g. official government websites, promotional materials from social media and other channels)? If yes, what do you think of the promotion? 你有沒有看到關於這個活動的宣傳？（比如政府的網站，其他媒體或者平台上的宣傳資料等）。如果有，你覺得宣傳

做的怎麼樣？ e. How do you think you can join this event? 你覺得你會如何參與到這個活動當中？

318 4. Have you had any previous memorable experiences of local cultural event(s) in Macau? (Prompt with ICH items in particular, e.g. A-Ma Festival, Feast of God Tou Tei, Feast of Na Tcha, Lusofonia Festival) 在這之前，你有沒有參與過澳門本地印象深刻的文化活動？（可提示本地文化活動，如媽祖誕，土地誕，哪吒誕，葡韻嘉年華等）

a. If yes, what was the most memorable experience like? 如果有，那最難忘的體驗是什麼樣的？ b. If no, what do you remember most about the event that you attended? 如果沒有，你是否還記得其他經歷過的類似的活動？ 5. What elements are most important for you when considering attendance at a local event? 當你考慮參與一個當地活動時，什麼樣的因素對你來說是最重要的？

On-site experience

1. What has been your experience of the event so far? 你覺得參與這個活動的體驗怎麼樣？ 2. What do you think of the event environment (e.g. temperature, sound, music, smell, layout, decoration, furniture, signs, style, and artefacts)? 你覺得這個活動的周圍環境如何? （比如溫度，聲音，音樂，氣味，佈局，裝飾，設備，標誌，風格，物件等）？ a. Please provide a detailed description of any special objects (what you see, smell, hear and feel) that make this event memorable. 請提供詳細描述有哪些特別的物件（看到、聞到、聽到和感

受到的）令你覺得這個活動是特別的？ b. Please describe your feelings about observing the performers or other participants. 請描述你對這些表演者或者其他參與者的感受 c. How has the event environment impacted on you?

319 這些環境對你有什麼影響？ 3. How does this experience of event influence your trip? 來澳門參加這個活動對你的旅程有什麼影響？ a. Was the experience enjoyable? 你覺得參加這個活動的體驗愉快嗎？ b. What is your most memorable experience associated with this event? 你覺得參與這個活動最深刻的體驗是什麼？

Post-trip experience

1. How would you describe your enjoyment of Macau? 你能說一下你這次旅程的收穫是什麼嗎？ 2. How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience in Macau, compared to your pre-trip experience? 和來澳門之前相比，你覺得你的體驗有什麼變化嗎？ 3. How would you describe your (changing) attitude towards the experience on event, compared to your pre-trip experience? 和參加這個活動之前相比，你覺得你的體驗有什麼變化嗎？ 4. Please describe your most memorable Macau experience. 請描述你這次在澳門印象最深的體驗 5. How does your event experience influence your overall Macau experience? 你去參與一些當地活動的體驗是如何影響你在澳門的整體體驗的？ a. What aspects of the event influence you the most? 你印象最深的是活動的哪些方面？ 6. Will you come back to Macau again? Why or why not? 你是否考慮下次再來澳門？為什麼？或者為什麼不考慮？ a. If yes, what aspects of Macau would you come back for? 如果考慮，那麼是澳門的什麼地方讓你想再來？

320 7. Will you consider staying longer next time you visit Macau? Why or why not? 你是否考慮下次來澳門時多停留一些時間？為什麼？或者為什麼不

考慮？ a. If yes, what aspects of Macau attract you to stay longer? 如果考慮，是什麼原因吸引你多停留久一點？ 8. Will you consider joining any other cultural event(s) next time? Why or why not? 你是否考慮再參加這類文化活動？為什麼？或者為什麼不考慮？ a. If yes, what aspects of the event attract you the most? 如果考慮，是什麼原因會更吸引你參與？ 9. Will you consider sharing your event experience to others? Why or why not? 你是否考慮把你的旅遊體驗分享給其他人？為什麼？為什麼不？ a. What kind of channel(s) (in oral, through photos/videos, or other social platforms like moments, blogs and travel diary) would you prefer to share with them? 你更傾向於通過什麼樣的平台來分享你的體驗？（通過面對面交流，分享圖片，視頻，或者其他社交平台，例如朋友

圈，博客，或者遊記）

Follow-up questions on demography:

1. Age 年齡 2. Occupation 職業 3. Educational level 教育水平

321 Appendix 2b. Interview transcript excerpt

Interviewee 1, Female, Fujian Interviewer: Where do you come from? Interviewee: I am from Fujian Fuqing. Interviewer: Oh, Fuqing? Interviewee: Yes, around Fuzhou area. Interviewer: OK. Is it your first time coming to Macau? Interviewee: It is the third time. Interviewer: Um, if it is the third time, when was your last time coming to Macau? Interviewee: It was about three months before. Interviewer: Three months before. How often do you visit Macau? Interviewee: From time to time, it depends. I always come for shopping. Sometimes, every half a year because it is convenient to come to Macau. Interviewer: Yes. Normally, who are you travelling with? Interviewee: My girl friends or with my boyfriend. Interviewer: If you come with your friends, how many people do you travel with in total? Interviewee: Two or three. I used to come with my best girl friends for shopping. Interviewer: How many people accompany you at these times? Interviewee: Only one girl friend. Interviewer: Is she around? Interviewee: No. She is not interested in the belief of A-Ma. Interviewer: How long will you stay in Macau? Interviewee: Around 4-5 days. Because, honestly speaking, Macau is a place of casinos and hotels, other than that, it is just for shopping. There is not so much to explore then, I think. Interviewer: In fact, Macau also has a lot of cultural heritage to explore. How long will you stay in Macau? Interviewee: Around 4-5 days.

322 Interviewer: When did you come? Interviewee: Two days ago. This is the third day. Interviewer: OK. Can I ask the reason why you decided to come to Macau? Interviewee: I come for shopping. Because I have many relatives in Fujian who have lived overseas and my mom is in Hong Kong, I go to Hong Kong often and then come to Macau by the way. Interviewer: Do you have a certain itinerary to follow? Interviewee: Certain itinerary? Not really. I just went to the Venetian, Ruins of St. Paul’s, and Senado Square. And then I came to the A-Ma Temple to pray. Interviewer: Oh. If you only went to these places, how could you make your days full for the whole trip? Interviewee: We spent most of the time shopping, eating and sleeping. In fact, hotel culture in Macau is quite good. If one is just staying in the hotel to relax, it is good to come to Macau, but not Hong Kong. Interviewer: I see. Good. Did you have any expectations before you came to Macau? For example, with your destination being Macau, what kind of impressions of Macau come to your mind? Interviewee: In general, it is good. The only bad impression is of taxi drivers. The quality of driver is worse than the ones in Mainland China. For example, if you take a taxi in front of the hotel, they are not metered. The driver asks whatever price he likes. I encountered this so many times. Other than that, it is fine. The other aspects of service quality are good. Interviewer: I see. Why did you decide to come to this event? Because of your beliefs? Interviewee: Yes. My beliefs. Interviewer: Do you have any expectations of the event? Interviewee: How shall I say… I come to Macau to pray in this temple to redeem a wish because, now in Mainland China, praying is becoming very commercial, you know. The temples seem to be built for rich people, as rich people always stand in the front for the incense donations. But here, there are no such feelings of hierarchy. The price of all stuff sold here is regulated by the

323 Price Bureau. And the price of the incense is reasonable. I do hope it stays like this, and does not develop as Mainland China. In Mainland China, no matter whether you pray in a small or big temple, the phenomenon of commercialization is very serious. Although you see monks, superficially, they are artificial outward saintliness (道貌岸然). How to say, a lot of hidden “black stories”, indeed. I feel that indeed in Mainland China. I don’t know the situation of temples in Macau. I just come here to pray sometimes. I don’t know the real situation here. Interviewer: Oh, is it because you encounter such problems in Fujian area, in your hometown, that you think the situation is like this in Mainland China? Interviewee: Not just in Fujian, I think most of the temples [in Mainland China] are like this. Interviewer: I got it. Interviewee: Originally, the temple is the place for sincere prayer, but now it has become commercialized. It is too obvious. Interviewer: As you have indicated, can I take from your comments that your expectation for the event is for sincere prayer? Interviewee: Yes. At least I think I am here with a sincere heart to pray. Of course, as a passing down culture, if people can gather here to pray together, I think it is also very meaningful. Interviewer: Yes. And how did you know about the event today? Interviewee: I actually did not know about this event and I even did not know it is the birth of A-Ma. Yes. I was just passing by and saw the event here so I asked the lady selling the incense. Now I know it is the birth of A-Ma. I feel so lucky [to join this]. Interviewer: Ok. So you just came here in the early morning for prayer? Interviewee: Exactly. Actually, in the Chinese New Year earlier, I had the Chinese New Year here. I came here to pray on the first day of the lunar calendar. At that time, there were also activities. Interviewer: Ok. That means, you always encounter big events when you come here.

324 Interviewee: Yes. It is destiny. Haha. Interviewer: Yes. Destiny. Do you know anything about this event? Interviewee: Not really, actually. I just came by to pray. Interviewer: Yes. Did you see any promotion of the event? Interviewee: I didn’t pay attention to that. Interviewer: Ok. How do you think you can engage in this event? Interviewee: I think I will just burn incense and pray by myself. Interviewer: How about the Cantonese Opera event in the afternoon, do you plan to have a look? Interviewee: Is there a performance in the afternoon? Interviewer: Yes, in the afternoon and evening. Interviewee: Ok, I will consider that, and check if my friend also would like to come. Interviewer: Oh Good. Did you attend any other local event before in Macau? Interviewee: Um… I remember, maybe around first day of lunar calendar or some time around then, in Senado Square, there was a temple event and there was guessing game (猜谜) and other activities. Interviewer: What did you think about that event? Interviewee: It was quite good. Interviewer: What did you do in that event? Interviewee: I just went to join and also gave a try of the guessing. But I didn’t guess anything right. Hahaha. Interviewer: Ok. What was the most impressive experience of that event? Interviewee: The most impressive experience of that event was, I remember, that they distributed many kinds of food for free to the audience. I found it really friendly. Interviewer: Oh, did you participate in that? Interviewee: Yes, just that time. Interviewer: What elements are most important for you when considering attendance at a local event?

325 Interviewee: One is performance [the form of the expression]. And human culture, like these. Interviewer: Anything else? Interviewee: And also local customs and traditions. The quality of the people in Macau and Hong Kong is very good. They won’t have so many conflicts when gathering like this [in a crowded area]. Interviewer: What do you think about your experience of this event? Interviewee: Today? It is quite good. Very good. Interviewer: Why? Interviewee: How to say, I had joined a similar event in Mainland China. As I said before, you will feel that praying is only the business of rich people, performance is also made for the rich people. But here, I just looked around; we, the ordinary people can also join this without any barrier. In one word, there is no hierarchy. Interviewer: Yes. What do you think about the event environment? The environment you see, feel and hear. Interviewee: It is quite good. You see, there, they built a bamboo stage. Interviewer: Is it because of its decoration? Interviewee: Yes. It is also like the surroundings last time when I visited here in the first day of the lunar calendar. They also did it like this. Interviewer: Did you find anything related to the A-Ma culture/event, which gives you special feelings? Interviewee: I went to the birth place of “Pu Xian A-Ma” 普賢媽祖。 It is hard to say, I think, it is ok. Every place has its own culture, the decoration is also a little bit different from each other. Interviewer: What do you think makes the event special? Interviewee: I just saw a prayer ceremony there [on the stage], and also the lion dance. It was good. Interviewer: Ok. All these make you think it is special? Interviewee: Yes. Yes. Interviewer: Did you attend this kind of similar event in Fujian?

326 Interviewee: Yes, I did. Because Fujian is the origin of A-Ma, the event is much grander than this one. Even for CCTV, they went to have a video shot in Fujian before, called “Our Chinese Heart”. In Fujian area, if you are also a believer, you can go and have a look. In general, on the island of Fuzhou, it is a very grand event. Interviewer: Ok, will they have the lion dance as well? Interviewee: Yes. Interviewer: Oh, why do they have a lion dance? When you see the same kind of performance, will you still think it is special? Interviewee: I can tell you, if you are talking about the comparison of the two places, although this one is smaller in scale, here in Macau, it brings more a home feeling, which, eventually, makes the entire feeling of the event totally different. Interviewer: Oh, do you mean more friendly? Interviewee: Yes, exactly. This one is more friendly [than the one in Fuzhou]. Interviewer: Ok. Could you describe your feelings about the performers or other participants? Interviewee: I think everyone here is really sincere. Interviewer: Can you describe how the environment influences your trip? Like the decoration? Interviewee: Yes, it does influence. You could feel the atmosphere of the festival immediately [with the decoration]. Interviewer: Good. How did your participation in this event influence your trip? Interviewee: We, Fujian people, when we go outside, we pay special attention to prayer activities. It is not superstition, because if you go outside and do a little bit of prayer activities, it may make you feel relaxed. It is the comfort of your heart. As people you always need this. Interviewer: So, it is like a kind of consoling? Interviewee: Yes, yes. Interviewer: Was the experience enjoyable?

327 Interviewee: Enjoyable. Actually, I really liked it. I went to go and look around inside. Interviewer: What is your most memorable experience associated with this event? Interviewee: The most memorable experience? I found there is a Taoist priest who did a prayer ceremony there, and so many people came here to pray. I also went there and “挂宝”. Interviewer: What do you mean by “挂宝”? Interviewee: It is a way of redeeming a wish. You put a bowl of shoe-shaped gold ingot 元宝, and then you burn them. Have you tried that before? Interviewer: No. I haven’t. Because I believe in Buddhism. Interviewee: Oh. Interviewer: So did you find that ceremony you mentioned special? Interviewee: Yes. Interviewer: How would you describe your enjoyment of Macau? Interviewee: The most gain from the trip is the one here. I, just by luck, joined this – the birth of A-Ma. Although I go to pray so often, I have never tried burning incense when she has a birthday. Interviewer: I see. Good. Compared to your pre-trip experience, what is your changing attitude so far? Interviewee: Macau or the A-Ma culture? Interviewer: To the A-Ma culture. Interviewee: I think there are many believers in A-Ma. I could not imagine there is an A-Ma temple in Macau and there are so many believers. Interviewer: Oh. Interviewee: There are many similarities between Fujian and Macau. The A-Ma culture in Macau is also very rich and very grand. Interviewer: And compared to your pre-event experience, what is your changing attitude towards your pre- and post- experience? Interviewee: I think, probably, my previous perception of Macau is for shopping. I learned that people also come here to pray, so I followed and came.

328 But I didn’t imagine there were so many believers. In my impression, Hong Kong and Macau are all about Christianity, because of the colonial history, which is influenced by western culture a lot. Interviewer: Yes. So, it can be interpreted that “your participation in the event has made you change your attitude to Macau, or added to aspects of your feelings about Macau”? Interviewee: Yes. Exactly. Honestly speaking, although Mainland China has five thousand years of rich history and culture, they always talked about the importance of preservation of the cultural heritage. In fact, the streets in Macau and Hong Kong, shock me. Because, if you really visit them carefully, the preservation of Hong Kong and Macau is much better than Mainland China. As you can see, the shops along the street, their calling names, follows the traditional way of calling, as well as the traditional Chinese they are using now. So, I think, to some extent, here is better than Mainland China. Interviewer: Yes. Because I have studied heritage management, I also agree with you that in Mainland China they are not good in conservation. Interviewee: Too commercial. Interviewer: Yes. Interviewee: Here, there are a lot of old sayings of different shops, like XX kei, XX bank, etc. - a lot of examples. Last time, when I visited Senado Square, I wanted to go to a supermarket. In fact, it was just in front of me. But they used different sayings, like XX department stall. On the Mainland, I use the XX supermarket directly, or XX store. Then I looked around for a long time, and finally, I asked the direction of an old man who said, “See, it is there!”. Interviewer: Ok. Could you tell me your most memorable experience in Macau? Interviewee: This time? It is about this event. Interviewer: Good. How does your event experience influence your overall Macau experience? Interviewee: A local cultural related experience. In the region of Hong Kong and Macau, if you go to Senado Square, you feel carefully, you can feel a lot of the old times, like the time of 1920s-1930s.

329 Interviewer: Thinking about the event you attended in the first day of the lunar calendar in the A-Ma temple last time and this event, how do these two events influence your overall impression of Macau? Interviewee: It makes me feel even more friendly. I don’t have the same strange feelings as the first time. Because Macau gives us the feeling of being money driven, like casinos, right? Casinos, hotels, when I was here for the first time, it was really like this. If I didn’t come here to pray, I may still have had the same impression of Macau as before. Interviewer: Oh. What makes the change of your impressions of Macau? Interviewee: The prayer activities. When I came many times before, I started to explore the city by myself. I went to the streets, shops. First time visitors go directly to the casinos, hotels and shopping area. Interviewer: Good. What aspects of the events impress you? As you said, the distribution of food, right? What else? Interviewee: The sincerity. As I said before, it is not like Mainland China. The grand events are always attractive to the rich people. I think, that is it. Interviewer: Ok. Will you consider visiting Macau again? Interviewee: Yes. I come here often. When I visit my mom in Hong Kong, I will also come to Macau. Interviewer: Why did you choose to come to Macau again? Shopping? Interviewee: Honestly speaking, in Hong Kong, I may buy fake products in the small shops, but in Macau, I won’t. And the currency rate of Pataca is more reasonable than the Hong Kong dollar. And the quality of the products makes me comfortable. Interviewer: So, your main concern is shopping? Interviewee: Yes. Haha. Interviewer: What kind of places would you expect to visit again? Interviewee: One is A-Ma temple, the other one is Senado Square. I like the old streets around that square. There are a lot of lanes there. It is like the “三坊七巷” in Fuzhou, you need to keep patient and walk along them. If you are a photography lover, you can choose to go there.

330 Interviewer: I see. Will you consider staying longer next time? Interviewee: Longer time? Normally, we are only allowed to stay in Hong Kong and Macau for seven days at a time. So no more than that. But I like the weather and environment here. In Hong Kong, the pace of the living is too fast, and too much pressure. But here in Macau, the air is good, it is relaxing, I like it very much. Interviewer: Oh. So you will consider staying longer? Interviewee: Yes. If I have money, I may consider moving. Interviewer: Oh. Moving. Interviewee: Yes. I think Macau is like Zhuhai, it is comfortable for living. Interviewer: Yes. So, if you consider staying longer, it may be around 7 days? Interviewee: Yes, almost. Interviewer: So, it is only a problem of visa? Interviewee: Yes, visa. Interviewer: Will you consider joining other local events in the future? Interviewee: Yes, if I have a chance to encounter such an event, I will join. When I was younger, I would not consider it, but now I will. Interviewer: Why? Interviewee: Maybe because with the increase of age, attitudes change. Interviewer: Could you tell me more about your changing attitude? Interviewee: In detail? Honestly speaking, I didn’t believe in A-Ma before. I used to be non-god believer, but when you become older, with your rich experience of life, and when you experience more, it is not superstition, or prayer to have a better life, but sometimes, belief makes your attitude becomes more moderate. You will not have not as much temper, especially when you experience more or even failure. Belief will make you mild/gentle, especially women. You will not become cruel or ruthless. Yes, I believe deeply, it is like this. Besides, I think, it can help you adjust your attitude when you encounter with changes. My current condition is like this. Interviewer: What aspects of an event attract you most when you consider joining a local event?

331 Interviewee: If I am not in a rush, definitely, I will visit in more detail. I find it meaningful. Interviewer: Oh. It is because it is meaningful you consider it? Interviewee: Yes. Interviewer: Will you consider sharing your experience to others? Interviewee: Yes. I will bring my friend here. But she cannot get up early, and I still think it is better to burn incense and also pray in the early morning. Yes, only in the early morning, you show your sincerity. Interviewer: Yes. Why do you want to share with her? Interviewee: My experience, I used not to believe this, but now, I trust it. Interviewer: What kind of channel(s) (orally, through photos/videos, or other social platforms like moments, blogs and travel diary) would you prefer to share with them? Interviewee: I did a short video and shared in the moment and also my friend. Of course, I will tell my friends my experience when we meet. Interviewer: Would you mind telling me your age? Interviewee: I was born in 1987, 30 years old. Interviewer: And your occupation? Interviewee: I am an accountant in a school. Interviewer: What about your educational level? Interviewee: It is university.

332 Appendix 3a. Interview questions to organizers & performers

1. Why does your organization participate in the work of organizing the festival? 為什麼你的團體會參與組織這個活動？ 2. How does your organization participate in the work of organizing the festival? 一般為這個活動做哪些準備？ 3. Did you find any sponsors or organizations to help organize the festival? Or what kind of help did you find from other parties? 你有沒有為此找贊助商？或者從其他機構獲取任何幫助？ 4. How do you realize the cooperation with other organizations to deliver the experience? 你如何通過與其他合作者合作來提供這個體驗？ 5. What kind of experience do you expect to bring to the audience? 想給參與的這些人帶來什麼樣的體驗？ 6. Does your organization have any chance to contact with the audience? If so, how does your organization get them involved? 你的組織有沒有機會和觀眾接觸？如果有，是如何讓他們參與到其中

的？ 7. In the case of performing ICH on a tourism occasion, how do you deliver the key message of ICH to the audience (include both locals and tourists)? 在旅遊發展的趨勢下呈現非物質文化遺產，你是如何向觀眾傳達非遺

的重要信息的（包括本地人和遊客）？ 8. What kind of elements do you think are necessary to deliver the experience to the audience? Why? 你認為組織這個活動提供體驗最重要的要素是什麼？為什麼？ 9. What do you think about promoting ICH as a tourism product? 你是怎麼看待打造非物質文化遺產成為一種旅遊商品這一現象的？ 10. How do you involve the audience in your performance?

333 你是如何讓觀眾參與到表演當中的？

334 Appendix 3b. Interview transcript excerpt

Interviewee, Male, Council President

Interviewer: Why do you organize this event?

Interviewee: A-Ma Belief and its rituals has a history of more than one hundred years. Originally, this event was organized by no particular association, but was initially organized by the local communities from the neighborhood. The fishermen in old times also expected to have ritual activities like praying, but they had no time, being busy working on the sea. Luckily, there were locals who organized this event and such initiatives ensured its continuous organization. Our chairman of the Association is 82 years old. His elder generation also had experience in organizing this event. So, we had at least one hundred years’ experience of holding the event. Originally, we didn’t have a formal association to organize this, but it was initially organized by individuals including the neighborhoods, the fishing product sales and fishermen. Starting from 1999 when Macau returned to Mainland China, the government required every NGO to register officially. We established our association in 1987and the name also fits the composition of the different people who care about the A-Ma Belief, such as the ones I mentioned. We organize this event by inviting the Cantonese performing team and by raising funds. We build the bamboo stage aside the A-Ma Temple, keeping the traditional way of celebration. The Cantonese Opera has a long history. This year we are lucky to successfully invite a famous performing team and performers. They also prepare their own programs completely and in particular for this event.

Interviewer: Normally, what kind of preparation do you have?

Interviewee: Once we confirm the date of celebration and run-down, we need to first confirm which performing team to invite. This is the first step. And then we need to ask our association members to raise the funds for the event. Some members may prepare the “red booklet” to record the donations from locals,

335 like who donated the money and how much. Once we finish the preparation, we will give an Opera ticket to the donors for free as compensation.

We will also apply for government funds, because we always need financial supports from all levels of society. Funding is really important for the financial sustainability of organizing the event continuously. Luckily, the government and local believers are both supportive to us. We also expect such support can be kept for a long time and so we can sustain our traditions of celebration.

Interviewer: I know from your promotional flier that both IC (Cultural Affairs Bureau) and MGTO and some other foundations have provided support to this event, can I know what kind of support they give?

Interviewee: In terms of the funding, our event has support from six government departments and foundations including the IC, IACM, Macau Foundation, MGTO, Henry Fok Foundation and Fundação Oriente. Every year, they provide financial support. We also raise funds from local donations. All these different parties help our event and make it possible.

Interviewer: How do you use these funds?

Interviewee: Basically, we use it to build the bamboo stage, hire staff who work on it and recruit performers. There are also many other logistical arrangements that need money. Apart from that, every year, we have a lot of our own members who work voluntarily to help the event. They are very supportive. Once they know the event dates and schedule, we start to ask for leave from their companies. These are also necessities to ensure the success of the event every year. We do expect it can allow the celebration to continue year by year.

Interviewer: How do you manage cooperation with the government?

Interviewee: The government has a department for dealing with funding raising applications. But it depends on how much they finally approve and we even may ask for more.

Interviewer: How long in advance do you need to submit your funding request?

336 Interviewee: Three months in advance. The government department will inform us of the result later.

Interviewer: What about your preparation work? Can you tell me more about the preparation?

Interviewee: Once we finish the event this year, we need to make an assessment report of the event to the government department who provides us the funds, including a description of the event and a complete financial statement. After three or four months, we need to start preparation for next year’s event and decide which performing team to invite. Once we confirm the scale of the event, we need to apply for permission to use the venue (the Barra Square) from IACM. And then we need to apply for the funds for that year. When time is approaching, we build the bamboo stage. In considering the time we need, the building of the bamboo stage needs at least one month’s time. We also need to prepare other logistic arrangements and follow-up actions to better preparation the event.

Interviewer: How does your association promote the event?

Interviewee: We have organized this Cantonese Opera for many years. The event has already had years of experience in the locals’ minds and has local- based audiences. Once we start to build the bamboo stage, the people who pass by may know about our event. A-Ma Belief has been inscribed as Macau’s intangible cultural heritage since 2011 and was included in the national intangible cultural heritage list in 2014. It has already increased its visibility at local and regional levels. We also organized a photo exhibition in 2016 which showcases the history and culture of A-Ma Belief spread into Fujian, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau areas. At the same time, a symposium of A-Ma Belief was organized among institutions, academia and other temples in Macau. We expect to enlarge the influence of belief to a great extent.

Interviewer: Do you think the subsidy from the government is enough?

337 Interviewee: The government will conduct a comprehensive analysis on the situation of each event. Some departments may support more, some may not. Of course, as organizers, we expect to receive support and assistance from all around to contribute to the smooth organization of the event.

Interviewer: Since government has supported the event for many years, does the support increase year by year?

Interviewee: Yes, every year, it increases a little bit. However, it is not a certain pattern since the government needs to rely on the assessment, but normally the financial support maintains a certain amount. We expect that the government can support us continuously and we can retain the traditions of celebrating the festival.

Interviewer: What kind of experience do you expect to bring to the audience?

Interviewee: On one hand, the purpose is to promote the A-Ma Belief. On the other hand, through organizing the event, we can take this opportunity to gather locals, even locals who have already moved to other places and will come to join the event every year.

Tonight, we will have a ceremony among the local donors who get the “lucky throw” to get the god statue back at home for a year, which brings good luck to the entire family. In the next year, the statue will pass to another lucky person. This year we have around 80 people who are willing to join the activity. It is rare to see all past neighborhoods gather. As I said, we can take this opportunity to connect the local communities. It must bring quite harmonious festival atmosphere.

What’s more, we can take this chance to gather a wide range of audience which further promotes tourism development in Macau. We know the difficulty of running an association, in particular this kind of NGO, and we do hope we can do a better job in promoting, preserving and transmitting culture. At the same time, the younger generation can be attracted to join in the organization work. Ideally, I think a successful association should have different generations in its

338 management team. The youngers can learn and follow the elders’ experience in organizing the event. In the future, they can take over the tradition. Also, it is a critical component of our association to become stronger through involving and attracting more young members.

Interviewer: What elements do you think are most important in organizing the event?

Interviewee: I think it is the belief. We have a strong belief of A-Ma. If there are opportunities, we do hope to promote the culture and let it be transmitted from one generation to another. I mentioned before our former chairperson who, based on the written record, can be regarded as the first generation of practicing the tradition. I am the third. Later, I do hope the fourth generation can transmit our tradition of keeping ritual practice. If many people can start to learn about this culture, it will help the promotion of this A-Ma culture.

Interviewer: I also saw some foreigners who went and had a look at the performance. What do you think of such a phenomenon?

Interviewee: Apart from inviting the locals, we also welcome the tourists who may be interested in our event. I think it also offers an opportunity for them to understand and learn what the culture of Cantonese Opera is. We will also introduce the cultural belief of A-Ma to them.

Interviewer: Do you have any interactions with the audience?

Interviewee: As I mentioned before, we have a booklet of donors with details of their donations. We will arrange seats for them to enjoy the Opera according to the different amount of donations. By arranging the seating plan like this, it is also good for the organization to maintain the order of the venue.

Interviewer: Since you mentioned you expect to involve more tourists to join the event, what kind of experience do you want to deliver to the audience?

Interviewee: I expect them to feel the cultural atmosphere. Since it is just the time of birth of A-Ma, we organize five days of performances including 9

339 sessions of Cantonese Opera to celebrate the occasion. It is a good chance to attract a wider audience.

Interviewer: Will you join the organization with other cultural events in Macau? Or will you cooperate with other temples in organizing any local events?

Interviewee: As I mentioned, we organized a photo exhibition before. At that time, we visited many publicly owned temples in Macau and invited them to join our exhibition in 2016. Luckily, all temples were supportive and joined our event. At the same time, they joined our symposium. Apart from joint organized activities, I do hope the temples in Macau can enhance their communications. In the past, such communication was less, but through the exhibition and symposium, we can gather together and jointly promote the A- Ma Belief.

Interviewer: Later, there will be an A-Ma cultural festival. Will you join it?

Interviewee: I have to say, the other temple’s people came to join our event before. When they organize their event, we will go and support them as well.

Interviewer: Do you have any examples?

Interviewee: We have a certain collaboration with some other temples. When they organize their own events, we will communicate with each other and discuss about the future development plans of the temple and its associated ritual activities. We support each other. For example, when we arranged the photo exhibition, I went to different temples in Macau and invited them to join. Fortunately, they joined us. I think it is already a first good step we have taken. In the past, we really had little contact with each other. But now, we have started to change the situation and have enhanced our communication. I think, in the near future, we will continue to support and help each other.

Interviewer: Does the successful inscription of intangible cultural heritage help stimulate more opportunities to cooperate?

340 Interviewee: It is hard to say that because our association always has the idea of enhancing the communication and collaboration among different temples in Macau. Of course, if there are some common themes, like the inscription of ICH or A-Ma Belief, it becomes much easier for us to establish collaboration. But it needs time to realize such an ultimate goal of close collaboration. We do hope such a goal can be achieved in the near future with our joint efforts. Through such a way, we can further promote the A-Ma Belief to a broader context then.

Interviewer: Do you have anything else to add?

Interviewee: It is almost all I could share.

Interviewer: Thanks for your kind help and information provided.

Interviewee: I do hope my information helps. You are most welcome.

341 Appendix 4a. Interview questions to local retailers

Warm-up questions

1. How many years have you operated your business here? 你的生意已經經營多少年了？ 2. Are there any tourists coming to your business? 平時遊客多不多來光顧你的生意？ 3. What is the major change along the year (e.g. customer, business)? 你覺得這幾年顧客群有沒有什麼變化？生意有沒有什麼變化？ 4. What about the impact of tourism to your business? 你覺得旅遊業的發展對你的生意帶來什麼樣的影響？

Main questions 1. Do tourists have any impact on you/your business? What do you think about this? 你覺得遊客對你或者你的生意有什麼影響？你是如何看待這一現象的？ 2. What do you think about the festival? 你是怎么看待這個節日的？ 3. How do you think you can participate in this festival? 在這個活動中扮演怎樣的角色？ 4. Do you have any interaction with tourists? If yes, how do you interact with tourists? Why do you want to contact with tourists?

平時和遊客之間互動多嗎？如果有，都是什麼樣的互動？為什麼有這

樣的互動？

342 Appendix 4b. Interview transcript excerpt

Interviewee, Male, Café shop owner

Interviewer: How long since you started your business?

Interviewee: I started the business from early this year in January. I have run the business only a few months.

Interviewer: Do you know what this shop was before?

Interviewee: It used to be a coffee shop before. Because the previous owners wanted to close the business, we took over.

Interviewer: Are there many tourists usually?

Interviewee: Most are tourists. You see the different shops along this street here, we all open for tourists.

Interviewer: Do you think the tourism development of Macau influences your business?

Interviewee: It depends on whether our business is in line with the tourism development trend of the city. In fact, I think tourism development in Macau is targeted. Macau tends to target Mainland Chinese tourists, rather than foreigners, such as the ones from the Europe. In practice, it is not always a good thing to run a business with heavy visitation. For example, many Mainland Chinese tourists who come to Macau have a travel subsidy from the government in the form of incentive travel. So, they normally come in a tour. Once they finish visiting the site, they won’t come to our shop particularly, but follow their own itinerary and go to another site. Only those free independent travelers come to our shop. Tours come in low season rather than peak season. MGTO (Macau Government Tourism Office) also has some restrictions on the number of arrivals in peak season, so even if tours come during that time, it won’t bring too much benefit for the business.

Interviewer: Is this month a peak season?

343 Interviewee: After the Chinese New Year, that means, from February to April, the number of visits increases a little bit. After May, the retailing and catering business starts to increase in sales.

Interviewer: How many people came to your shop this month roughly?

Interviewee: It is hard to say. If it is tours, almost none. Most of them come to the shop to have a look but no consumption. If it is a free independent tourist, it depends on how the government promotes the tourism business. Normally, it is not equally distributed. If it is low season, there are some special tours like elder group tours coming to Macau. They will not consume in our shop, since we sell coffee and wines, and they won’t be interested in our product. Mainland Chinese tourists, they like to drink coffee and buy wines. If they come, our business becomes better. So, it really depends on the tourism market orientation in Macau. It is not distributed evenly among different markets. Our shop has the most visitations from the Mainland Chinese, maybe about 90-92% of the total customers.

Interviewer: Today is the A-Ma Festival, will that influence your business?

Interviewee: Nothing special. I think not so many people (tourists) know about this event beforehand. They may not come here specifically for it. Most of the people who come to Macau will not come to our shop particularly. Even if they would enjoy a cup of coffee, they may choose those popular ones or the ones they know.

Interviewer: What do you think about this event?

Interviewee: It is good for Macau. For instance, this event is only one day. If it is held for a long time, over a period of time, or lasts for a week, they may attract more tourists. MGTO organizes grand events, such as Chinese New Year celebration, or lighting festival. During that time, MGTO invites performers and those performers will go around and perform at different famous sites in Macau. If that is the case, it will attract more tourists. But to the business,

344 probably, there is no obvious influence to the revenue we make. It only affects the visiting numbers to our shop a little bit, but not obvious.

Interviewer: Do you join the festival in a form like preparing, participating or supporting activities?

Interviewee: No. Normally, they will organize the event by themselves. And they have certain partners and their own associations in charge of all relevant works. Normally, we don’t join too much in the events. Maybe just watch the events while it is playing as a spontaneous visitor.

Interviewer: Do you have social connections to the visitors?

Interviewee: Not really, there is not so much communication between us.

Interviewer: Thanks for your sharing.

Interviewee: You are welcome.

345 Appendix 5a. Interview questions to MGTO & IC

1. Through which way do you give support to the local communities (NGOs) to organize ICH related events? 通過什麼樣的方式支持本地社團組織的非遺文化活動？

Follow-up question: Apart from monetary support, do you have any other support to the local communities to organize ICH related activities?

除了項目資助計劃，還會通過什麼樣的方式去支持這類本地文

化活動？

2. What is your purpose to support the local communities in organizing ICH related events? 支持這類本地文化活動的目的是什麼？ 3. How do you decide to support the ICH related events? 如何去判斷是否支持非遺文化活動？

Follow-up question: What are the critical considerations in supporting those ICH related events? (Apart from the listed criteria in the fund application (i.e. originality, quality, value, significance, feasibility, capability, public engagement, and community impact)

有哪些必要的考慮因素去決定是否支持那些文化活動？（除了項目資助計劃中提到的評估方式，如內容素質、預算合理性、

社團承載能力和社區參與度）

4. What kinds of ICH events do you support?

你都支持了哪些本地非遺活動？

5. Through which way are you involved in the three ICH events (i.e. A-Ma Festival, Feast of Drunken Dragon and Feast of Na Tcha)?

346 針對於那三個非遺活動（娘媽誕，醉龍節，哪吒誕），都是以什麼方式參與其中的？

6. What kind of efforts does your authority currently apply in conserving the local ICH? 你的機構為了保護非物質文化遺產，會做哪些努力？

Follow-up questions: How do the efforts get realized?

這些努力是如何實現的？

- If it is realized by the authority, what kind of preparation does your authority have? 如果是當局自己去做，通常需要做哪些準備？ - If it is realized through the cooperation with other departments or organizations, what kind of roles do you play? 如果是和其他部門或者機構合作，在合作當中扮演的角色如何

呢？ 7. How do you promote the ICH related events to the public? 如何向公眾宣傳這些活動呢？ 8. Are there any promotional channels of these events? 有沒有什麼特定的渠道去宣傳？ - If yes, how does the media help market the events? 如果有，你覺得這些媒體能夠起到什麼樣的作用？ 9. In terms of the information provided on the events, how do you achieve the accessibility of the information to the public? 在活動信息宣傳方面，如何增強這些信息在公眾的曝光率？ 10. Do you also target tourists? 是否也想讓遊客都參與其中呢？ - If yes, how do you approach this target group? 如果是，又是如何吸引他們參與其中的呢？ - What experience do you expect to bring to tourists?

347 希望給遊客帶來一種什麼樣的體驗？ 11. Do any of Macau’s ICH assets have the potential to offer memorable experiences to tourists? How？（Question to MGTO only）你覺得有哪些澳門的非物質文化遺產有潛力給遊客帶來難忘的體驗？

并如何實現呢？（僅針對澳門旅遊局） 12. In what ways are Macau’s ICH assets capable of providing a participatory, engaging and/or entertainment experience? （Question to MGTO only）這些非物質文化遺產能夠通過什麼樣的方式來提供給遊客一種難忘的、

可參與的、更加愉快的旅遊體驗？（僅針對澳門旅遊局的問題） 13. Is this ICH asset capable of meeting different tourists’ expectations? If yes, how?（Question to MGTO only）你覺得這些非物質文化遺產資源能夠滿足不同遊客的需求嗎？如果可

以，通過怎樣的方式實現？（僅針對澳門旅遊局的問題） 14. Is good quality interpretation currently available, and if not, how can it be provided? 你覺得對於現在的這種以節日、巡遊等大型方式來鼓勵遊客參與的形

式是否足夠？如果不足，還有哪些進步空間？

15. How does the government enhance tourists’ behavioral intentions (i.e. revisit intentions, and recommend to others) to the ICH? 政府部門如何吸引更多的人來參與到這些非物質文化遺產活動當中？（例如令參與的人能夠分享他們的經驗給更多人？或者是下次再來時，

還會考慮參加類似的活動？）

16. How does the government reinforce the tourist satisfaction of their travel to Macau associated with their experiences to the ICH related events? 政府部門如何通過舉辦這類活動來加強遊客來澳門的整體滿意度？

17. What about your perspective to the other stakeholders involved in the organization of the local festivals? 你是如何看待其他參與活動的組織者或贊助者的努力的？

348 Appendix 5b. Interview transcript excerpt

Interviewee, Male, representative from MGTO

Interviewer: Through which way do you support the ICH related activities? Interviewee: Probably you have already learnt that our department has the subsidy programs to the local NGOs. We have a Request for Subsidy for Association Activities Plan. Those associations which organize ICH related events can apply to this program and submit all required application documents for our approval. We will review them all and compare to their previous organized event outcomes for a complete consideration and then decide whether to approve or not.

Interviewer: I did research on your department’s fund application. As I found there are four different types of activities that your department supports currently including festivals and entertainment activities. Could I know roughly how many applications you receive in a year? And what is the proportion of the ICH related applications?

Interviewee: This data I could not tell you right now. After I check, I will share with you later.

Interviewer: Apart from the financial support through the Subsidy Plan, are there any other forms of support?

Interviewee: Financial support is the main source we provide. At the same time, we will make some promotional efforts. For instance, we will disseminate the event information to the promotional department for them to use in different tourism promotional channels. For instance, the event information will be posted on the “What’s On” news. Such information can also be found on our official website. Through this way, we expect to realize the visibility of the event information among tourists. Normally, our department will compile all event information.

Interviewer: What is the purpose of supporting these events?

349 Interviewee: It is mainly because these ICH events are normally held by the local NGOs. These NGOs lack financial resources to hold the events. Culture is an important tourism resource in Macau. It would be meaningful if these events can be sustained in the long term with our help.

Interviewer: In terms of the three events (Feast of Na Tcha, Feast of Drunken Dragon, A-Ma Festival), how is your department involved in the pre-event stage?

Interviewee: We supported all these three events this year. A-Ma Festival was held on the 23rd March in the lunar calendar. In the A-Ma Temple, they organize the Cantonese Opera. We support them. Similarly, we approve the applications submitted by the relevant associations for Feast of the Drunken Dragon. For Feast of Na Tcha, since Macau has two related associations, we give financial assistance to these two associations separately.

Interviewer: Is it possible for me to know how much you support the associations?

Interviewee: Yes. In fact, you can find the information online. In case of any government financial subsidy programs, such information will be released on the government official gazette. If you search online, you will find the information. If you search specifically for the subsidy information for the three ICH events you are concerned about, I remember that, for Feast of Drunken Dragon, we didn’t provide a subsidy last year, but the year before last year. This year, we supported it. For A-Ma Festival, we almost support every year. For Feast of Na Tcha, I mentioned two relevant associations just now. One of the associations didn’t submit the fund application one year before.

In practice, there are various sources of funding for these associations, such as Macau Government Tourism Office (MGTO) and the Cultural Affairs Bureau (IC). I don’t know whether they applied for the fund from IC or not, or through other channels. We have no record on how much they finally have in total. Such information may only be available among their financial committee of

350 their associations. In fact, we probably know the financial sources they have, because we require such information when they apply for the fund from us. For instance, which organization do they apply to for the fund? How is the income structure of their event preparation work? What is the event budget? Normally, these associations may apply for the fund from MGTO, IC, local foundations or some private parties. This is the information we find in their submission form. After they finish the events, they also need to submit a report to us, including the financial statement, photos and detailed activities.

Interviewer: Normally, what will you do with the report? For instance, just store it for a record or use some information for future event promotions?

Interviewee: The promotion efforts are inputted before the event. Before the holding of the event, we post the event information online. We will use the report to assess the event effects afterwards, in particular on some critical elements like the financial statement. Of course, we will keep a record as well. We will also prepare a financial settlement for them because it is the written law as required by the government in terms of a detailed record of the use of funds. By doing so, we can ensure a reasonable use of funds to be distributed to the local associations. Therefore, their reports are important references for us to assess and confirm whether to support them or not. Another consideration we have is to see whether they organize the event based on the proposal they submitted and realize the event outcomes.

Interviewer: As you just mentioned that last year you didn’t give funds to the Feast of Drunken Dragon. Is it because the association didn’t apply for the fund from you?

Interviewee: Exactly. We need their initiatives to apply for the fund from us and then such application will proceed for assessment and approval. In a normal case, we will not ask them the reason why they didn’t apply for the fund from us because each year the condition of the associations may be different.

351 Interviewer: What criteria do you have in the appraisal process in determining whether to support the events or not?

Interviewee: Normally, we will have our own criteria. Based on my learning, we have supported these events for many years. First, the local organizations or associations need to submit their requests to us and then we will give a comprehensive assessment. Normally, what we do is to use the association’s past performance of the event arrangement as a standard and compare it to their proposal of this year and then conduct a detailed analysis.

Interviewer: Since many sponsored events like Feast of Drunken Dragon and A-Ma Festival are all ICH items, by considering the importance of ICH, will you use it as an important criterion to decide whether to approve or not?

Interviewee: You mean the event is an ICH item?

Interviewer: Yes. For instance, in the Feast of Drunken Dragon, its performance - Drunken Dragon Dance is one of the ICH items in Macau. Will you consider providing financial support to the festival because its element is ICH?

Interviewee: Yes, we will consider that.

Interviewer: In terms of preservation and promotion, apart from the above mentioned financial support, what kind of other preparation work do you have before the event?

Interviewee: As I know, we help with the promotions for these three ICH events. Normally, we will post the event information on our website. At the same time, we disseminate the event information to the MGTO overseas representative offices. Such information includes the event date, content and venue. This is also one of the ways we help promote the events. So, back to your questions asked, apart from the financial support, we also input a lot of resources in promotion. We will also post the event information on “What’s On” news or websites. It is considered a “soft” support to the event, which may not necessarily be money oriented. By supporting these cultural events, it is also

352 beneficial to the tourism development in Macau because these events explain the culture of Macau to tourists. The associations can also get their benefits because they also need our help to promote the events to a large audience. This event information will also be distributed to the media through our office and overseas offices. The overseas offices also have the cooperation with local tourism agents. We will inform the agents with the event information for them to include in the tour package as a suggestion. Because not all tourists come to Macau for gaming, some others may be interested in the local culture particularly.

Interviewer: So, all this information is disseminated through the overseas offices?

Interviewee: Yes. We have our own website and advertisement channels. The overseas offices can also disseminate the event information to the local media. In terms of preservation, this may go beyond our scope of work.

Interviewer: Like the Feast of Drunken Dragon this year, I saw that apart from the local associations, there were also performing teams from Malaysia, Taiwan and Indonesia. Are they invited through MGTO or through the associations?

Interviewee: In fact, it is the association who is in charge of the whole event. Based on my learning, it is not the first year when Feast of Drunken Dragon invites the overseas performing teams. I think, it depends on the theme of that year. Normally they invite the teams based on certain themes. By doing so, it also brings the opportunities for cultural exchange among the teams or a way of learning from each other because these three events are initiated by the local communities. Their own event committees have already had a clear outline of the event. For us, we mainly provide promotion and financial support. I am not sure if IC has other kind of support. I think these local associations may also have attempted to contact IC. If it is from us, we mainly help with tourism promotion through our own network. But whether they have consulted any organizations or departments for suggestions on overseas performing team invitation, I am not sure about this. Since the local associations approach us for

353 help, they have already had a clear idea before approaching us. In terms of performing team invitation, I think once they provide the information in the application form, they have already contacted the teams without our help.

Interviewer: I have concerns that when they submit the fund application form, will they mention the amount they apply for in terms of inviting overseas performing teams?

Interviewee: They will be required to list out who might join the performance.

Interviewer: I noticed that this year’s Feast of Drunken Dragon, there is a joint program with the Museum Day. Did MGTO join the promotion of this joint event?

Interviewee: Yes. We helped because the Grand Prix Museum and Wine Museum are under supervision of MGTO. At that time, these two museums joined the coordination of the joint event because of the Museum Day. All museums in Macau participated because it is just the luck that dates of Museum Day and Feast of Drunken Dragon are close to each other. Since the joint event is organized and promoted by IC, I think they have coordinated with the Drunken Dragon team. As I learnt from the news, IC has contacted them to join the themed event of “Drunken Dragon” and coordinated with the museums in Macau. Actually the date of joint event is compromised to fit with Feast of Drunken Dragon because that day is not exactly the Museum Day. Therefore, I think a lot of coordination works were organized, but this was not achieved by us. Only two museums under us joined that. Apart from us, the Marine and Water Bureau also joined because the Maritime Museum is under its supervision. If you want to know more, you may need to ask IC for more details.

Interviewer: On the day of the event, did you ask any colleagues to take photos of the event?

Interviewee: Every year in the Tap Seac Square, there will be exhibition booths for museum day. Our two museums join it regularly. Honestly speaking, even if

354 there is no Feast of Drunken Dragon on the same day, we will go and help every year on the Museum Day.

Interviewer: So, does the museum itself go and join?

Interviewee: Yes. Because this year there is a joint event with Feast of Drunken Dragon, I think IC will coordinate with them to make it possible.

Interviewer: I saw from the banner or flier that they will mention the sponsoring organizations. Could I know what the role of MGTO is?

Interviewee: Normally, it is the requirement for them to write down the name(s) of sponsor organizations. Also, it is the way of each organization to express the gratitude to the sponsored individuals and organizations.

Interviewer: Will you assign anyone to help on that day or monitor the event condition?

Interviewee: We will assign staff on-site, but not join the event together. Our role is more like an observer to observe the organization conditions of the event. For example, who is going to monitor; will they organize the event based on the proposal? How many audience members will join the event? How many people are locals or tourists?

Interviewer: Will the person take photos to take a record of the event?

Interviewee: Yes because what you investigated are grand events and have years of experience. Normally they will invite the sponsored organizations and other co-organizers as guests to join the opening ceremony. Usually, MGTO will assign representatives to join the ceremony. It may be the Director or other heads.

Interviewer: In terms of tourism promotion of the event, apart from the information listed on the What’s On, what kind of other preparation work will you do in the promotion?

355 Interviewee: The What’s On News is prepared especially for tourists. In it, we will list out all events of the month. It is available in Chinese and English and displayed at the Tourist Information Centre, which is free to get. We also have an electronic version which is available to download at the MGTO official website. The foreign tourists can go there and find a copy. The event information has date, venue and content. Apart from the website, there is a mobile APP. Those who download the MGTO APP, will receive the event notice. As limited to the nature of our MGTO, our promotion probably does not apply to ICH only; all events and festivals are included, even for those unlisted items. It is not only limited to the Chinese festivals, but also the western festivals like Our Lady of Fatima Parade in Macau. The purpose of such is to provide all possible tourism attractions to the people who may be interested to go and join.

Interviewer: Yes. I also found that there is an event calendar on the MGTO website. Does it mean MGTO supports most of them? Such as the Parade you mentioned.

Interviewee: It is hard to say so because as I mentioned before, it depends on whether the associations submit their applications to us. The Our Lady of Fatima Parade, as I know, they didn’t apply for the fund from us so far. But if you see from the promotional efforts we help these events, MGTO has a specific department to update all event information in Macau regularly. This information is available online and open for tourists. However, such support may not be in a monetary form or manpower support. Only when these associations raise the request of monetary or manpower supports, will we go through the regular process to assess their applications. Sometimes, there are also joint events, but in terms of the three ICH events, we don’t. If MGTO has the responsibility in the joint events as a co-organizer, we will assign people to go and help. Because there are many events in Macau all year round, it is impossible for MGTO to join them all as a co-organizer. But we do play different roles in terms of support, either partially or to provide financial

356 support. Yet, the promotional efforts are definitely inputted for all. The purpose of doing so is to let tourists know the events from different channels their interests to choose and join according to their interests.

Interviewer: In terms of ICH, it brings new elements to the promotion of Macau’s culture. In your current working plan or any plans in future, will you consider promoting ICH as a new element of Macau’s destination image or promote it for the upgrading of Macau’s destination image? Or in other words, how do you see the role of ICH in the tourism development in Macau?

Interviewee: In a broad view, Macau has a five-year plan. One of the aims is to promote cultural tourism. I think, ICH is part of the culture. Following the direction of the plan, ICH as a part of the unique cultural resources in Macau, has the potential to promote destination branding. Those three ICH events have long years of practice, which are representative. In particular, those events are listed items; it is easier to raise the visibility.

Interviewer: Do you have any ideas/plans to let more people know about these events?

Interviewee: This is something related to the visibility of the events. Each time, when there is an event, MGTO will post the information; we will also have the news release. These news releases will be passed to Gabinete de Comunicação Social da R.A.E. de Macau (GCS). GCS has its own network of news release including the local and overseas media. After they get the information from us, they will distribute to their media networks. In the past, we relied on our own network and put the information on the resources we have, or through the social platforms like WeChat and Facebook, which are popular these days. In the upcoming Light festival, we will post the relevant information on these platforms. Our department is mainly in charge of the promotion of Macau’s tourist events. I think IC mainly focuses on promoting the cultural events. Although they may not target tourists particularly. They will still promote the events. In their perspective, the promotion is at the base of conservation or promoting a particular local culture. Our perspective mainly starts from the

357 tourist’s needs to recommend them to go and visit different aspects of Macau. This is what we do for the visibility. Also, we will tell the overseas representative offices to promote the events to the overseas media by providing the necessary event information to them.

Interviewer: Will the overseas offices provide any feedback to you, such as the effectiveness of such promotion? Or any suggestions for improvements?

Interviewee: Because the representative office is under the promotion department of MGTO, I don’t know whether they will provide the regular feedback to the department. Because I am in the research and planning department, we will do regular research on the tourist purposes coming to Macau. This may tell us the effects indirectly. We may not get the feedback from the offices directly. But we can see directly from the tourists what their purposes are to come. And then we can compare with our promotion work and the real situation of the effects. So far, we find there is an increasing number of overnight stay tourists, which means more tourists are willing to stay overnight. Apart from gaming, tourists may find more activities to explore in Macau. Maybe because of the events, although we are not sure whether it is because of the ICH events, but at least they join some local events like Light Festival and Grand Prix. Macau is also registered as a food city. Food is also part of the culture, even the Herbal Tea is a listed ICH item. The food related activities are also part of the cultural events in Macau.

Interviewer: Among all these events, do you have any ideas on which ones have your resource support more than the others? Or could you say, among so many events in a year, which one(s) do you join more?

Interviewee: If it is our own organized events, we will input more resources for sure. If it is co-organized events, we don’t have a rule of which one to join or not. From the perspective of MGTO, we will support all events which benefit promoting Macau’s tourism. But it is a restriction that MGTO cannot join or organize all events by us, even for the financial support. The resources are limited; we cannot fully support all of them. So, we don’t have a certain rule to

358 say which one we support, which one we don’t. Therefore, it really depends on the associations themselves if they apply for the fund or not. If they don’t, we will rarely ask whether they don’t apply. It is just because Macau has so many local events. They are held every year. Normally those who apply to us will submit their forms regularly. We will also support them based on the past experience and their past performances. The only difference is on the scale of our support either increasing or decreasing the amount we give. So, it depends on the proposal they submit, whether there is a critical change of the contents. We will then assess and approve. In general, we don’t have a certain list of names to support or “blacklist” not to do so. In fact, we will support every event that is good for tourism promotion because there is no bad way to promote Macau as a destination with diverse elements.

Interviewer: All these events are expected to bring different experience to tourists and let them get to understand the diverse aspects of Macau. When you support these events, what kind of experience do you expect to bring to the tourists?

Interviewee: Probably I mentioned before, in the government plan, Macau wants to promote cultural tourism. Since Macau is unique with eastern and western culture, all elements that represent such culture are unique tourism resources. We treat them as “soft” tourism resources. It is not like the buildings. What is different from the tangible objects, like souvenirs, experience is something that cannot be brought back home in a certain form. It cannot be touched, seen, but can be felt. If tourists want to experience the experience again, they need to come back again. By doing so, it is expected tourists can return to the city many times, especially during the different times of the year, and also they can stay longer in Macau. Similarly, culture is a typical example, it is difficult to produce a certain product related to culture. It is an authentic experience that can only be felt by oneself, which cannot be easily transferred through other forms. Therefore, we promote a way of “experiencing” tourism during their stay in Macau.

359 These years we strengthen the cooperation with IC and combine other elements from sports, culture and tourism together. In the early time, such cooperation was less. The Sports Institute (ID) mainly focuses on the sport activities. IC for culture. And MGTO for tourism. We rarely have cooperation at that time. Even for our events or activities, they rarely join. We rarely join their activities too. But these years our coordination gets closer. It is also the aim of the government to strengthen the cooperation and coordination among different bureaus. Regardless of whether the event benefits which bureau most, the synergistic effect does exist. If tourism events are organized, the ID and IC are both invited to join, to enlarge the impacts of the event. Our role mainly focuses on the promotion. If there is a product, our role is to promote it to the world. Our target market is tourists. By promoting different cultural events, we expect to attract more tourists.

Interviewer: Since you mentioned cooperation, are there any examples of such event cooperation? I know, probably there is the Light Festival.

Interviewee: We organize the Light Festival. Macau International Parade is dominated by IC. If you ask about the typical example, although the Parade is organized by IC, both MGTO and ID join. If it is the Light Festival, ID organizes the marathon at the same time. Originally, these two events were separate, but in order to create a synergistic effect, we arrange them on the same day. In the daytime it is the marathon. At night, it is the Light Festival. By doing so, we expect to attract tourists to stay longer. Some tourists who are interested in the sport activities can choose to stay and enjoy the Light Festival. If we organize separately, tourists may only choose to stay half a day, like coming in the afternoon or early night and leaving the next morning. However, such effect can only be realized through cooperation. Not only among our bureaus, the different local associations may come and support as well, like the different sport teams and dragon boat teams. In the early time, there was little promotion of the dragon boat festival, since we started to cooperate with ID, we help promote many sports events too. Another example is the Grand Prix; it is

360 under control of ID. We went to the Hong Kong Convention Centre last month to help promote this grand sports event. We utilize our advantage of a better promotion network to help ID because the ID may not have such grand network as we have, or one could say not that experienced compared to us. So, we help “sell” this to the outsiders to attract more tourists to join this sports event. Of course, our target is tourists. Maybe IC is not only aiming at tourists, they also need to have locals come. From our view, we mainly help promote to tourists.

Interviewer: Do you know if Macau has any ICH items that have the potential to be promoted as tourism resources or products?

Interviewee: I will first think that the local associations who organize the cultural celebrations are not targeting tourists. From their perspective, they may want to maintain the tradition as it is. The conservation and cultural transmission is more important to them. If they dominate the events, they may not expect to package the culture as a tourism product. I am not sure about the future development of their culture. Maybe they may consider organizing the event under certain themes that may target tourists or any other additional activities for tourists. Since they are the indigenous people who celebrate this, it is inappropriate for us to intervene. Our role is to promote Macau’s tourism activities. Our target is tourists. If it is about the ICH in Macau, we don’t have a certain saying of promoting a specific item. I think, if it were IC, they may hope to preserve them all. For example, Feast of Drunken Dragon was originally celebrated and organized by the local communities. There was no participation from the government. The locals themselves have the initiative to celebrate the traditions. Later, when such culture needs the resources to conserve and transmit, they may need some external support, in particular from the government in terms of the policy, finance or other support. I think the local association may attempt to approach ICH for the suggestions on a future development plan. It is also the time that Feast of Drunken Dragon is developed in a grand scale. There is an opportunity to promote it to a large audience like tourists. Tourists may work as spreaders to promote the event to the people they

361 know. We also help promote it to tourists. In fact, many local rituals in Macau are hard to package as a tourist product, but it is something that we can easily see every day, like villain hitting, or god praying. We may not exclude the possibility that these local daily practices may become tourist activities in the future. One day it may also become a local culture that presents the place identity. From our view, we don’t have a certain perspective to support or not support any items. It really depends on the associations themselves on how they expect their events to be expanded. If they don’t want to make it grand or don’t expect to have too much audience, they may not discuss or cooperate with the government. If they realize the need of promoting the events with our efforts, they will come to us then. As far as I know, many local events are not inscribed as ICH items. But we do support them every year. They get our funds. So it really depends on the associations. If they don’t have the initiative or don’t expect to become grand in scale or don’t expect too many tourists, we have no position to push them to develop their rituals as tourism activities. We respect the nature and willingness of the associations because Feast of Drunken Dragon is also expected to be promoted to a larger scale, we then help promote it. I think Macau has diverse events, like Chinese and Portuguese events, which represent the Eastern and Western traditions. Each time when they organize a parade or other activities, they will find the different departments (e.g. logistic arrangement) in charge to make it possible. Most of them are also expected to promote their events. We government departments normally do not intervene much. We respect them.

Interviewer: You mentioned before, your department conducts research like the tourist purposes. Do you remember if there is an item in your survey to ask if they come to Macau for a festival?

Interviewee: Yes. We ask. Although such survey is not always conducted every year, we do it during a certain period of time. Like asking tourists’ purpose of coming to Macau. In fact, there is a group of tourists who come for festivals. I don’t have a certain number on hand now, but it is not a large proportion. In

362 practice, shopping is still the main purpose. Although joining cultural events is not the highest percentage of the purposes, there is still a number of tourists who come to Macau for events and festivals.

Interviewer: Are there any trends of such changes on the proportion of coming to Macau for events/festivals? Like will the number increase a lot in a year?

Interviewee: We don’t have such detailed proportion on the cultural event. From our view, the main purpose is to attract them to come to Macau. Whether they come for sports activities or for cultural activities, it’s not that critical for us to use such detailed distribution numbers. But the purpose of either coming for leisure, business or for gaming is good enough for us to do some marketing analysis.

Interviewer: What do you think about tourist participation in the parade or festivals? Do you think it is enough? Or do you have any plans to use it to attract more tourists?

Interviewee: It depends on the nature of the event, which we cannot decide. But definitely we do expect a diverse form of activities. If you were tourists, you may also get bored with a unified form of celebration. The diversification in organizing the events is encouraged. This also needs to be considered when we approve the events. If most applications are concentrated in one form of celebration, we may consider if we approve them all by considering the limited resources. Therefore, we need to consider the tourism effects of supporting such event. From our view, we expect to promote diverse opportunities for tourists to experience different aspects of Macau based on their needs.

Interviewer: In order to provide diverse event experience to tourists, what kind of efforts do you make?

Interviewee: Diversification is always our wish. Because MGTO cannot complete the whole event only by us, it needs the coordination and cooperation among various government departments. For the ICH events, it mainly relies on the local initiatives to realize it. We are just here to help and support them. Just

363 as I said before, we hope tourists can “experience” Macau. These years, MGTO put a lot of effort into decentralizing the crowd condition to the central area of Macau. Apart from visiting the famous sites, it is also expected that the tourists can experience different cultural aspects of Macau, like the intangible culture and realize that Macau is more than gambling and Ruins of St. Paul’s, but it also contains rich cultural resources to appreciate. Some tourists may not expect to leave with only taking photos in front of the sites, they may also expect to experience the local culture and learn the local’s lifestyle. We try our best to work on it these two years, like making the signal boards much clearer. We also try to talk to the local communities or shop owners on the possibilities to beautify the streetscape or restore the road. Once tourists go to that district, they may not complain about the poor facilities or environment of the attractions. We also expect the local communities can attract tourists to go to different districts. This may not link to the festivals directly, but definitely is related to the local culture. Although it may commonly be seen on the local streets among Asian tourists, such unique streetscape may be different in the eyes of westerners. They may also regard the god praying as a special local ritual because they rarely see such in their normal living environment. I also remembered that when I brought my foreign friends to Macau, they even found the hang cloths out of the windows was interesting when we passed by a local street. The local’s lifestyle helps create an atmosphere to the tourists to tell the story of a place. Our role is trying to distribute the tourist crowd to different districts and tell them more activities they can explore in Macau other than taking photos. A diverse product can attract different tourists’ needs. Another plan I can describe is on the direction to develop tourism product related to water programs. Once we have the resources, we will exploit and make it possible to attract tourists. We promoted the cruise tourism before and will explore more related products later. We also have different promotional materials to suggest different walking tours in Macau.

Interviewer: Yes. Normally will you use the brochures to promote the different routes or activities to tourists?

364 Interviewee: We also did a lot of effort before we promote the routes. Before we promote the current eight routes, we conduct research and field survey to see whether it is feasible for tourists to go. For example, the church route, we need to coordinate with the churches on their willingness to open for tourists. Once we promote the routes to tourists, they probably go to the church, but if the church is closed all day, we will not include it in our routes. All this we need to confirm before we promote it. When you see the final brochure, it is already the final product. Besides, before we promote the routes, we need to beautify the street in advance and also create the atmosphere with special Portuguese walking stones or include any special elements to attract tourists. Also, the facilities need to be improved and ready for use. Tourists may not feel some efforts directly, but when the tourists go to that area, they may notice the feeling of comfort.

Interviewer: What efforts do you do to attract tourists to stay longer or revisit the city?

Interviewee: Do you mean for ICH or in general?

Interviewer: How about you talk about both?

Interviewee: We support the events year by year and also expect them to practice continuously. For example, our own organized parade events, we also expect to attract them to revisit the city. Therefore, we will always conduct an assessment of our own organized events. Although it is not related to ICH, it is something we can control by ourselves. Every year we conduct tourist surveys on their experience of the event and also to the locals on their opinions. Even for the Fireworks and Light Festivals, we conduct research during the events. Additionally, we use the mobile APP or social platforms to promote the event information to the public or put it on the website, which aims to let the participants share the event information with their friends. To some extent, they are advertising for us. We also have staff who are monitoring the comments online, we also collect the feedback from those platforms as a source of event assessment.

365 Interviewer: Can you share with me the result in general? How is the evaluation from the majority?

Interviewee: As I remember the majority of the visitors are supportive of the event. Only a small part provides detailed comments. Normally, it is expected that the Macau Chinese New Year Parade can involve different associations or performing teams to make the whole event more fulfilled. The tourists are also supportive of the event and expect Macau to organize more events like this. The locals raised the concern about lighting effects of the parade in the first year. And in the second year when we organized the event, we tried to adjust the lighting a little dim. But the tourists may not like it. From our view, tourists are the main targets, at the same time, we need to learn the concerns and comments from the locals. We cannot totally ignore it. This year, we will continue to organize Light Festival. At the same time, we will try to balance the interests between the locals and tourists. From the local retailers’ feedback, they are mostly supportive of these events since they are concerned about the generated economic benefits to their business. Even though they also find the effects may not be that obvious and direct to their business. In the later work, we will also try to investigate the reasons for that. Is it because of their own competitiveness or not that active to promote, or the closing of the business during the events or even because of the nature of the retail that is not directly related to tourists? From our experience on the survey, most locals and tourists are supportive of the events. Locals find it a chance to have another choice for entertainment. Tourists find more choices for them to enjoy Macau. The feedback on Facebook is also positive.

Interviewer: You just mentioned the goal of MGTO is to let the tourists feel the diversification of Macau and also expect to increase their satisfaction of travelling. Apart from that, are there any other ways you expect to increase tourist satisfaction?

Interviewee: Actually, the satisfaction is a comprehensive evaluation of one’s travel experience. Probably they have already started to give the “mark” in

366 mind before they come to Macau. For example, if they cannot easily find the information online, they may deduct marks. When they are queuing up for the bus, if they wait for so long, they may be dissatisfied. There are various factors that may influence their evaluation. It is hard to say what we do in any steps that may lead to their satisfaction. Because MGTO plays a role in different steps, even for the operation of the hospitality, we may raise our suggestions, but that may not necessarily involve first line service. Therefore, it is hard to judge the effects of our input.

Interviewer: Back to the topic of ICH, there are local associations or other organizations that dominate the events, how do you evaluate their performance? Or what do you think of their organization of these events?

Interviewee: Are you concerned with my feeling or as MGTO? If it is MGTO, our view is mainly from the event effects whether they achieve the purposes as mentioned in their proposals. From my own perspective, these associations have difficulty to organize events continuously. But they have a sincere heart to do so. It is about retaining the core value of the ritual practices. They also have their own appeals because of a strong community base. In fact, they can handle the events by themselves. In my view, they do a great job and receive a great success with the event. Also, they help bring the cultural meaning to the audience. Of course, it depends on each individual on his or her feelings toward the event experience. If it is from MGTO, it is not about the profits earned from supporting the event. It is not like how much we support to be directly related to the number of tourists attracted. Our initiative is not about that, but we expect to let tourists have more choices to choose. We expect to support more cultural events that can represent the uniqueness of Macau, in particular, for those events, which are still being practiced. Originally, these events were organized by themselves only. No matter whether we support or not, they will continue practicing it. Our role is only about a support to them. We don’t expect to waste such good cultural resources. Whether it is proper to develop it as a cultural product, maybe it is hard to judge at the moment. From the view of

367 Macau, there are no criteria to judge the success of the event. Our idea of support also expects to retain the tradition, and make it diverse for tourists to choose. With the support from the government, they can push the events to a grander scale. Even if we don’t give the financial support, they will definitely continue. But maybe the scale is small and only limited to the local communities to go and join. However, the fund is really important for local- based events to be sustained. For example, if the younger generation doesn’t expect to continue the tradition, it is hard for us to help that much because that group of people know and practice the tradition better than any others. If they lack money, we can support or even help them with some arrangement. But all these need to come from their initiative on sustainable development.

Interviewer: In your experience, are there any associations that try to approach MGTO for more involvement in the preparation work or provide any suggestions or raise their concerns to organize the events to a bigger scale?

Interviewee: As I know, the Macau food festival, the organizers approached us for financial and promotion support because our role is actually all about this. They also have a clear idea on our role. They will also approach the relevant government departments in charge for help. If they need the support of venue, they will find IACM. If they expect the fund support, they may find us. We will try our best to help within our responsibility.

Interviewer: Do you have any expectation concerning these associations organizing their own events? As you mentioned already that you hope them to continue the traditional practice.

Interviewee: Nothing else special. We hope they can retain. If so, Macau has more tourist resources. If we don’t have it, definitely, Macau lacks one element to promote. But since it is about the local culture, it depends on the practitioners and coordination among local communities. It is hard for one department to handle them all. We support it because we think it is good for the tourism benefits in Macau and for tourists’ enjoyment. I think ICH also expects to preserve the traditional culture, like listing them under protection. If there is a

368 cultural resource, we may help with packaging and promoting it for tourists. We use the final product of such cultural effects at most. Sometimes, if the organizers need our feedback or suggestions, we may raise the concerns from tourist perspective on tourists’ interest and needs for the local organizers to consider as a reference. For example, if the tourists need more interpretation on site. If they need any help on translation or editing, we can help them. We mainly are concerned with the tourist view.

Interviewer: If there is any feedback, how do you tell the local organizers? Do you have regular meetings with them or through which platform?

Interviewee: MGTO joins a number of committees, like the tourism development committee. We are a member of them. Many other government departments are part of it as well. There are also some industry representatives who join the regular meetings. During the meeting, we may raise the concerns from the tourism perspective.

Interviewer: Since your department is in charge of research, normally what do you do with the research outcomes? Will you share with the public?

Interviewee: Most of the report is only available internally. Actually, before our research is mature, we need to be conservative with the results, in particular such information may have some tendency to influence the public. So, we need to be cautious to share the results. A small part of the reports, since it is concerned or related to the public, we will share the results in a way of news release. For example, the conditions of home staying hotels. We released the results to the public because the locals are concerned about it. But for some marketing research on the tourist characteristics, the locals may not have interest in learning about the characteristics of tourists and their behaviors. We will then use it only for marketing purpose internally, like whether we should target American tourists or which strategy we need to adjust to attract different markets. Since most of our research is prophase reports, rarely open to the public, only when such information is directly related to the locals. For the

369 festivals, as I remember, we probably shared the results on the event effects to the public. But I am not quite sure.

Interviewer: From the fund support, is the fund increasing these years? Or any restrictions on the budget? Do you have any tendency of the use of funds?

Interviewee: The budget is increasing. But how much does it increase, I may need to refer to the detailed data. But if you see the government report, you may find such information. We normally release our financial statement there. In terms of the amount we support the local communities in organizing ICH related events, you can refer to it online. Of course, if the number of applications becomes less, the fund is less. In other situations, if there are more applications, the fund increases correspondingly. So, it really depends on the real situation of that year. There is no certain trend on an increasing number year by year.

Interviewer: Have you ever experienced one case that the budget is not enough to use to support the local associations?

Interviewee: Each year, we will have a budget ceiling. As far as I work in this department, I don’t experience such a situation. Normally, we have the budget based on the previous years’ experience. I think it is hard to go to the extreme case and suddenly there are so many applications concentrated in one year. I think, even for the applicants, when they submit the proposal to us, it is hard to see if they ask for twice the budget of last year in their application. Probably, they start to increase the amount they need little by little. Sometimes, we may also encounter a case, like the anniversary celebration, if that is the case, they may need to raise a great amount of budget. But that is an exceptional case.

Interviewer: These are almost all questions I’d like to ask. Thanks so much for your kind patience in answering my questions. Thanks for your time.

Interviewee: You are welcome. We also hope our information can help you with your research. You are welcome to share your results with us for reference in the future.

370 Interviewer: Yes.

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