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Linguistic Minority Learners in Mainstream Education in Vietnam: an Ethnographic Case Study of Muong Pupils in Their Early Years

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Linguistic Minority Learners in Mainstream Education in Vietnam: an Ethnographic Case Study of Muong Pupils in Their Early Years Linguistic minority learners in mainstream education in Vietnam: an ethnographic case study of Muong pupils in their early years Chung Pham Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) The University of Leeds School of Education September 2016 - ii - I confirm that the work submitted is my own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Chung Pham to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © <2016> The University of Leeds and <Chung Pham> - iii - Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thank my first supervisor, Dr Jean Conteh, and my second supervisor, Dr Mary Chambers, for their extensive and invaluable guidance and endless encouragement in helping me progress through this study as smoothly as possible. The tireless academic support they have provided me throughout my time in Leeds has been amazing and their patience and empathy when tolerating my lagging behind the timeline due to personal issues has been no less remarkable. Their knowledge of when to give me a bit of a push and when to offer some space on this challenging journey has been tremendously appreciated and has been a great source of motivation for the completion of the study. Secondly I would like to thank the participants: the head teacher, the Deputy Head, all the teachers, the children and their families, for allowing me to carry out my research in the way that I did. For identity safeguarding, their names are not mentioned here but such names are forever imprinted on my memory. Last but not least, I want to express my gratitude to Paul Gilliland, who has been amazing with his proofreading skills and has been really patient when doing this for me. Special thanks also goes to my parents, especially for having stopped me from dropping out of school when I was 12 years old and had to walk 12 kilometres on the school journey each day. The hardship of this journey was tremendous due to us living in such a remote region. This thesis is therefore dedicated to all poor children in remote areas in Vietnam, whose journeys to school have always been extraordinary and challenging. I hope you stay strong and pursue your dreams, no matter how ambitious they may seem. As for me, I am here in Leeds and completing this study, which is something I never dared to dream of before, but I am here at last. - iv - Abstract This thesis presents a case study of some young linguistic minority learners in mainstream education in Vietnam. Using ethnographic approaches, the study focuses on some selected Muong-speaking children who experienced difficulties with learning in their first year of primary education. The study therefore aims to observe the process and situations in which these struggling children become categorised as ‘slow’ learners, and what the consequences are for these children. By employing an ethnographic approach, the study involved an extended data collection period, during which semi-structured interviews and participant observations were extensively carried out. Such an approach allows for an in-depth study of the perspectives of participants, as well as emphasizing the significance of the researcher identity. In this process, a careful collection and analysis of relevant documentation and participants’ work samples was also undertaken. The different layers surrounding these learners, both at school and at home, were observed and recorded. An analysis of observed lessons and samples of work from particular situations, identified in field notes, suggests that there are significant factors that may not be recognised in schools that negatively influence the learning of these children. The study flags up complicated issues regarding pupils at the lowest end of the learning spectrum, where changes in the education system may not be enough to adequately or effectively address their learning problems. Such issues challenge any potential developments in education policy by suggesting that socioeconomic issues may negate any attempt to improve the learning experience of economically disadvantaged linguistic minority children in some situations. The conclusion suggests that further study into the issue over a longer period of time would provide a fuller picture of the learning journey for children like those studied here. This also identifies the multifaceted difficulties that the education authorities in Vietnam face when addressing - v - educational equity for all groups of learners. Overall, the study offers an alternative perception when examining the underachievement of linguistic minority learners in mainstream classes, as well as exploring the extent to which a learning programme and/or an education system could be made more equitable and accessible for all learners. - vi - Table of Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................... iii Abstract ....................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................... vi List of Tables .............................................................................................. xi List of Figures ........................................................................................... xii List of Images ........................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1: Personal autobiography - Life experiences that shaped my research ideas ............................................................................... 1 1.1 How my interest in the topic started ................................................ 1 1.2 Early years and professional experiences ....................................... 4 1.3 Back to my ‘research problem’ ........................................................ 7 Chapter 2: Vietnam background .............................................................. 10 2.1 Country introduction ...................................................................... 10 2.2 Administrative system of education ............................................... 11 2.2.1 DOET’s and BOET’s responsibilities .................................. 12 2.2.2 Teachers in the competitive system ................................... 13 2.3 Education in Vietnam at a glance .................................................. 16 2.3.1 A monolingual system in a multilingual society .................. 17 2.3.2 The linguistic minority situation and the Muong minority group – the wider educational and national context in Vietnam ............................................................................... 20 2.4 Conclusion .................................................................................... 25 Chapter 3: Literature review ..................................................................... 26 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 26 3.2 Individual identity – similarities and differences ............................. 27 3.2.1 Identity ................................................................................ 28 3.2.2 Identity and education ........................................................ 29 3.3 Theory of learning in culturally diverse classrooms ....................... 31 3.3.1 Inclusion of diversity - connecting culture with education ............................................................................ 31 3.3.2 Inclusion in practice ............................................................ 34 3.3.3 Assessing young learners in culturally diverse classrooms .......................................................................... 36 - vii - 3.3.3.1 Children’s learning, language and development - what and how adults make sense of that .................. 37 3.3.3.2 When – What – How and Who? .............................. 39 3.4 Language in culturally diverse classrooms .................................... 44 3.4.1 The role of language in education ...................................... 44 3.4.2 Minority languages and mainstream education: a connection needed? ............................................................ 45 3.4.3 Bilingualism and bilingual education................................... 46 3.4.3.1 Bilingualism – the matter of rights and equality ....... 46 3.4.3.2 Bilingual education: concerns and arguments ......... 49 3.4.3.3 Bilingualism and special education ......................... 54 3.5 Education for All – language diversity and equal opportunities ..... 56 3.5.1 International trends ............................................................ 56 3.5.2 Regional trends .................................................................. 59 3.5.3 Vietnam context ................................................................. 63 3.5.3.1 Policy level .............................................................. 64 3.5.3.2 Bilingualism through monolingualism? .................... 65 3.5.3.3 Transitional model? ................................................. 67 3.6 Research Questions ...................................................................... 67 3.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................
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