Community Organization Forms of Mon-Khmer Linguistic-Ethnic Groups: an Interdisciplinary Approach

Asian Journal of Language, Literature and Culture Studies

3(4): 16-27, 2020; Article no.AJL2C.59120

Community Organization Forms of Mon-Khmer Linguistic-ethnic Groups: An Interdisciplinary Approach

Ly Tung Hieu1*

1University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, 10-12 Dinh Tien Hoang Street, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

Author’s contribution

The sole author designed, analysed, interpreted and prepared the manuscript.

Article Information

Editor(s): (1) Dr. Suleyman Goksoy, University of Duzce, Turkey. Reviewers: (1) Erasmus Akiley Msuya, University of Dar es salaam, Tanzania. (2) Odingowei M. Kwokwo, Niger Delta University, Nigeria. (3) Lokesh Prasad Dash, India. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/59120

Received 10 April 2020 Accepted 16 July 2020 Short Communication Published 27 July 2020

ABSTRACT

Applying the interdisciplinary approach and the retrospective methods of archeology, ethnography, history, ethnolinguistics, the paper tries to clear the process and status of the Mon-Khmer linguistic- ethnic groups’ community organizations that much changed in the history. Starting from the primitive defense form of hamlets, most of the linguistic-ethnic groups used the adjectives meaning “round” to organize the nouns indicating the forms of hamlet – their fundamental community organization. Particularly, the North Bahnaric sub-branch borrowed the nouns of plây, plâi from Austronesian languages to indicate their hamlets. The larger than the hamlets is forms of village, leaving traces in the nouns of plang of Bahnar, kruang of Bru, làng of Viet and làng of Muong. From forms of the community organization of hamlet and village, Viet-Muong people advanced towards establishing nước “nation” as a supreme administrative-political institution. The parallel structure of làng-nước “village-nation” has been maintained until the end of the nineteenth century.

Keywords: Community organization; hamlet; village; tribe; nation; Mon-Khmer.

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

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1. INTRODUCTION - South Bahnaric sub-branch: Mnong: bon / uan “village, homeland”. Koho: bòn “village, According to linguistic classification, Austro- homeland”. Stieng: bon “village”; poh Asiatic linguistic family that distributes from East “village”; văng / wăng “village”. India to South East Asia and South China roughly consists of three branches: Nicobarese, That situation poses at least three questions: Munda, Mon-Khmer. In which, Mon-Khmer branch is the largest and includes more one (1) It can be said that the Mon-Khmer languages hundred linguistic-ethnic groups living in Vietnam namely Ruc, Muong, Viet, Bru, Ta-oih, Katu, and South East Asia: Bahnar, Brao, Bru, Chrau, Mnong, Koho, Stieng, Ksing Mul are relatively Cua, Koho, Katu, Jeh-Trieng, Hre, Khang, uniform at calling their fundamental community Khmer, Khmu, Ma, Mang, M’nong, O-du/Tay Hat, organization forms through the phonetic Romam, Ta’ioh, Xinh Mul, Sedang, Stieng; Chut, reciprocal and semantic similarity of nouns Muong, Tho, Kinh/Viet, etc. denoting “hamlet, village”. However, as we can see, the south Mon-Khmer languages as Bru, Due to the evolution and acculturation, the Ta-oih, Katu, Sedang, Mnong, Koho, Stieng use community organizations of the Mon-Khmer only nouns with initials being labial consonants v- linguistic-ethnic groups have changed so much. , w-, b-, p- (vil, wel / wil, vel / bhươl, vi, bon / uan, In their family modes, there are different forms of bòn, bon / poh / văng / wăng); while the north patriarchy, biformed, matrilineal, and transition. Mon-Khmer languages as Ruc, Muong, Viet, In their forms of family, there are all types of Ksing Mul use nouns with preceded element great family, small family and in their community being consonant k- (kaBêl1, quêl / quên, quê, kẻ, organizations, there are different forms of hamlet, col). Why is there the significant difference village, nation, etc. Therefore, when contacting between the south Mon-Khmer languages with their forms of community organization, people the north ones? could not help being confused by their diversity. For example, the concepts of “hamlet” and (2) Why do the North Bahnaric languages “village” popular in Mon-Khmer linguistic-ethnic as Jeh-Trieng, Sedang, Cua, Hre, Bahnar groups are described by different nouns as use a completely different noun from the follows: Mon-Khmer languages as plây, plâi for denoting “hamlet, village”? Where is this noun - Viet-Muong (Vietic) sub-branch: Ruc: from? 1 kaBêl “hamlet, village”. Muong: quêl / quên “village”; quê “homeland, country”; làng (3) Similarly, in Vietnamese, while quê “village” (Thanh Hoa Province). Viet: quê “homeland” and kẻ “residential unit” have “homeland, country”; kẻ “residential unit”; remained, the noun of làng “village” has 1 làng “village” . appeared too. According to Vietnamese Dictionary [1], quê is “where the family, lineage - Khmuic sub-branch: Ksing Mul: col spent many generations making a living, for “village”. myself often has emotional natural connection”; kẻ is “(old; usually used before a place name). - Katuic sub-branch: Bru: vil “hamlet, village”. Residential unit, where often has markets”. Ta-oih: wel / wil “village”. Katu: vel “village”; Furthermore, làng is “rural residential block bhươl “village”. forming a unit which has separate life in many aspects, and is the lowest administrative unit in - North Bahnaric sub-branch: Jeh-Trieng: feudal time”. Thus, the meaning denoting plây “village”. Sedang: vi “village”; plâi community organization form of clan remains “hamlet”. Cua: plây “village”. Hre: plây vestige in quê and kẻ. However, quê and kẻ “village”. Bahnar: plây “village”. almost no longer have been used to denote fundamental community organization form of the

1 Viet people anymore. That role has been Except Aream language, the languages belonging to Viet- replaced by làng “village”. The Muong people in Muong (Vietic) sub-branch are tone languages. Thus, the vocabulary data of the languages of Ruc and Muong used in Thanh Hoa Province (Northern Central Vietnam) this article are followed by a diacritical marks or replaced by has also noun of làng, homonymous and tone symbols: 1 (tone “ngang”), 2 (tone “huyen”), 3 (tone synonymous with the Vietnamese noun of làng “hoi”), 4 (tone “nga”), 5 (tone “sac”), 6 (tone “nang”). For 1 “village”. So where are the nouns of làng “village” example: The notation kaBêl means that the word kaBêl is spoken with tone “ngang” (smooth). from?

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Replying to those questions practically means to to convention of citation, the author uses identify the process of formation and evolution of italics to discriminate titles of mentioned community organization forms of the ethnic works. groups. Thus the process left only blurred informations in the written history. The difficult 2. BUÔN “HAMLET” – FUNDAMENTAL condition of documentation caused scholars not COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION FORM to care about this auspicious topic. Therefore, the current study sought to apply the 2.1 The Nouns Denoting “Hamlet”, interdisciplinary approach, with retrospective “Village” of the Mon-Khmer and methods and achievemens of the relating Correlative Vocabulary sciences as archeology, ethnography, history, ethnolinguistics, etc. In which the ethnolinguistic To answer the first question, and enlighten origin data are of the author, and being collected and meaning of the words, we need to set up a in the provinces of Truong Son Mountains and larger vocabulary comparative table, including all Central Highlands in Vietnam. According to words related semantically and morphologically linguistic convention, the author uses underline with the nouns denoting buôn, làng “hamlet, to denote a native word, which was followed village” in the Mon-Khmer languages, as by its meaning between quotes. And, according follows:

Table 1. The nouns denoting buôn, làng “hamlet, village” in Mon-Khmer languages

Languages Adjectives Verbs Nouns Viet-Muong Ruc kaBa4 “stir” kaBêl1 “hamlet, (Vietic) village”, Bẹnh2 “rim sub-branch (ear)”, khwang1 “owston”, rơBaj3 “hair vortex”, saBạj3 / swạj3 “whirlpool” Muong wẵl “curved”, wẽo wảnh “eddy”, wãnh “braid, wành “owston”, wèl “curved, turned”, plait, eddy”, way “rotate”, ang “whirlpool”, wĩl wĩl “rounded”, wầl “roll round”, wẩn “roll”, wènh “rim”, wòng quăn “curling”, wẽl “turn”, quai “stir”, quay “circle”, quêl / quên quằn quẽo “rotate”, quằn “bend”, quấn “village”, quê “twisted, “round”, quenh “round”, “homeland, country”, shriveled”, queo khoắl “pick”, khoenh “coil” quằl “circle”, khoảy “curved, certainty” “hair vortex”, khoenh “coil” Viet vạnh “circular”, vanh “cut round”, vành vành “rim”, vằn vành vạnh “rim”, váy “ear swab”, văn “owston”, vân “strip”, “circular”, vạy “curl”, vằn “rise owstons in vầng “halo”, viên “curved”, vẩn eyes”, vặn “eddy”, vần “balloon”, vòng “circular”, (tròn) “roll”, vấn “twisting”, vây “circle”, vừng “halo”, vìn “(circular) “hem”, viên “make round round”, vòng by hands”, vòng “curve”,

“roundabout”, oằn oằn “bend”, uốn “curl”, “bended”, quanh quanh “round”, quành quê “homeland, “rounded”, quăn “turn”, quay “rotate”, quày country”, kẻ “curly”, quằn “turn back”, quặn “residential units”, “twisted”, quắn “cramping painfully”, quẩn quanh “round”, quay “very curly”, quặn “round”, quấn “roll”, quây “gyrostat”, quầng “crampy painfully”, “hem”, quấy “stir”, quậy “halo”, còng quẩn “circular”, “stir”, còng “bend”, cuốn “manacle”, khoanh cong “curved”, “eddy”, cuộn “roll”, khoanh “coil”, khoáy “hair còng “bending”, “coil”, khoắng “stir”, khuấy vortex”, xoăn “curly” “stir”, xoay “rotate”, xoáy “eddy”, xoắn “curl” xoáy “vortex”

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Languages Adjectives Verbs Nouns Khmuic Ksing Mul col “village” sub-branch Katuic sub- Bru vứl “circular” aviêl “rotate”, ván “eddy, vil “hamlet, village”, branch entwine”, viêl “round”, vứl “circle” kavang “turn, hem”, kuvang “roll, hem”, kuvár “stir” Ta-oih wel / wil “village” Katu vil / tavil “circular”, kavương “round”, val “turn vel / bhươl “village”, vạng “curved” back”, vạng “hem”, vợɁ avịl “hair vortex”, “stir” kAng “wristlet”, vương “circle” North Sedang vi “village” Bahnaric Bahnar hoăng “bended” veh “rotate”, hoey “rotate”, sub-branch hoăng “bend”, kơvâh “wave”, kuanh “turn” South Mnong vil “circular” vănh “curl”, văr “roll”, vâr bon / uan “village, Bahnaric “stir”, vel “roll”, vên “roll” homeland” sub-branch Koho wil “circular”, wơl / wềl “hem”, wơr “stir” bòn “village, gơwơl “circular” homeland”, rơwềng “circle”, kong “wristlet” Stieng wil / rơwal wâr “stir” bon / poh / văng / “circular” wăng “village”, kong “manacle, collar” Khmeric Khmer mul “circular”, wiêng “round” viêl “field”, wan / sub-branch koông “curved” wun “circle” Different Mon wen “curved” win “circle” Austro- Khasi wan “wrap around” Asiatic Nicobarese envin “circular” hawin “wrap around” languages

The above table shows clearly the cause of the quêl / quên, quê, kẻ, col) of the Ruc, Muong, difference between the languages in the South Viet, Ksing Mul. The reason affixes *k-, *ka- as Bru, Ta-oih, Katu, Sedang, Mnong, Koho, denoting things must be joined is that the rest of Stieng using only the nouns denoting “hamlet, words only mean “circular”. In order to turn village” with initials being labial consonants v-, w- “circular” into nouns denoting residential form, , b-, p- (vil, wel / wil, vel / bhươl, vi, bon / uan, they or turn its sound, turn its meaning, transfer bòn, bon / poh / văng / wăng), with the languages its kind as the south Mon-Khmer languages did, in the North as Ruc, Muong, Viet, Ksing Mul or use affixes to nominalize it as such selection using the nouns denoting “hamlet, village” with of the north Mon-Khmer languages. Similarly, in preceded element being consonant k- (kaBêl1, order to turn “circular” into a verb denoting quêl / quên, quê, kẻ, col). In my opinion, this k- circular action or motion they must join to it factor primitive could be a noun denoting things causative affixes (a-, pa-, ta-, ka-, ku-, sa- …), as (like ke4 “what (article)” of the Ruc, cái “general the choice of most Mon-Khmer languages in the things” of the Viet, etc.), was joined into the rest table. of words, and later became blear to turn into affixe. As we all know, the origin of affixes in The linguistic evidences above are compatible languages are usually independent words used with the ethnographic and archaeological to organize compound words. Over time, the documentaries of the circular habitations of many independent words were shortened and closely Mon-Khmer linguistic-ethnic groups. In the tied to the roots and became affixes. That community organization culture of the native situation could have occurred for affixes *k-, *ka- ethnic groups in the Central Mountains and in the nouns denoting “hamlet, village” (kaBêl1, Hightlands in Vietnam (Truong Son - Tay

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Nguyen), buôn “hamlet” is a fundamental taken from the name of the clan Hok settled community organization form. Each buôn there. “hamlet” is a residential unit and an autonomous, defensive unit, developed from the primitive clan In the Central Highlands of Viernam, until commune, has its own autonomous apparatus recently, each of the hamlets/villages of the Mon- consisting of hamlet master, landowner, shaman, Khmer ethnic groups only consists of one or oracle, patriarches and hamlet elders, who self- several family lines. Consequently, some ethnic regulate relations and resolve issues arising groups have custom in which family name is under customary. On the survey field, according used as village name, and village name become to the ethnographic materials, traditional hamlets family name. Due to strong influence of the of the Bru, Ta-oih and Katu, who reside in ethnic groups of Austronesian linguistic family, Central - South Laos and Central Vietnam, are circular inhabited forms of the Mon-Khmer ethnic round or oval. Their housings, mostly small peoples barely a trace in the Central Highlands. patrilineal families, are arranged around a wide However, in the provinces of Kompong Cham beach, gyrate a community house (dống chống, (Cambodia), Binh Phuoc, Tay Ninh (Vietnam), roong, khoan, gươl) in the center. Around the where the ethnic groups of Mnong, Stieng, Ma hamlets there are ringfences, where people get inhabit, there are not less than 24 circular in and out through the public gates. This is a earthen battlements remained. Those relics were typical defensive hamlet of the Mon-Khmer found from the year of 1930 by the archaeologist ethnic groups in the North Central Mountains Louis Malleret (1901-1970) of the École française (Truong Son Bac) in Vietnam [2]. Only in areas d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO), and were researched where the terrain is not suitable or for some by the archaeologists from the Southern Institute hamlets built in recent years, that residential form of Social Sciences (SISS) in Vietnam [4,5,6,7,8]. omitted in order to layout housings along the In the year of 1958, Louis Malleret described and roads, rivers, streams, and hillsides. As for the mapped the distribution of 18 monuments, Bru people, according to the ethnographic including 17 round relics excavated earth, materials [3] and according to my fieldwork including 12 sites in Binh Phuoc and 5 sites in survey, original vil “hamlet, village” was the Kompong Cham. They all have form of 2 residential form of the muôi tăng “clan”. Every vil concentric earthen battlement rings, about 100 m had more or less twenty families of the same – 200 m in diameter, aiming to defense [9]. In the lineage, living clustered together. Each muôi tăng year of 1962, in Kompong Cham, Bernard- had a dống chống “house-common” built by all Philippe Groslier (1926-1986) unearthed the relic clan or that was the house of patriarch (ariêih of Mimot, which is 200 m in diameter, has two tăng, yống asĩauq, suôt). Because vil is the doors, 3 m thick cultural floor consisting of 14 residential form of clan or expanded clan, in layers; and collected 1,000 stone artifacts, some areas the patriarch also concurrently hold 20,000 pieces of pottery. Groslier called it “Mimot the chief official positions in the autonomous culture” and said that it is the most important apparatus of vil: suôt vil “hamlet master”, suôt Neolithic sites in Southeast Asia [10]. By 1999- kutễq “landowner”, riêih sữq parnai “judge”. 2000, the Center for Archaeological Studies of Perhaps so, these positions are under father-to- the Southern Institute of Social Sciences son, older-brother-dies-younger-one-replace conducted a large-scale survey, discovered and regime. Later, due to the muôi tăng expanded re-discovered a total of 18 circle earthen sites in more and coexist with each other, each vil the province of Binh Phước. In particular, they usually has many muôi tăng, blood relations in vil carried out a large-scale excavation at the ruins are fainter neighborly relations, and the vil are of An Khuong in An Khuong Commune in Binh often no longer in a circle. To present day, Long District. The monument has 265m (east - however, Bru people still follow habits in which west) diameter with two embankment rounds brothers of a family, lineage build their houses separated by a concentric moat. The monument near each other after the own wife, so lineal is concave in the center and has two entrances people often cluster together, convenient for symmetrical east - north and west - south. The conduct of common festivals. For example, at the west - south entrance is about 300m from a Huc Commune of Huong Hoa District, Quang Tri ravine. The east - north entrance overlooks the Province in Vietnam, there are 60 families 1km, wide and flat valley of An Khuong [11]. belonging to Hok lineage settled, not to mention 40 other families of the lineage went to settle in That is why the Mon-Khmer languages from Viet, Ea Hiu Commune, Krong Pak District, Dak Lak Muong, Ruc, Ksing Mul to Bru, Ta-oih, Katu, Province. The name of the Huc Commune was Sedang, Mnong, Koho, Stieng, use the

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adjectives meaning “round” to construct the Vietnamese is there a very large number of nouns denoting “hamlet, village”. adjectives, verbs and nouns of which the meaning component is “round”? That is because, 2.2 Origin of the Word Plây, Plâi “Hamlet, as the linguists and ethnographers pointed out, Village” of the North Bahnaric besides the original vocabulary Mon-Khmer, Languages Muong and Vietnamese also received the source of the Tay-Thai vocabulary since the northern The second question is not difficult to answer: branch of Proto Viet-Muong contacted with the The reason for languages of Jeh-Trieng, Sedang, Tay-Thai peoples in the midlands and deltas in Cua, Hre, Bahnar of North Bahnaric sub-branch Northern Vietnam to begin forming Viet-Muong to use a noun completely different from the Mon- group from about the year of 2000 BC. Khmer languages such as plây, plâi to denote Archaeological materials also confirmed that, “hamlet, village”, is that the minorities have about 4000 years ago, rice-farming tribes of the borrowed it from the Austronesian languages Phung Nguyen culture residing in the midlands distributed surroundingly: plơi of Jrai people and and deltas in Northern Vietnam have reached a palay of Cham people. high level in techniques of making stone tools and have known metallurgy of bronze. The tribes Since BC, the Austronesian ethnic groups followed primitive commune system, often lived following matriarchal family regime have been in on the high lands, the mounds near the rivers, the Central Highlands of Vietnam and have grew rice, raised buffaloes, cattles, pigs, caused profound customary and linguistic chickens, made pottery by turntable, etc. influences on the Mon-Khmer ethnic groups in According to the archaeologist Ha Van Tan [12], this area, especially in family mode, family form residents of Phung Nguyen culture may be and community organization form. Due to those consolidated results between some Proto Viet- influences, being different from the Mon-Khmer Muong tribes and ancient Tay tribes: neighbors in the Truong Son region, the ethnic “The Chut language in the west of Quang Binh groups of Jeh-Trieng, Sedang, Hre, Bahnar in Province and the Poong language in the west of North of Central Highlands are under biformed Nghe Tinh Province are the linguistic islands left family mode; their lineage relations, inheritance over from a block of Proto Viet-Muong which and marital relations do not lean on the side of widely distributed in former Area Four [North the father as well as mother. Their fundamental Central Vietnam] and possibly a part of the west residential unit plây, plâi is being held in the form of Truong Son Mountains. This Proto Viet-Muong of neighboring communes, which has the residents is likely to be the owner of the post appearance and names imitating neighboring Neolithic or the early Metallic monuments Austronesian peoples. The community houses somewhat near to the Phung Nguyen culture. (Bahnar: rôông), an institution of Mon-Khmer’s Several Proto Viet-Muong tribes immigrated to community organization retained by those ethnic the north as the Northern Plain was flooded. In groups, do not throughout exist in every plây, the midlands along the plain, the tribes contacted plâi. with the ancient Tay tribes at that time widely

distributing around the Hanoi Bay [delta of the In contrast, the community organization form bon Hong river today]. Proto Viet-Muong language “hamlet, village” of Bahnaric languages also gradually transformed into general Viet-Muong affected the Austronesian languages to create language. Perhaps the influence of Tay-Thai the noun bon “hamlet, village” which exists in languages is one of the factors which promote parallel with the noun plơi “hamlet, village” in Jrai that metabolism”. language, and to create the noun buon “hamlet, village” which totally replaced the noun denoting In the Tay-Thai languages there are a very large “hamlet, village” in Ede language. Part of the Jrai number of adjectives, verbs and nouns having a people nearby to the Bahnar people also has the common meaning element that are “round”, community house in every plơi. absolutely synonymous and uniform with the Mon-Khmer languages, with the reciprocal first 2.3 Acculturation and Creativity of the consonants alternating as V, W, B, P, Ph, M, Kw, Viet-muong Languages Khw, K. For example in Tay-Nung language: V, W: vẻn “bangle (wrist)”, vẹn “encircle (thieves)”, A secondary problem also need to be resolved: vện “(go) round, round (through), (road) around”, why is it that in the languages of Muong, vỉn “(Earth) revolve”, vín “turn (head)”, voỏng

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“circle (round)”, uổn “twist (body)”; B, P, Ph, M: So far, Bru people still reserve the noun kruang bản “village”, bủn “curl (lips)”, bỉn “curl (lips)”, pắn that refers to an ancient form of community “turn (clockwise), rotate, roll (rock), (pinwheel) organizations including many vil “hamlet, village”, rotate, (water) vortex”, phẳn “twist, twisted led by an ariêih kruang or tăng pữ i.e. “chieftain” (rope)”, mần “round”, mồn “round”; Kw, Khw, K: who was elected by heads of the group of vil in quằng “put arms around (the neck), crossed the kruang. If the noun vil “hamlet, village” is (back), (saying) around”, quằng “rim (hats)”, quẩy derived from the adjective vứl “round”, said on “stir (powder), stir”, quấy “stir”, queng “surround, the resident form aiming to increase the (go) round, (road) around”, quển “wind (turban)”, defenses of the muôi tăng “lineage” of the Bru khoảng “go round (foot)”, khoảy “vortex (top)”, days ago, the noun kruang is derived from the coóng “buckling (down)”, cuổn “roll, wind verb kruang “fence”, shows kruang essentially (turban)” [13]. This shows that the group of words was “allied clans”, form of link of many vil denoting concepts related “round, curve” may be “hamlet, village” in order to create greater the common group from ancient times of two defensive strength. Later, position of ariêih branches of the Mon-Khmer and the Tay-Thai kruang or tăng pữ “chieftain” of Bru people was and not merely the result of borrowing between replaced by Vietnamese feudal state with the two branches. position of lý trưởng (head of commune) to manage đầu mục (heads of hamlets, villages); Besides, next to series of adjectives whose also in Laos, it is replaced with position of phò general meaning is “round” as vành vạnh, vạy, bản, who manages ariêih vil (heads of hamlets, vẩn, (tròn) vìn, vòng, oằn, quanh, quăn, quằn, villages). Today, although the organization quắn, quặn, quẩn, cong, còng, xoăn, why does in kruang no longer exists, the noun kruang Vietnamese appear the adjective tròn “round”? continues to be used by Bru people to denote Precursor form of the tròn of the modern “country, homeland, region, country, nature”, and Vietnamese can be found easily in the medieval to create the nouns denoting higher community Vietnamese as tlòn in ancient dictionaries of 安 organization forms as kruang kutễq “country”, 南譯語 (Translation of Annam language, XV- dống kruang “land, country, rivers and XVI centuries) and Dictionarium Annamiticum - mountains, nation”. Lusitanum - Latinum (Annam - Lusitan - Latin dictionary, 1651) [14,15] and in different Viet- In Bahnar language, besides the words of lơm Muong languages as Aream: tlon, Ruc: pulông3 / hnam “family”, plây “village”..., there is the noun klon2, Muong: long, Muong Khoi: tlon1, all of them plang to indicate a level of community mean “round”. These forms are completely not organization including many of the villages. found in other Mon-Khmer languages. So there is Today, Bahnar’s villages have become only explanation: tlon, pulông3 / klon2, long, tlon1, neighboring communes including many small tlòn and tròn are the particular, specific forms of families belonging to different lineages. But the Viet-Muong, not of the Mon-Khmer in formerly, when kơtum “clan” of the Bahnar general. existed, the villages also were clan communes, so the unit plang was essentially “allied clans”, 3. LÀNG “VILLAGE” – SECONDARY form of community organization to link the plây “villages”. Currently, Bahnar people also use COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION FORM plang as a semanteme to construct a noun with more general meaning that is plây plang “co- 3.1 Mon-Khmer Origin of the Word Làng villagers”. “Village” in Viet-muong Languages In addition, ethnographic materials said that in The third question is, while quê and kẻ still exist, former times Bahnar people also set out t’ring, why does in Vietnamese appear more a noun which was a form of temporary military alliance that is làng “village”? In Muong language in gathering villages to increase the power in Thanh Hoa Province, there is also the noun làng combat. The t’ring of Bahnar people probably “village”. So where do the two words of làng were influenced by organizational form k’ring “village” come from? Currently, among our (also known as hrơm pít plơi), a coalition form of linguistic data collected through field surveys, many communes of Jrai people, formed in the precursor traces of làng in Vietnamese and century XV in Ayun Pa tableland, a vast and Muong Thanh Hoa were found in the languages fertile plateau in North Central Highlands of of Bru and Bahnar. Vietnam [16].

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3.2 Primitive Kruang, Plang, Làng: Allied Viet-Muong people were a part of Mon-Khmer Clans residents who cultivated fields in the mountains. In contact area in Northern and North Central of The above practical meanings of kruang of the Vietnam, the ancestors of the Viet-Muong people Bru and plang of the Bahnar completely had acculturation of the ancient Tay to transform correspond to the true meaning of làng of the to the Viet-Muong people, and found first rice Viet and the Muong in history. According to the agriculture in Vietnam in the valleys of Hoa Binh historian Phan Huy Le [17], a key feature of rural Province today. And according to the advance of communes in Vietnam at Hung Kings times (from deltas of the Red River, Ma River, Ca River, Viet- seventh century to third century BC) is: Muong residents expanded area of residence and rice cultivation to the entire midlands and “Besides neighborly, geographic relations, blood North Delta - North Central [18,19,20]. relations had been preserved within the communes. In the villages there were family lines In terms of forms of community organization, and many villages were named after names of as part of the Mon-Khmer inhabitants, the family lines as Hoang Xa, Cao Xa, Le Xa ancestors of the Viet-Muong naturally organized Dang Xa... Homeland of Mai Thuc Loan (century residence following hamlets (quêl / quên, quê, VIII) was Mai Phu Village (Thach Ha, Nghe Tinh), quê, kẻ) and villages (làng). However, in the means the mound of Mai family line. Homeland process of occupation of delta, because of of Duong Dinh Nghe (tenth century) was Ke demand for control over floods and protection of Dàng, had the name of Duong Xa Village (Dong their vast territory, the Viet-Muong people Son, Thanh Hoa). The above way of calling developed village structures to a higher level, by family line certainly appeared after the Hung forming 15 bộ “tribe”, and linking the tribes to Kings times, but the texture ‘both village and form a higher all that was nước “nation” family line’ or ‘village-family line’ existed from (Muong: tất đác “country”; Viet: đất nước ancient time. That is a type of rural commune “country”, nước “nation”). Confirmed by lasting combinated with family commune (or clan archaeologists and historians, around the commune), on the basis of geographical seventh century BC, based on wet-rice relations, blood relations were still preserved. agriculture development and brilliant This feature made the bond within the achievements of the Dong Son culture, Viet- communes becomes durable”. Muong residents have built the nation of Van Lang, the first state-nation in Southeast Asia in Thus, Viet’s làng, Muong’s làng in history were the midland and delta areas of the Northern - forms of community organizations which like North Central of Vietnam and Guangxi Province kruang of the Bru and plang of the Bahnar. And of China today [21,22,23]. In the year of 257BC, in terms of language, kruang, plang and làng Van Lang State was followed by the Au Lac may have the same origin, in which làng is the State, established by the King Thuc Phan (257- result of phonetic variant of a noun denoting form 208BC). By the year of 208 BC, Au Lac State fell of allied clans of Mon-Khmer residents, similar to and was merged into Nam Viet Kingdom of the kruang and plang. In other words, làng is a form King Trieu Da (208-137BC), a Chinese of allied clans originated from the Mon-Khmer, conqueror. Van Lang and Au Lac were carried and changed by ancestors of the constituent Hung Kings era in the history of Vietnamese and the Muong Thanh Hoa to suit Vietnam. According to Van Tan and co-authors the conditions of residence in the midland and [24]: plain after separating from the block of Proto Viet-Katu. “In society of the era of Hung Kings, the fate of individuals was tied to the fate of the teams. 4. NƯỚC “NATION” – SUPREME These teams firstly were villages. Villages were ADMINISTRATIVE - POLITICAL the basis of organization of the society in Hung Kings era. The villages were surrounded by ORGANIZATION ramparts of green bamboo. Rampart of green bamboo is the armor protecting the villagers 4.1 Consolidation of the Villages to Form against robbers and aggressors. [...]. From the State unity of all members of a village, the people of Van Lang nation and then the people of Au Lac According to the archaeologist Ha Van Tan and nation, has advanced to the full unity to people the linguist Pham Duc Duong, ancestors of the throughout the country to embankment flood

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prevention or to struggle against foreign ramparts were the village’s means of defense. aggression”. But mentally, it is also a means to preserve the culture, means of maintaining autonomy and During the period of domination by the Chinese solidarity of each village community. It can be invaders (111BC - 938A.D.), Viet-Muong said, in the period of Chinese domination, though residents suffered domination and assimilation the Viet-Muong people lost their nước “nation” plot of Chinese dynasties throughout the they still maintained làng “villages”. And the millennia. Starting from the administrative seat of community organizations of làng “villages” the administrative divisions, regions and districts helped Viet-Muong culture not to perish. Thus, of the invaders, the Chinese culture spread despite being conquered, dominated, powerfully, especially under the reigns of the suppressed by the military and forced Cinese governors as Xī Guāng (錫光 , “Tích assimilation, Viet-Muong residents did not lose Quang” in Vietnamese, Chief of Jiāo-Zhǐ District ethnic consciousness and undauntedness. Their in 1-5A.D.), Yán Rén (壬延 , “Nhâm Diên” in culture was changed but still remained. And by Vietnamese, Chief of Jiǔ-Zhēn District in 29- tradition of building nước “nation” from the period 33A.D.), Mǎ Yuán ( 馬援 , “Mã Viện” in of Van Lang - Au Lac, the consciousness towards common roots and aspiration for Vietnamese, Conqueror General in 43-45A.D.), independence have always actuated Viet-Muong Shi Xie (士燮, “Sĩ Nhiếp” in Vietnamese, Chief of residents to uprise whenever the opportunities Jiāo-Zhǐ District in 187-226A.D.), and Du Huidu ( emerge. 杜慧度, “Đỗ Tuệ Độ” in Vietnamese, Cinese Governor of Jiāo-Zhou Administrative Division in 4.2 Village - Nation: Typical Structure of 411-423 A.D.). Unlike the first phase of the Community Organization of the Chinese domination, since the General Mǎ Yuán Peoples of Viet-Muong and Viet recaptured Jiāo-Zhǐ Administrative Division (“Giao Chỉ Bộ” in Vietnamese, including After regaining sovereignty and restoring nước provinces of Guāngdōng, Guǎngxī, Hǎinán of “nation” at the beginning of the tenth century China, and North Vietnam today), the leaders (939 A.D.), the Vietnamese in the North and who supported the Two Queens (“Hai Bà Trưng” North Central remained clustered living tradition in Vietnamese, 40-43A.D.) against oppressive in làng quê “villages”. Each village is a rural Chinese rulers were exiled, hereditary regime of commune transformed from primitive patrilineal military chiefs was abolished, replaced by a clan commune, but lineage relations still existed direct ruler regime by districts, and the population beside neighborly relations: “family line inside, were managed according to the civil status. The village outside” (Vietnamese idiom). That made purpose of the General Mǎ Yuán was to kill the cohesion of the village communities becomes autonomous local system as well as the role of stronger. indigenous tribe leaders, replaced by a system of Chinese administrative and mandarins. Since Because the primitive village was resident forms then until the end of the Chinese domination, the of the family lines, the Vietnamese in North Delta delegations of Chinese immigrants and refugees and the North Central had practices using family after another pushed to the south, while the names to name their villages and add Xa or Gia, northern dynasties were constantly promote the which means “home” in the back: Nguyen Xa assimilation of indigenous peoples. Hoang Xa, Do Gia, Lưu Gia... Practically these Consequently, from the eighth century to the villages also had some family lines living tenth century, the part of Viet-Muong people in together, but in which there was a family line the Midlands and North Delta - North Central occupying monopoly or a majority, or a family Vietnam transformed into Vietnamese. line famous at that residential area. In O Chau Meanwhile, the part of Viet-Muong people in the Can Luc (Notes about region nearby O Chau) mountains under the influence of Thai culture wrote in 1553, Duong Van An listed 47 place (from the seventh century to the fourteenth names containing the word Xa “home”. By the century, the Thais migrated to the northwest and early nineteenth century, in North Delta - North north-central mountains of Vietnam), transformed Central to Ha Tinh Province, there were 586 into Muong people. place names in this category: 36 villages named Nguyen Xa; 35 villages named Hoang Xa; 23 However, inside the bamboo ramparts of villages named Dang Xa; 21 villages named Le villages, Viet-Muong culture has been preserved Xa; 19 villages named Cao Xa, Luong Xa, Ngo quite well. In terms of material, the bamboo Xa; 16 villages named An Xa, Do Xa; 13 villages

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named Bui Xa, Dao Xa; 10 villages named 5. CONCLUSIONS Duong Xa, Dong Xa, Pham Xa, etc. Since the ancient times, human have gone During Vietnamese feudal times (939-1883), through many forms and levels of different administrative organizations at grassroots level community organizations: Clan, clan alliance, (thôn “hamlet”, xã “commune”, thuộc “remote tribe, state, etc. One of the consequences of the hamlet”, phường “ward”, etc.) and intermediate process is the formation of ethnic groups when level (tổng “canton”, huyện “district”, châu members of each community to be self- “mountain district”, phủ “upper-district”, đạo conscious and unanimously protect the common “upper-district””, thừa tuyên “old province”, trấn elements affording their survival: survival space, “old province”, dinh “old province”, đạo “small economic activity, customs, language, etc. The province”, tỉnh “province”, thành “upper- development of organizational forms of the ethnic province”…) were imposed on the villages. Not communities, however, did not follow an isolated only that, the central government in many times and straight path but often through interferences, also wanted stripping off the autonomy of the borrowings, or the models imposed from the villages. In the year of 1242, the King Tran Thai stronger or more developed ethnic groups. Tong (1226-1258) set the position xã quan Therefore, the community organization forms of “commune mandarin”. In the year of 1466, the peoples today are separated very far from the King Le Thanh Tong (1460-1497) changed the roots to be reformated according to the models of xã quan “commune mandarin” into xã other peoples. That is very situation of trưởng “commune chief”. But after that the community organization forms of Mon-Khmer administrative organization at grassroots and linguistic-ethnic groups living in Vietnam and intermediaries were in turn altered or mortal, only South East Asia. the villages and the nation of Viet people are still enduring. The structure of village - nation has Applying the interdisciplinary approach, with become a characteristic of the community retrospective methods and achievemens of the organization culture of Vietnamese people in relating sciences as archeology, ethnography, North Delta - North Central and all the country. history, ethnolinguistics, etc, the author comes to The stability of the community organization a conclusion that is: the root meaning of the structure of village - nation has created a source nouns denoting hamlet in Mon-Khmer languages of strength for Vietnamese culture and will help is “round things”, because the vil, wel, wil, vel, to maintain undauntedness for independence bhươl, vi, bon, uan, bòn, bon, poh, văng, wăng, when their country lost sovereignty. kaBêl1, quêl, quên, quê, quê, kẻ, col primitively were residental forms in a circle or oval aiming Aware of the power of that village - nation defense of each clan. Originally each hamlet structure, in the period of occupation of Vietnam included only one clan. The root meaning of the (1883-1945), French authorities imposed the nouns denoting village in Mon-Khmer languages administrative organizations at grassroots level such as Bahnar, Bru, Muong, Viet is “fence”, (thôn “hamlet”, xã “commune”, thuộc “remote because their plang, kruang, làng primitively hamlet”, phường “ward”, etc.) and intermediate were associate forms of hamlets that clustered level (tổng “canton”, quận “district”, hạt together, through the exchange of marriage, in “arrondissement administrative, county”, vùng order to make up the defensive strength of the “circonscription administrative, area”, tỉnh village, limited by natural and artificial fences. “province”, khu “zone”, xứ “country”) on the Separately linguistic-ethnic groups belonging to villages. In order to directly manage people in the North Bahnaric sub-branch uses a noun grassroots administrative units, the French completely different from the Mon-Khmer authorities also conducted “administrative languages that is plây, plâi for denoting “hamlet, reforms of villages” in Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) village”, because these groups have borrowed it in the years of 1904 and 1921 and in Cochin-china from the peoples speaking Austronesian (Southern Vietnam) in the years of 1904, 1927 languages residing nearby. and 1944. By the reforms, the French authorities have deprived autonomous right of Vietnamese Today, the ethnic groups speaking Mon-Khmer villages, directly handled the right of disciplinary languages in Vietnam have a lot of terms treatment and dismission of village officials, denoting the various forms of community transformed them into henchmen. Since then, all organizations and administrative organizations. Vietnamese villages lost the autonomous right, But except for nouns denoting hamlet or village, and gradually disappeared [25,26]. the rest of the terms mostly were borrowed or

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