RHA, Vol. 5, Núm. 5 (2007), 137-148 ISSN 1697-3305 NON-ASHKENAZIC JEWRY AS THE GROUND OF CONTEMPORARY ISRAELI MULTICULTURALISM Zvi Zohar* Recibido: 4 Septiembre 2007 / Revisado: 2 Octubre 2007 / Aceptado: 20 Octubre 2007 1. HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL Sephardic rabbinic authorities branded this deve - BACKGROUND lopment as illegitimate. Later, they realized that In the wake of the Expulsion from Spain not only was such opposition futile, but that many (1492), Sephardic1 Jews gradually settled as Sepharadim were in fact purchasing meat from refugees in many lands, primarily – in areas under Ashkenazic shehita. Thereafter, the Sephardic rab- Ottoman rule. One of these was the Holy Land, bis concentrated on de-legitimizing consumption Eretz Israel, whose Jewish inhabitants until that of such meat by Sepharadim; by and large, this time were mostly indigenous Musta’arabim2. For a campaign also failed, since the “Ashkenazic” pro- variety of reasons, the Musta’arabim gradually duce was less expensive. Ashkenazic influence upon became assimilated to the culture of the Sephardic Sepharadim manifested itself also in other aspects newcomers. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the of traditional Jewish life – such as recitation of ri - dominant (‘hegemonic’) culture of Jews in Eretz tual benedictions by women, and the adoption by Israel (henceforth: EI) was Sephardic. However, certain Sephardic rabbis of ultra-Orthodox rejec- beginning in the late 18th century, and especially tionism towards, e.g., secular studies. during and after the brief Egyptian rule (1831 In the instances discussed above, various ethni - –1840), increased Jewish immigration from cally Jewish sub-groups interacted and influenced Eastern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East each-other with regard to varieties of Jewish cultu - led to the establishment of non-Sephardic commu- ral norms. At the same time, of course, these very nities in EI. sub-groups were affected by non-Jewish cultural The relations of these communities with the norms. Thus, members of the Sephardic sub-group established Sephardic leadership (recognized by the arrived from a European milieu, where the domi- Ottoman government as representing the entire nant languages were European and people wore Jewish population) were complex and sometimes European clothes. Interaction with the non-Jewish strained. For example: during the second half of milieu in Eretz Israel led over time to, e.g., mastery the 19th century, the Ashkenazic population of Je - of the Arabic language and adaptation to local norms of apparel. Thus we find a Sephardic rusalem had increased to the point, that Ashke - th nazic groups (kollelim) attained de facto autonomy Jerusalemite rabbi in the first half of 19 century in a number of crucial realms. One of these was preaching the virtues of modesty embodied in that of shehita, ritual slaughtering of meat. At first, Muslim-style women’s attire. The background to * The Shalom Hartman Institute. Jerusalem, Israel. E-mail: [email protected]. Telephone: +972-52-2369544. Fax: +972-2-5730190. 1 The Iberian peninsula was identified in rabbinic tradition as the biblical land of Sepharad (Ob. 1:20). Thus, Jews hailing from Spain and Portugal are termed Sephardic (Heb. Sepharadim). 2 This term is a Hebraization of the Arabic Musta’aribin, i.e., those who adopt the ways of the Arabs. © 2007 Revista de Historia Actual 137 RHA, Vol. 5, Núm. 5 (2007), 137-148 Zvi Zohar his harangue was, apparently, the beginning of body and spirit of the Diaspora Jew was embodied influence of Western-style women’s fashion upon in the figure of the new Eretz-Israeli Jew, the Tsabar local Sephardic matrons. Indeed, with the in - (Sabra), who was portrayed as a fair-colored, self- creased penetration of modern European culture confidant and physically competent person. Al - into the Ottoman Empire, local elites, both Arab though ethnically Ashkenazic, the ideal-type Tsabar and Jewish, began sending their children to was not culturally so, but rather characterized as European-style schools, either Christian or Jewish, European, Hebrew-speaking, modern, enligh - with European curricula. Secular studies and tened, and secular. Rebelling against and overco - European languages were taught, and Western ming the Jewishness of Exile, the Tsabar was to mores were presented as more advanced than local forge a new and better life for the Jewish People in custom. In Jerusalem, Sephardic upper and middle their National Homeland. If all Jews arriving in EI class families were especially prone to send their would divest their inappropriate personal and cul- children to such schools, including those directed tural baggage and meld in to Modern Israeli cul- by Christian monks or nuns. As a result, by the ture and lifestyle, the well being –indeed, the salva- beginning of the 20th century many young tion– of the Jewish People would be within reach. Sephardic men and women could converse in at It was difficult enough for a young man arri - least one European language, and held European ving from Europe in e.g. 1949 to adapt himself to culture in high regard. the demands of this ideal: abandon Yiddish, Polish All this cultural dynamic took place inde- or Hungarian for modern Hebrew, change his pendently of Zionism. However, when Zionist given and family names to Israeli ones approved by influence began to manifest itself in EI, it too was the establishment, drop behaviors regarded as old- a major cultural influence in favor of modern fashioned or Diasporic, and adopt the casual, not European culture. The major reason for this was, to say rough garb sported by Sabra “pioneers”. that despite some mid-19th century Sephardic Nevertheless, since most European Jews of his age proto-Zionists, and despite enjoying the emotional were already modernized and secularized, rejecting support of the Sephardic masses in North Africa the Judaism of Galut was for many a price not too and the Middle east, the Zionist movement –from difficult to pay for the sake of the salvific qualities its inception in the late 19th century until 1948– of life in Zionist utopia. However, with regard to a was initiated and led by Ashkenazic Jews, who newcomer arriving in that same year from e.g. resided in Europe and in the U.S. Ashkenazic Jews Morocco, the required transformation was ex - also formed the majority of Jews residing in EI du - ceedin gly more complex. This was the case, despite ring that same period. Undoubtedly, differences the fact that such a person was quite likely to have between Lithuanians and “Galicianers” or between been exposed to aspects of modernization in his Hungarian and Romanian Jews seemed saliently land of origin. significant to members of those Ashkenazic sub- We have already seen that Sephardim in EI groups. Nevertheless, common historical cultural were affected by European mores already by the roots, common language (Yiddish) and common beginning of the 20th century. They were not the non-Jewish background (= European Christianity) only non-European Jews to do so. While the Jewish created significant similarity between them. Ano- communities of Europe were the first to face the ther common denominator was, that many young consequences of modernity’s challenge to traditio - European Jews had internalized anti-clerical atti- nal Jewish culture, in the second half of the 19th tudes characteristic of European Enlightenment century the consequences of developments in Euro - culture, and came to regard major components of pe were making themselves felt also amongst the established rabbinic Judaism as passé, or as obs - Jews of most Muslim lands. By the eve of the First tructions to the Jewish future. World War, Jews in North Africa and the ME were The more fervent trends in Zionist thought significantly affected by modernity, in direct pro- strongly critiqued central Jewish characteristics and portion to their economic status, their education culture that were rooted in Diaspora/Galut reality, and their urban location. That is to say: a wealthy, and developed an ideal of disassociation from the Alliance-educated Jew living in a newly-built quar- Jewish nation’s lifestyle and culture formed in exile. ter of Cairo was quite modernized indeed –while a The alternate to what was seen as the atrophied lower-class, kuttab-educated Jew living in a Kur - 138 Non-Ashkenazic Jewry as the Ground of Contemporary Israeli MultiCulturalism MISCELÁNEA dish village was little touched by modernization. their position by insulting the community’s rabbis The inter-war years saw the extension of moder - or traditions7. In addition, direct European rule nization to large sectors of the Jewish middle and over Islamic countries was (of course) of shorter lower-middle class. By mid 20th century, the ma - duration than over European Jews: while Algeria jority of Sephardic-Oriental Jews in their countries was under direct French rule since 1830, Morocco of birth were modernized to some extent. Thus, the fell under French sway only in 1912. This diffe- claim advanced by some activists that before arrival rence in duration also contributed to mitigation of in EI the Jews of Muslim lands were “innocent” of modern influence, compared to Europe itself. modern influences is hard to resolve with historical ‘Internal’ cultural variables also contributed facts. significantly to differentiating Jewish responses to Nevertheless, several variables made moder - modernity. Since the mid 18th century, ideological nization in Islamic lands different from that of schism has characterized European Jewry: Has - Europe3. One ‘external’ variable was, the lack (in sidim vs. Mitnagdim, Orthodox vs. Reform, Yid - Islamic lands) of anti-clericalism as a salient feature dishists vs. Hebraists, Zionists vs. Anti-Zionists, of modernism. Another was, that Islamic religious etc. Such was generally not the case with regard to leaders in these countries did not respond to mo - Jews of Muslim lands, where communal leaders dernity by rejecting traditional religiosity and and rabbis strove to maintain an inclusivist com- attempting the formation of radically different mo - munity policy not requiring an either/or choice as des of Islamic religious life4.