BENDING BAMBOO: MORAL EDUCATION IN A NON-TRADITIONAL SETTING IN VIETNAM
Eric J. Buetikofer
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of The requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
August 2009
Committee:
Patricia Kubow, Advisor
Christopher Frey
William Wiseman ii
© 2009
Eric Buetikofer
All Rights Reserved iii
ABSTRACT
Patricia Kubow, Advisor
Vietnam is a country rich with culture and tradition. This thesis examines the cultural practice of teaching morality in a non-traditional school in Vietnam. This qualitative case study took place in a non-traditional school located in central Vietnam that caters to street children.
Findings from the participant interviews are discussed through the use of vignettes. The vignette themes include morality, citizenship, philosophical association, gender and one’s ability to be moral, bending bamboo and morality, morality and role playing, street children and moral education, learning and importance of language, learning English as a Second Language in the school, and debates and learning good citizenship. Each vignette is discussed using information from participant interviews and Western and Eastern moral education practices. Research for this paper has been completed utilizing educational and psychological theoretical literature concerning moral education and moral philosophy in conjunction with empirical studies conducted in Vietnam. iv
This thesis is dedicated to my wife Jessica Turos and my mother Kathy Buetikofer, who have
been supportive in all of my educational endeavors. v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my Thesis committee, Dr. Kubow, Dr. Frey, and Dr. Wiseman, for all of their guidance. I could not have completed this formidable project without you.
Specifically, I would like to thank Dr. Kubow for all of her patience and encouragement. I
cannot thank you enough for your willingness to read and give feedback on the numerous
revisions of my thesis. Dr. Frey, thank you for all of your assistance with the review of related
literature and methodological portions of this thesis. Dr. Wiseman, thank you for your expertise
and support.
I would also like to thank the participants and all my friends in Vietnam. Without your support and participation I would not have been able to start or complete this study.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, especially my wife Jessica and my dog Dakota who kept me company while spending long hours at my desk writing this thesis. Jessica, I would never have finished without your editorial skills and gentle prodding to finish this thesis. I appreciate all of your genuine interest and encouragement throughout this process. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………… 1
The Setting…………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Purpose of the school………………………………………………………….. 6
Courses Taught at the School…………………………………………………. 7
School Funding……………………………………………………………….. 10
Impact on Local Community…………………………………………………. 12
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE……………………………………. 16
The Vietnamese Education System…………………………………………………… 17
Vietnamese Identity and Moral Education…………………………………………… 21
Moral Education……………………………………………………………………… 27
Approaches to Moral Education……………………………………………………… 29
Moral Development Theory………………………………………………………….. 30
Role of Language on Identity and Morality…………………………………………... 41
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………… 44
Qualitative Methodology……………………………………………………………… 44
Case Study Research…………………………………………………………………... 45
Limitations and Validity……………………………………………………………….. 49
Participant Selection…………………………………………………………………… 53
Research Process………………………………………………………………………. 56
CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS…………………………………………………………………… 60
Morality and Citizenship………………………………………………………………. 60 vii
Page
Morality………………………………………………………………………... 61
Moral Education……………………………………………………………….. 62
Citizenship Education…………………………………………………………. 63
Philosophy Associated with Citizenship and Morality………………………………… 64
Traditional Morality and Socialist Morality…………………………………………… 67
Gender and One’s Ability to be Moral………………………………………………… 68
Teaching Morality……………………………………………………………………... 69
Street Children and Moral Education…………………………………………………. 71
Learning in the School………………………………………………………………… 72
Learning English as a Second Language and Morality……………………………….. 73
Student Attendance and what Learned………………………………………………… 75
CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………. 78
Morality……………………………………………………………………………….. 79
Citizenship…………………………………………………………………………….. 81
Philosophical Association…………………………………………………………….. 83
Gender and One’s Ability to be Moral………………………………………………... 85
Bending Bamboo: Morality…………………………………………………………… 87
Morality and Role Playing…………………………………………………………….. 89
Street Children and Moral Education…………………………………………………. 91
Learning and the Importance of Language……………………………………………. 93
Leaning English as a Second Language in the School………………………………... 95
Debates and Learning Good Citizenship…………………………………………….... 97 viii
Page
Driving Research Questions and Perceptions…………………………………………. 100
Moral Education Taught in Non-Traditional Schools in Vietnam……………. 100
How Moral Education is Being Taught in this School...... 102
What it Means to be a Good Citizen...... 103
Street Children and Good Citizenship...... 104
How Students are Learning to be Good Citizens...... 106
Students Contributing to Their Community...... 107
CHAPTER VI. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………...….. 109
Recommendations for Further Study...... 110
Concluding Thoughts...... 111
REFRENCES...... 112
APPENDIX A: HSRB APPROVAL...... 117
APPENDIX B: PARTICIPANT CONCENT LETTER……………………………………… 118
APPENDIX C : DEFINITIONS……………………………………………………………… 120
APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL…………………………………………………. 121 1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
This case study examined Vietnamese moral education in a non-traditional setting. The
study took place in a non-traditional school located in central Vietnam that caters to street
children. A street child is defined as a child between the ages of five and 17 who can often be found on the streets selling small items. Classes are taught twice a day, 6 days a week, in a two room school located behind a bar. Below is a quote from an adult student participant who
regularly attends one of the evening conversational English classes. She indicated that she helped
teach one of the beginner English classes for a short time. In one of her interviews she stated:
I know one student in your [the researcher’s]class. When I taught, he was a kid,
and his mother is really cruel. He have some burns in his ear, and I saw and I ask
but he didn’t answer but some other student in the class answer … that his mother
hit him or something like that and he blood. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
This participant’s statement is important for two reasons. First, it reveals an unfortunate
situation that is affecting street children in Vietnam. Second, this statement demonstrates the
common need for individuals to have their own conception of morality. Any response to this
situation would reflect an individual’s notion of morality and give insight as to what she has
been taught to believe is morally right.
The arrangement of this case study is as follows. Chapter I consists of the introduction. In
this section, the issues and driving research questions of the study will be revealed to the reader.
This section also will include defined terms used to clarify central themes used in this case study, as well as explaining the importance of the study. Next will follow an extensive narrative description of the setting in which the case study takes place. This setting description will
include relatively uncontestable data; much like what the reader would have identified had 2
he/she been to the research site. Chapter II contains a review of relating literature in which the
key issues being studied will be developed. The literature review, will present information
regarding Vietnam and the Vietnamese education system. Next Vietnamese identity and moral
education will be discussed,followed by an explanation of Western moral education. This portion
includes information on approaches to moral education, moral development theory, and the role
of language on identity and morality. Chapter III presents the methodology used during the
course of research. First, qualitative methods will be discussed in regards to this study. Second, information concerning case study research and how it applies to this study will be provided.
Third, limitations of the study and validity concerns will be addressed. Fourth, the participant process will be discussed. Finally, the research process from conception to finished research paper will be presented. Chapter IVconsists of the findings in which the key themes identified from the participant interviews are delineated. Topics discussed include: morality and citizenship, participant philosophy associated with citizenship and morality, traditional morality and socialist morality, gender and one’s ability to be moral, teaching morality, street children and moral education, learning at this school, learning English as a second language and morality, and finally student attendance and what was learned. Chapter V presents a discussion of the findings.
This discussion is expressed through the use of vignettes. These vignettes will help convey the participant’s responses to the interview questions, contextualize the responses, and illuminate the understandings participants hold about moral education. Each vignette utilizes a quote from one of the participants, and each quote will be analyzed using central concepts found in the review of related literature. A discussion of the driving research questions and how they have been answered will be also discussed.Chapter VI communicates the concluding thoughts of the researcher. In this section a participant quote will be revisited and further discussed. Following 3
this analysis, the limitations of the study are examined,and recommendations for further study
are provided. It is important to remember that all participant interviews were transcribed literally
and all grammatical inconsistencies found in participant quotes are intentional to fully represent
the voices of the participants.
The goal of this case study was to assess conceptions of morality and how moral
education is taught or imparted to street children who attend a non-traditional classroom. The
following case study demonstrates what was learned during the course for this three month
study in which the principal researcher was a participant observer who taught English at the research site. There are several research questions that have guided this study. They include:
1. How is moral education taught in non-traditional school settings in Vietnam, a socialist
state?
2. In what ways is moral education being taught in this school?
3. What does it mean to be a good citizen?
4. Can street children be taught to be good citizens?
5. In what ways are students learning what it means to be a good citizen?
6. In what ways are these students contributing to their community?
By answering these questions, the researcher assessed how street children who do not have a stable home life and do not attend formal schooling are gaining moral reasoning and what impact this has on their lives and on the community.
Definitions utilized in the course of this study include morality, moral education, and citizenship education. The researcher created these definitions and used them to clarify central themes for use in this case study. Morality is defined as socially acceptable, proper behavior and manners, and in other cases, as dominant ethical values that are generally shared by a specific 4
society (Ha & Que, 2006). Moral education is defined as education in which individuals are
taught what morality involves, what the various grounds for being moral are, and helps students to recognize and respond to ethical issues (Barrow, 2007). Citizenship education is defined as the striving of the state to instill virtues, knowledge and skills in all youth as a means to form adults who are prepared to participate in a society, and are knowledgeable of their responsibilities as
citizens of their own country (Doan, 2005).
This study is important to academic circles because it has the potential to add depth of
knowledge about moral education. Individuals such as Plato, Durkheim, and Kohlberg have
advocated for the importance and expansion of moral education. This study will benefit society
as a whole for several reasons. There has been very little research conducted in Vietnam that is
accessible to English speaking populations. The available research pool has become even smaller
when taking into account the more recent changes in Vietnam such as doi moi (renovation) and
the Education Law of 1998, which changed the structure and curriculum of the Vietnamese
education system. This study will add to the research completed in Vietnam since the Education
Law of 1998, thus creating greater depth and breadth of knowledge concerning civics and moral
education in Vietnam. This study also will benefit other societies that are attempting to improve
and adapt their own moral education programs by serving as an example of what is being done in
countries that have had previous success with moral education.
The Setting
This case study examines a small non-traditional school located on the central coast of
Vietnam. The school is located in the back of a popular bar that tourists often frequent. The
school primarily focuses on the teaching of English as a Second Language; however, basic
computer classes are taught when there is enough interest. These classes, as well as a lunch, are 5
offered free to the public. The target population for the school is street children, although the
school is open to the general public. Children and adults from all walks of life attend the school.
In order to understand why the school was started, one must first understand what a street child is
and what this identification means.
One of the participants from this study who is a retired American and taught at the school
four and a half years ago indicated that:
the strict interpretation [of] a street child….is a child who has came here at the age
of anywhere from 11 or 12 to 16 from a provincial area, a rural area frequently as
far away as Hanoi and sells postcards or vends on the street, or whatever, in order
to supply some money that they can’t get back where they come from and they
come down here because of the tourist as opposed to Hanoi, although you find
them in Hanoi also and other resort cities. (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher,
Participant 3)
For the purposes for this study, a street child will be identified as a child between the ages of 5 and 17. They can generally be found on the street or the local beach front. These students may or may not have parents, although in the researcher’s experience most of the street children come from broken homes. They are routinely removed from school in order to contribute to the family income by stealing, begging, and, more often than not selling, small items on the street, such as cigarettes, tourist maps, and food. These children are most often denied an education and robbed of their childhood due to their adult-like activities. The children often suffer from neglect, which includes physical, educational, medical, and emotional/psychological neglect. The researcher noticed that the most visible form of neglect exhibited by these street children manifests itself in the form of malnutrition. In some cases, these children are exposed to physical and sexual abuse. 6
One adult student who regularly attends one of the conversational English classes indicated that
she helped teach one of the beginner English classes for a short time. In one of her interviews,
she said:
I know one student in your [the researcher’s] class. When I taught, he was a kid,
and his mother is really cruel. He have some burns in his ear, and I saw and I ask
but he didn’t answer but some other student in the class answer … that his mother
hit him or something like that and he blood. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
Unfortunately this participant’s response brings to light the ugly truth of neglect and abuse that
many street children have to endure.
Purpose of the School
The original intent of the school as indicated by the owner was to help the street kids by
teaching them English and to combat pedophilia, but quickly extended to helping street children.
The owner of the school is a Vietnamese woman who had lived abroad for many years. She told
the researcher that:
In the beginning, not have any school at all, you know if they from a poor family
they have no school; they have to hang on the street to make a living. In the
beginning it’s just for the children and we give them lunch after class like to make
up the time they lost [for coming to class] because they go to make money on the
street and they come here and they give up for one hour and then again I always
want to give them lunch. (Female, Administrator, Participant 1)
One of the by-products of attending the school is a free lunch, which the owner provides to all
students who attend class. Initially, this lunch was free to the public; however, logistical
constraints have limited the lunch to those who attend class and the volunteer teachers. Another 7
initial purpose of the school was to combat pedophilia and create a safe haven for street children
to learn English. One participant indicated, “It is an effort on her (the owner) part to discourage
the children from allowing themselves to be victims” (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher,
Participant 3). Another participant said, “This school was organized for street children to teach
them something necessary for their life for how to prevent sexual abuse” (Female, Student,
Participant 7). This school also provides an outlet for the street children to safely come in contact
with foreigners from all over the world. This school gives the students a place to learn from
foreigners, as well as to come in contact with many different types of English accents. One
student participant indicated that “everyone come to practice English and they have [the] chance
to meet many foreigners who come from all around the world…and they have chance to show…our cultural traditions and… life of Vietnamese” (Male, Student, Participant 5).
Courses Taught at the School
This non-traditional school is centered on teaching English as a Second Language, and
throughout the school there are a variety of different ability groups. The teaching day is divided
into two class times that last roughly an hour and a half, one in the morning from 10-11:30am
and the second in the evening from 5:30-7:00pm. The morning class is divided into one to four
ability groups depending on the number of available teachers. The student age ranges are roughly
between five and 22 years of age. The main focus for the morning classes is fundamental
English. There is a full-time Vietnamese instructor that teaches the beginner classes, and, at
times when there are no volunteer teachers, the whole group comes to class that day. The owner
wished to make it known that in regards to the morning class:
We have Vietnamese class for the young children … many of them they don’t
speak or they don’t know how to read or write so … the basic priority is they have 8
to learn Vietnamese first before they learn English. (Female, Administrator,
Participant 1)
The evening class is coordinated differently than the morning class. This is due in part because
there is no full time teacher, and it relies solely on volunteer teachers. When no volunteer
teachers are available, two students that have attended more than two years take over the class
and work on fundamental skills. This class is predominantly adult students, ages ranging from 13 to 55, who wish to work on conversational English. Depending on the number of volunteers available, the evening class is taught as a singular group or broken into two ability groups.
There are several activities that are utilized in both the morning and evening classes. One
of the participants told the researcher that each teacher has his/her own private style when
referring to teaching methods (Female, Student, Participant 9). One of the more formal teaching
methods used for the beginner classes are workbooks. The students work as a class in small
groups or individually on assigned tasks from the workbooks. Other teaching methods include
completing crossword and word search puzzles in order to build vocabulary. Another popular
teaching method used with the more advanced classes is to give the students music lyrics or a
dialogue from a speech with words intentionally omitted. The students then listen to the song or
speech and fill in the blanks (Male, Student, Participant 5). For all student levels, short speeches
are sometimes assigned on a given topic. In addition, role playing is another popular activity in
which students act out parts of a play,either prepared for them or one that they created
themselves. Another popular activity includes debating. Some debate topics include abortion,
marriage and sex, capital punishment, and environmental responsibility. Community building games, such as activities that require students to work in small groups, also are played on a regular basis. 9
There are many English as Second Language skills taught to the students. These skills include fundamental speaking skills such as vocabulary, pronunciation, sentence structure, listening and comprehension, learning expressions, and public speaking skills. One student revealed:
when we learn English at school we are not very confident, we come here and the
method of teaching is very various, they teach us about English and also
important speech, how you can speak in front of an audience and …in this class
we can learn new vocabulary, and the vocabulary that is very hard now, but in
Vietnamese school we can never learn about that because our teacher have
limitation of speech. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
These students learn more than just fundamental speaking and everyday conversational skills.
They also learn about themselves, other professions, and cultures. One student stated, “When we come here we not only learn about English, we also learn how to live independently, about travel around the world and about culture. When we come here, we have a more open mind” (Male,
Student, Participant 6). These students also learn about different professions due to the fact that the volunteer teachers have varied backgrounds and include people working in business, medicine, theater, and education. They also learn about different countries and cultures. One student stated “I have many teachers from many different countries and each teacher give us many many knowledge about their countries their, culture” (Female, Student, Participant 7).
These students have a chance to build their conversational skills by learning and conversing with these foreign teachers.
10
School Funding
Funding for the school comes from a variety of sources. In the beginning, the owner of the bar funded the school from the proceeds of her own establishment. The owner then began to sell t-shirts and put up collection boxes around the bar. Bar patrons are encouraged to donate money in the collection boxes for use of the pool tables or Internet, and this money then goes to fund the school (Female, Administrator, Participant 1). Funding also comes from people who take interest in the place. One particular individual, a Danish woman, raised enough money to purchase the benches and desks, as well as the computers for the school (Male, Former
Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3). A number of years ago there was a large fundraising effort to remodel a community building to be used as the school. Unfortunately, this plan fell through and the money was then later used to remodel a portion of the bar to be used by the school (Male,
Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3). According to one informant,
There have been some suggestions that she doesn’t use all the money she collects
for the school. But at the same time, my impression is that she actually takes
money out of her own pocket rather than taking advantage of it. Because from a
year round basis, I think she spends more than she is taking in from those sources,
so I have developed a pretty high level of respect her. (Male, Former Volunteer
Teacher, Participant 3)
Monies for the school also are used to pay for supplies, such as printer paper, teaching materials, and general maintenance for the school. In addition, funds are also used to pay for the one full- time teacher for the morning classes. 11
The owner also has found other sources of revenue for the school, such as the NGO the
researcher used in gaining access to the study site. The organization connects individuals with
schools seeking volunteer English teachers. This organization offers teaching sites all over the
world. Individuals pay a nominal fee to participate in the program. The organization keeps a small portion of the fee to pay for their costs. The rest of the fee is then given to the owner of the
school and is used for lodging and amenities for volunteers with the organization, as well as
transportation from airport, bus or train station to the site. The rest of the money is then used for
the school to purchase needed materials.
The evening class took it upon themselves to start their own class fund, which is used for
a variety of things. Each student is asked to contribute 20,000 VND (≈ 2.50 USD) to the class
fund. When the fund is sufficiently depleted, then another collection is taken (Male, Student,
Participant 5). The class fund is used to purchase markers for the dry erase board and to purchase
small gifts for visiting teachers when they leave. The funds also are used for class excursions
organized by the class. One of the evening class students stated, “I want to tell you for sure that
ah [the owner of the school] does not force us to have class fund … it is voluntary to contribute
funds” (Male, Student, Participant 6). Another student indicated that the fund was started
because most of them are adults and can earn money. If any one of the students cannot contribute
to the fund because they are poor or there is a lack of money due to specific situations, then they
do not have to contribute at that time. Some students who are financially capable routinely
contribute more than the required amount, so as to help out those who cannot (Male, Student
Participant 5).
Impact on the Local Community
This school has many benefits for the local community, such as how learning English as a
Second Language helps the individuals attending the school and how this improves the 12
community English capacity, which is helpful for tourism. The owner of the school stated this
about the students and their benefits of learning English:
[Our city] has become a touristy town, by learning English it will help them to get
a better job or you know, overseas study some more, many of them want to go
overseas, they can have a chance to do or have a chance to work for a foreigner
company, they can earn more money, they can go and get ahead because if you
don’t speak English it’s difficult to find a good job. (Female, Administrator,
Participant 1)
Another of the students indicated that “English in Vietnam is not very good, so, if this class help us, it can impact everyone” (Female, Student, Participant 9).
The public schools in Vietnam have language lessons in which English is taught. One student revealed that “the teaching method of some teacher in [our city] is not good, especially
when they teach foreign language” (Female, Student, Participant 7). Another student made it
known that the way in which English is taught in Vietnam is not very practical because the focus
is on grammar, and conversational skills are largely ignored (Male, Student, Participant 5). This
same student made the following observation:
I think conversation is the first thing they should teach students, like me, when I
learn my mother language I learn how to speak good and then write and grammar,
something like that, however, most student …know the structure of a sentence,
they now grammar, however, they don’t know how to speak, how to express their
opinion. (Male, Student, Participant 5)
One of the problems with public school language lessons is that pronunciation and
conversational skills are lacking, due to a lack of knowledgeable English speakers. The 13
researcher noted that when teaching English the students had trouble understanding questions posed to them in English; however, when the same question was written on the board, the students understood what was being asked.
In this school, English is taught with a variety of methods with an emphasis on conversational skills. One of the students said, “I think it’s good for the local community because we can study more about English, and I feel relaxed when come to class and I get many knowledge and improve my English” (Female, Student, Participant 8). Another student stated that “this school help a lot of people especially poor people have a chance to study English without paying anything” (Female, Student, Participant 6). The owner indicated that the school has been open for nearly eight years, and many people in the community have realized that their kids can learn English better at this school than in the local public schools. This is due in large part to the fact that most of the teachers who volunteer at the school are native English speakers
(Female, Administrator, Participant 1). Another participant made it known that children here are obtaining an education that otherwise they might not be able to (Male, Former Volunteer
Teacher, Participant 3).
This school also impacts local tourism, which is a large part of the local economy. One of the greatest benefits of the school is that the students gain confidence in being able to speak with tourists. A student pointed out that “in this class we study with foreigner teacher, so right away we show to them how Vietnamese like and the ways of the Vietnamese people” (Female,
Student, Participant 7). Another student responded that:
When they [volunteer teachers] come here they learn, they talk to the local people
like me or some student at [the] school, they have chance to understand the local 14
culture, and some student can help the community to advertise the local image.
(Male, Student, Participant 5)
One student indicated that he often speaks with tourists about Vietnamese style and culture. He indicated that the tourists often point out that their opinion of Vietnam has changed after speaking with him (Male, Student, Participant 5). A teacher who had taught at the school four years ago revealed that she and her husband, while walking on the beach, often come across two brothers who were former students while walking on the beach. On one occasion, the boys told them that they try to protect foreigners by giving them tips on how to protect their possessions from being stolen (Female, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 4).
There are negative impacts on the local community as well. One former teacher indicated that:
A lot of business people in town don’t like what [the owner] does because they
say the kids go there and just improve their ability to swear at the customers and
demand that they buy things, and they can speak to them in English and be
insulting and that sort of thing. (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3)
Many of the students that attend this school use their learned English skills to continue to sell items on the street. At times they can be quite abrasive in their selling techniques. The researcher experienced this several times a day with one of the street booksellers who continuously swore and berated the researcher for not buying a book from him.
The following chapter consists of a review of related literature. This section first presents information regarding Vietnam and the Vietnamese education system. Next, Vietnamese identity and moral education are discussed. Following is a discussion of Western moral education,which 15
includes information on approaches to moral education, moral development theory, and the role of language on identity and morality.
16
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Morality has been a topic of interest for Western and Eastern thinkers. This interest in
morality and moral education has expanded and grown in modern times. Morality, the concept of
having morals, can be very complex. For the sake of brevity, morality will be defined as socially acceptable, proper behavior and manners, and in other cases, as dominant ethical values that are generally shared by a specific society (Ha & Que, 2006). Moral education in the classroom is important because schools remain first and foremost the fundamental sites for ideological education. Today there is a gradual merging of moral education with citizenship education in a
Western and Eastern context (Halstead & Pike, 2006). This can be attributed to several reasons.
First, both are concerned with developing students’ understanding of societies’ shared and agreed upon values. Second, moral education has the ability to adapt to rapid changes in society, for example in family life, work patterns, cultural diversity, media presence, the rise of terrorism, and social behavior. Finally, there is a realization that citizens have moral obligations; moral virtues and civic virtues are connected, and literacy has both moral and political dimensions
(Halstead & Pike, 2006). Barrrow (2007) indicated that within moral education individuals are taught what morality involves, what the various grounds for being moral are, and that some of the intrinsic advantages of being moral may be both for the individual and for society as a whole.
One point that must be kept in mind is that an effective moral education program does not necessarily result in better moral behavior by participants (Barrow, 2007). That being said, there is still a rise in moral education programs particularly as classrooms are becoming more culturally diverse.
17
The Vietnamese Education System
Vietnam is a culturally captivating country. This political state is unique because it
belongs to a dwindling group of communist countries. Vietnam is going through many changes
within the country as it shifts to a more open market economy. Political reforms, such as doi moi
and the Education Law of 1998, have helped usher in this shift. Even though there are many
changes occurring within the country, the Vietnamese are holding on to their cultural roots.
Vietnam places moral education as one of its top priorities because it aids in socializing
individuals into becoming good citizens and more importantly to the Vietnamese government
good socialist citizens (Doan, 2005).
Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia; half the state borders China, Laos, and Cambodia and the other half borders the Gulf of Tonkin, South China Sea, and Gulf of Thailand. Vietnam is officially known as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The country’s capitol is located in Hanoi.
Vietnam has an estimated population of 85,262,356 people and a literacy rate of more than 90%
(CIA World Factbook, 2008). The birth of modern Vietnam as a nation-state is often attributed to
the triumph of the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) in 1975 following the United States withdrawal from the country (Salomon & Kêt, 2007). Vietnam can be seen as a relatively young
country for two reasons. First, political autonomy and unification within the borders of the
national territory is new. Second, the majority of citizens today were born after 1975 (Salomon
& Kêt, 2007). Vietnam has a rich and often turbulent history that spans nearly 4,000 years and
can be examined by looking at the evolution of education in Vietnam.
Prior to Chinese occupancy in 111 BC, ancient Vietnamese education was developed on
the basis of realistic humanism, which focused on the representation of and appreciation for the
values of individuals, families, and society. This educational philosophy focused on nurturing 18
individuals who are moral, ethical, and who live for others (Ha & Que, 2006). During Chinese occupancy (111 BC to 939 AD) and the period following it (939 to 1854), the cultural and intellectual patterns of the Vietnamese society were strongly influenced by the Chinese philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Doan, 2005). In contrast, the education system from 1854-1945 was based upon French colonial assimilation policy. During this time period, present-day Vietnamese became the national language and the Roman script was introduced (Doan, 2005). During the following period 1945-1954, the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam experienced nationalist struggles with first Japan and then France for independence.
The period from 1954-1975, Vietnam was split into two opposing states experiencing two different education systems. The American occupied South experienced a mixed American and
French model of education. The North followed the Soviet model of education (Doan, 2005).
Following the unification of North and South Vietnam in 1975, under the VCP, education was characterized by a highly centralized management system and deemed by many as inefficient
(Doan, 2005). In 1986 during the sixth congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, the need for change was recognized and a process of reforms known as doi moi was instituted. This took place roughly the same time as the former Soviet Union was instituting perestroika.
The term doi moi in Vietnamese literally means renovation and refers to the process of pursuing an open-market orientation while maintaining the principles of socialism as interpreted by the Communist Party of Vietnam (Sloper & Can, 1995). The party leadership recognized doi moi as essential not only for the nation’s economic survival, but also for the necessary political and social renewal in order to meet the country’s development needs for the future (Doan, 2005).
‘Investment in education is investment for development’ was one of the guiding principles for the party leadership in administering doi moi (Duggan, 2001). The policy of doi moi is guided by 19
three fundamental aims (Boothroyd & Nam, 2000). The first aim is to shift from a
bureaucratically centralized planned economy to a multi sector economy operation under a market orientated system with state management and socialist orientation. The second aim is to
democratize social life and building a legal state. The third and final aim is to implement an open
door policy and to promote relations between Vietnam and other countries in the world
community in the hopes of fostering peace, independence and development (Boothroyd & Nam,
2000). The national education system also has undergone tremendous change since doi moi was
instituted and educational reforms have helped facilitate the emergence of a market orientation
(Doan, 2005).
Doi moi also changed the organizational structure of the national education system as well. The former national education system used until the mid 1990’s was divided into a four- tiered system consisting of: pre-school education, general education, vocational education, and higher education. This system was viewed as fragmented with general education consisting of primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary education. Vocational education was divided into lower and upper education as well (Duggan, 2001). The national education system today is comprised of four levels: nursery school, primary school, secondary school, and higher education
(Duggan, 2001). Vocational education is lumped with secondary school and is the usual route for those not going on to higher education (Doan, 2005). Another change to the national education system is that today secondary education is comprised of 10 subjects, no longer 13 (Duggan,
2001).
Doi moi further changed the way in which educational institutions are funded. Due to the doi moi education reforms, there has been a growing need for schools to serve the previously underrepresented rural populations. This need for more schools has led to a restructuring of 20
financial support for educational institutions. Today, financial support for the Vietnamese
educational system falls into four categories (Doan, 2005). First, public or state run institutions
are funded by the government. Second, semi-public institutions are provided with rudimentary
state funding. Third, sponsor-funded schools are created and managed by social organizations
and are excluded from state funding. Lastly, private schools are financed and administered completely by individuals or groups of individuals (Doan, 2005). Doi moi further changed the
education system with the implementation of the Education Law of 1998.
The overall objective of the Education Law of 1998 aims to produce fully developed
Vietnamese citizens. In the past, before the Education Law of 1998 was put in to effect,
Vietnamese education was managed by an ad hoc system in which decisions and decrees were administered by different authorities in concordance with their jurisdiction, and also by unwritten
practices that were developed over time (St George, 1995). When the Education Law of 1998
was passed it had gone through 24 drafts and contained 110 articles that cover, levels and types
of education, as well as the responsibilities and roles of students, teachers and the state in regards to formal education from primary to higher education (St George, 1995). In seeking to create good citizens, the law purposes to help students acquire morals, knowledge, good health, aesthetic sense, occupation, and loyalty towards national independence and socialism; and those who nourish personality and capability essential to fulfill the mission of building and protecting the country (Doan, 2005). The law also states that the content of education must place a strong emphasis on moral and citizenship education. The curriculum in turn focuses on character education, citizenship education and political education in primary, secondary, and higher education respectively (Doan, 2005). The 1998 law emphasizes its socialist character by 21
committing the national education system to advancing socialism in the country, as well as creating people who are socialist in character (St George, 1995).
The changes in education brought on by doi moi and the Education Law of 1998 have not all been in the best interest of the population of Vietnam. There are two areas in education that have become serious problems; namely the gap between the rich and the poor and quality of teachers (Toyama, 2001). Even though the average income of Vietnamese citizens had risen, many families still cannot afford to pay for school fees and other expenses such as school uniforms, transportation, and school supplies. Under doi moi the government subsidy for education has decreased and many students from poor families either cannot afford to attend school or have to work after school more often than not selling small items on the street
(Toyama, 2001). The general quality of teachers has been steadily decreasing. The average salary of a teacher in Vietnam is roughly 40 dollars a month, which is less than those working in manufacturing fields. As competent teachers leave to work in manufacturing there is a noticeable lack of knowledgeable teachers (Toyama, 2001). Teachers have begun to work in multiple schools throughout the day and are starting to offer specialized tutoring in order to make extra money. Under the present conditions, students are beginning to doubt their teacher’s capabilities
(Toyama, 2001).
Vietnamese Identity and Moral Education
Cultural national identity is the basis on which all other identities are examined. This gives individuals a sense of belonging and accentuates the sense of connectedness and continuity
(Ha & Que, 2006). In modern day Vietnam, national identity is inextricably linked to the
Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). The Vietnamese regime closely controls the definition of national identity formation through different avenues of political socialization (Salomon & Kêt, 22
2007). Vietnamese identity mainly relies on basic ethnic characteristics. Vietnamese-ness is usually portrayed as based on a specific and homogeneous ethnic identity. The Vietnamese have deeply ingrained conceptions of nationhood and believe that it is impossible to lose ones
Vietnamese-ness, and legally speaking, one’s Vietnamese citizenship (Salomon & Kêt, 2007).
As a result those who are foreign citizens can effectively return to Vietnam and assume life as though they had always lived there and are given the same rights as other citizens.
Schools remain first and foremost the fundamental sites for ideological education. Due to this, the VCP exercises very strong control over schooling in general and over national identity construction in particular. The state attempts to shape national consciousness through control over historiography and what is taught in schools (Salomon & Kêt, 2007). In school text books, the VCP is presented as the midwife of the modern Vietnamese nation. One interesting thing about the ‘red dimension’ of identity formation is that it draws upon the image of the golden age of the Vietnamese community and its communal lands. The influence of Marxist theory is clear; the golden age is seen as an idealistic vision of primitive communism, which in turn adds legitimacy to communist rule (Salomon & Kêt, 2007).
The teaching of national identity is conducted through four main subjects: history, geography, civic education, and literature and Vietnamese language. The subjects listed here are only taught in secondary school; however, many of the topics are highlighted in primary school as well as the addition of moral education as a subject taught (Salomon & Kêt, 2007). One of the key concepts taught in Vietnamese schools throughout all grade levels and subjects is moral education whether it is a specific class entitled moral education or found in other subjects such as civic education. 23
There are two different approaches to the teaching of morality in Vietnamese society,
namely traditional morality and socialist morality. Traditional morality is disseminated through informal channels of education, such as religious instruction and family education. Socialist morality is enforced through formal channels of the national curriculum and in various socialist activities (Doan, 2005). Moral education in primary schools focuses on character and personality building. In secondary schools, the focus is on citizenship education and emphasizing the idea of developing a good socialist citizen (Doan, 2005). The term moral in the Vietnamese context is very broad and refers to the practice, manners, and conduct of human beings in relation to each other. Moral education is also associated with standards of behavior and is viewed by individuals as right and proper, and is to be conducted willingly without interference of law (Doan, 2005).
The curriculum of moral education in primary and secondary schools, as with all subjects, is centrally controlled through the use of compulsory textbooks. For primary school, these textbooks are entitled Ethics Education. The textbooks used present ethics lessons in a variety of ways, which are taught through pictures, games, storytelling, rhythm and rhyming verse.
The lesson content falls into five main aspects: (1) matters relating to self,
character and personality; (2) relationship of self to other people; (3) matters
relating to nature; (4) matters relating to national identity and love of nation; and
(5) matters related to community and society. (Doan, 2005, p. 455)
For secondary school, textbooks are entitled Citizenship Education. In lower secondary schools, grades 6-9, the citizenship education content is similar to that of primary school with the introduction of the Constitution of Vietnam and the basic rights and duties of Vietnamese citizens. Basic areas of social policy, such as existing laws and socio-economic policy are taught 24
as well (Doan, 2005). Citizenship education in upper secondary schools or high school, grades
11-12, introduces philosophy and principles of Marxism and Leninism. The notion of fostering
the growth of a socialist citizen is strongly highlighted at this point in formal education (Doan,
2005). These subjects are not normally taught by specialized teachers. For example, in primary school this subject is usually taught by the teacher in charge of the class. In secondary schools, moral education is generally taught by the headmaster or the support staff whose main job is to
maintain the activities of the Communist Party unit located within the school (Doan, 2005).
An activity that is found in nearly all Vietnamese schools is the Pioneers organization.
This is an organization that is affiliated with the local youth organization and the local
Communist Party and is a good example that can illustrate the connection between moral
educational approaches and Socialist socialization (Rydstrøm, 2001). Within the organization
students, in grades 1st through 4th, are taught how to practice good morality in a course quite
literally called Morality. In grades 5th through 9th students are taught about morality through a
course called Upbringing of Citizens (Rydstrøm, 2001). Students who enter the Pioneer club are
encouraged to interact with older students and find a role model that will serve as a ‘bright moral
example’. At the senior level of primary school, students that understand moral standards and
have the intellectual capacity are selected to become a member of the organization (Rydstrøm,
2001). Younger students are then encouraged to imitate senior role models. Within the
organization, students are taught how to practice good morality (Rydstrøm, 2001). This
organization is much like the former Soviet Union’s Pioneer club and served the same function.
This practice of imitation of role models is not only found in the Pioneer club, but also
extends to the general classroom and home as well. Vietnamese pedagogical practices encourage
students to imitate good role models so a child can then learn about parent’s ‘love’ and how to 25
stimulate ‘harmony’ within the family. The child will then also learn how to show ‘respect for
the superior and self denial for the inferior’ (Rydstrøm, 2001). Students in the primary grades are
often encouraged to role play in the classroom. This role playing in the classroom is conducted
by dividing children up into various groups and having them mirror by imitating the functions of
a certain group in adult social life; such as construction workers, a family, a shop owner, and
doctors and nurses. They are then critiqued as to how well they imitated the persona (Rydstrøm,
2001).
Two different systems for teaching morality were mentioned previously, traditional
morality and socialist morality. Traditional morality is associated with a system of virtues and
values rooted in Confucianism. Confucius principles have had a long lasting influence on
Vietnamese culture, which emphasizes social order and the self improvement of human beings.
Under Confucianism, social order is maintained through the implementation of strict principles
of human relations, both in the family and society at large (Doan, 2005). Traditional morality and
social values are transmitted through a variety of mediums which include schools, the
community, and families. Socialist morality emphasizes the responsibility of the individual
towards the nation as a socialist society through the observation of socialist principles and
respect for labor. Due to the fact that the socialist perspective is viewed as the only philosophy of
life, socialist morality can only be transmitted through institutionalized channels, which are
formal, obligatory, and compulsory (Doan, 2005). Beyond traditional morality and socialist morality individuals are believed to embody morality.
In modern Vietnam, children are considered to be like a blank piece of paper and it is the responsibility of parents and teachers to socialize them or fill the blank paper. Successfully
‘socialized’ individuals are those who have learned to support the idea of ‘equality of the sexes’ 26
and who do not support any backward ideas that pay favoritism to the male lineage, which includes the tradition of patrilineal ancestor worship that places emphasis on male progeny
(Rydstrøm, 2001). The official position of the Vietnamese government is that male preference is
a practice that no longer exists; however, this is not the case. A son is presumed to be a vital
addition to any family because his body and blood is thought of as a link between the deceased
and the living members of his patrilineage. He is considered to embody morality, honor, and
reputation of his past and future patrilineage. To have a son is considered a family’s ability to
manifest good morality, and by having a son one can pay respect to one’s patrilineal ancestors
(Rydstrøm, 2002). Women are not considered to be able to continue their father’s lineage and
therefore do not embody morality honor or reputation. Men are considered to represent the inside
lineage (ho noi), while women are said to represent outside lineage (ho ngoai) because they
cannot reproduce their patrilineage (Rydstrøm, 2001). A woman, through gradual embodiment
(tinh cam), can demonstrate good female morality; by doing so she can generate good reputation and honor for her household. However, women also have the ability to lose this storage of reputation and honor by acting immorally (Rydstrøm, 2002).
In the primary grades, moral education focuses on matters related to character and personality, relationships with others, nature, national identity and love of nation, community and society. There is a fundamental shift in moral education during the middle grades (6th-8th grades) in which the focus of moral education begins to shift to national identity education. In the upper grade levels, there is a complete shift from moral education to what could be considered ideological education in socialism. The researcher believes there are several possible reasons for this shift in moral education. One may be that this shift is merely a reactionary measure to doi moi, which refers to the process of pursuing an open-market orientation while 27
maintaining the principles of socialism, in that the shift to a market economy is seen as a threat to socialist ideology. Another possible reason for the shift may be that the (VCP) is seeking to solidify and imprint itself as the right and true heir to the Vietnamese national identity. This shift may also be nothing more than a tactic used by the VCP to dispel the traditional notions of the patrilineal family and its views on the embodiment of morality.
Moral Education
John Dewey, one of the fathers of modern education, viewed morality and moral education as necessary and important. He viewed conduct and behavior as part of the backbone of moral growth. He distinguished three levels of behavior and conduct. First, behavior is motivated by various biological instincts and fundamental needs. Second, behavior or conduct is regulated by customs and standards of society. Third, conduct is regulated by standards that are both rational and social, which are examined and critiqued through personal reflection (Dewey,
1980). The importance of conduct and behavior permeates every facet of life and is usually cultivated in individual homes and schools. In the schools conduct and behavior usually falls under the domain of moral education.
There are certain criteria that Western thinkers believe are usually present in moral education programs. Barrow (2007) identified seven essential criteria of moral education. First, there is a need to teach students the meaning and nature of morality. It is a set of first-order, high-level abstract principles that ideally should govern all human interaction. Second, students ought to be taught that a moral person, a person of integrity, acts in accordance with these principles on his or her own volition, not for praise, out of fear, or under compulsion, and regardless of apparent or actual personal gain. Third, by reasoning from first-order principles there are more specific, second-order principles that students should understand such as: keeping 28
promises, being loyal, cultivating friendships, speaking out in defense of the good, showing tolerance, defending freedom of speech, not lying cheating or stealing, and not taking advantage of others. Fourth, moral education must include teaching students that discussion and decision making often involves conceptual work and should involve reference to likely consequences to moral decisions. Fifth, there are certain moral dispositions, such as kindness and tolerance, that should be developed in students and educators should exhibit as a model for example. Sixth, students must understand that not every act is either moral or immoral. Seventh and finally, intention is a vital ingredient in the conduct of integrity; and that moral conduct can only be so if behavior is engaged for a specific reason (Barrow, 2007). Barrow created these using a Western context. This in turn creates a need to examine moral education in an Eastern cultural context.
When examining moral education it must not be thought of as something that is explicitly taught by a teacher but also what is taught through day to day experiences of students in schools.
This day to day transmission of moral knowledge can be identified as the “hidden curriculum.”
The term “hidden curriculum” refers to the schools indirect means of helping students learn the norms and values of their society (Pai, Adler, & Shadiow, 2006). Elizabeth Vallance (1983)
indicates that there are three dimensions to the “hidden curriculum.” First, the term “hidden
curriculum” can refer to any of the contexts of schooling, including teacher-student interaction,
classroom structure, and the whole organizational blueprint of the educational establishment as a
microcosm of the social value system. Second, the term “hidden curriculum” can bear on a
variety of processes operating in or through schools including maintenance of class structure,
socialization, and values acquisition. Third, the term “hidden curriculum” can exhibit degrees of
intentionality, which can range from incidental and unintended results of the given curriculum to
outcomes embedded in the historical social function of education (Vallance, 1983). The term 29
“hidden curriculum” has also been linked to the idea of “lived curriculum,” which emphasizes the informal sets of practices that define the day to day experiences of students and often can assume much greater importance than the formal, subject matter curriculum (Pai, Adler, &
Shadiow, 2006). Kohlberg (1980) indicates that the term “hidden curriculum” also refers to the notion that teachers and schools are engaged in moral education without explicitly and philosophically formulating or discussing its methods and goals.
Approaches to Moral Education
There are two popular Western approaches to moral education that will be discussed in order to better understand moral development in students. These approaches include the character education approach and the cognitive development approach to moral education. The character education approach is one of the oldest approaches to moral education and incorporates
Aristotelian virtue ethics and psychological behaviorism (Althof & Berkowitz, 2006). The cognitive development approach to moral education has a more recent history and was made popular first by Jean Piaget and more strongly by Lawrence Kohlberg (Althof & Berkowitz,
2006). This approach focuses on the development of moral reasoning structures and progression of moral reasoning is usually described in the form of stages (Althof & Berkowitz, 2006).
One of the earliest advocates for the character education approach was Plato (Tappan,
1998). This approach has roots that come predominantly from a classical, traditional, and at times a philosophical tradition and is examined here in a North American context (Althof &
Berkowitz, 2006). Character education is difficult to define, due to the fact that it includes a wide range of philosophical orientations, pedagogical strategies, and outcome goals (Althof &
Berkowitz, 2006). In order to better understand character education for the purposes for this paper it will be defined as the transmission or indoctrination of a culture’s time honored values 30
(Power & Kohlberg, 1987). This approach utilizes stories and narratives to teach values and virtues to students. Proponents of this approach have adopted the traditional view that stories, myths, poems, and other narrative material provide powerful models for moral education
(Tappan, 1998). These tools in the character-education approach are seen as trusted because they are tried and true. The character education approach is being used in Vietnam today. Many popular cultural stories that have been used for centuries are now being published in popular collections, including comic books to make them more accessible to children (Salomon & Kêt,
2007). These practices are being used in conjunction with classroom lessons. They are also being used to supplement traditional morality education in the home.
The cognitive development approach to moral education is largely connected to and advanced by the theories of Lawrence Kohlberg. This approach supports an educational environment structure that encourages advancement in moral reasoning by increasing simultaneously awareness in perspectives of oneself and others (Richmond & Cummings, 2004).
As individuals advance in awareness of other’s feelings and thoughts concerning moral issues, they will naturally practice virtues that reflect awareness of and concern for human well being.
This is viewed as a necessary foundation of civil society and required for moral participation in a diverse global society (Richmond & Cummings, 2004). To the subscribers of the cognitive development approach morality consists of rationally constructed principles which apply to all cultures (Clark & Kohlberg, 1987).
Moral Development Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg is a leader in the world of moral education in the West. It is important to examine Kohlberg because he is one of the earliest moral researchers to look at the issue of moral development and his work is often used as the measure of all others that have 31
come after him. His efforts to measure degrees of moral reasoning have given birth to many new
systems of morality measurement, such as the Defining Issues Test (DIT) created by James Rest
and others using the research of Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
firmly embraces the idea that the developmental process, exhibited by people, occurs in stages.
His ideas, much like Jean Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development, are based on two fundamental assumptions. First, the developmental process takes place through the continuous
transformation from one stage to the next. Second, these stages are constant due to the fact that
the process of development is fundamentally genetic and biological in nature (Pai, Adler, &
Shadiow, 2006). Kohlberg (1980) argued that the purpose of moral education is the stimulation
of the natural development of the individual’s own moral judgment, which would allow one to
use their own moral judgment to control one’s own behavior (p. 72).
Kohlberg sought to measure moral reasoning by presenting individuals with moral
dilemmas and then classifying the justifications for their views according to his six stages on the
moral reasoning scale. He identified three levels, which included two stages each. These levels
are labeled as preconventional, conventional, and post conventional levels (Kohlberg, 1980). At
the preconventional level, individuals generally acknowledge cultural rules and labels of good
and bad, right and wrong. However, they typically prioritize decisions according to avoidance of
punishment or harm. The preconventional level consists of two stages, which include punishment
and obedience orientation and instrumental relativist orientation (Kohlberg, 1980). In the first
stage, punishment and obedience orientation, right action’s quality of being good or bad is
weighed against the physical consequences. The second stage, instrumental relativist orientation,
contends that right action is governed by that which satisfies one’s own needs and occasionally
the needs of others, assuming that others do the same (Kohlberg, 1980). In Kohlberg’s 32
conventional level, individuals exhibit a group perspective in which they seek to maintain the
expectations of the family, group, or nation. This level consists of the third and fourth stages, which include interpersonal concordance or “good boy—nice girl” orientation and law and order
orientation (Kohlberg, 1980). The third stage, interpersonal concordance or “good boy—nice girl” orientation, identifies good behavior as that which pleases or helps and is approved by others. This is usually exhibited by adhering to stereotypical images of what is viewed as the majority or natural behavior. The fourth stage, law and order orientation, indicates a positioning towards authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social order in which right action is
exhibited by doing one’s duty, respecting authority, and maintaining the social order (Kohlberg,
1980). In his postconventional, level there is a clear effort to define principles and moral values
apart from the authority of the group and the individuals own identification with these groups.
This level consists of the fifth and sixth stages, which include social-contract legalistic
orientation and universal ethical-principal orientation (Kohlberg, 1980). The fifth stage, social-
contract legalistic orientation, indicates that right action can be defined in terms of individual
rights and in terms of standards, which have been critically examined and agreed upon by the
dominant culture. Other than what is constitutionally and democratically agreed upon, the “right”
is linked with personal values and opinions. As a result, there is an emphasis on the legal point of view with the possibility of changing law on the premise of rational considerations and social utility (Kohlberg, 1980). The sixth stage, universal ethical-principle orientation, identifies right
action as the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles. These
principles are abstract and ethical and are not concrete (Kohlberg, 1980).
Kohlberg conducted a longitudinal study from 1956 through 1976. This study included
boys ages 6 to 16; he later supplemented his longitudinal study with cross sectional samples of 33
males and females. His qualitative study utilized an interview instrument known as the Moral
Judgment Interview (Gibbs, Basinger, Grime & Snarey, 2007). These interviews consisted of
moral dilemmas or value conflicts. Participants were given a specific scenario and asked probing questions, which were used to assess participants’ reasoning concerning the decision issues and values encompassed in the dilemmas. The Moral Judgment Interview dilemma assessment method was built on a stage scoring manual and scoring system (Gibbs, Basinger, Grime &
Snarey, 2007).
At first, Kohlberg believed that his moral stage theory was universal across cultures. His research in Mexico, Taiwan, and Turkey and that of others, most notably John Snarey (2007), had found that in fact his moral stage theory was not universal across cultures. Kohlberg even went on to propose his own revisionist model in which he acknowledged that his post- conventional level, including stages 5 and 6, are not universal across all cultural groups and even suspended stage 6 from his scoring manual (Gibbs, Basinger, Grime & Snarey, 2007). Cultural research in the Kohlbergian model of moral development suggests that the moral reasoning scale may also reflect the system of values and political structure of the societies of the researchers
(Rogoff, 2003). Rogoff (2003) also indicates that “responses to moral dilemmas in different communities fall at varying positions on the scale, with “lower” performance in communities other than those in which the scale was developed” (p. 222). It is believed that Kohlberg’s model of moral development generally applies to urban, middle class groups and includes gender bias
(Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga,1990).
Kohlberg’s stage theory has been tested by several researchers including John Snarey,
Carol Gilligan, Ann Heubner and Andrew Garrod, Dora Shu-fang Dien, and Hing Keung Ma.
James Rest designed the four component model of morality (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Rest 34
(2000), along with others, also designed a neo-Kohlbergian approach to morality research. John
Snarey (2007) conducted research on Kohlberg’s universality stage claims in 27 countries. Carol
Gilligan (1982) researched gender bias in moral education and conceptions of justice and caring in the United States. Ann Heubner and Andrew Garrod (1993) conducted research seeking to challenge Kohlberg’s universality claims by conducting research on moral reasoning among
Tibetan monks. Dora Shu-fang Dien (1982) conducted research on the Chinese perspective regarding Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Hing Keung Ma (1988) also conducted research on the Chinese perspectives on moral development in which Ma extended and revised
Kohlberg’s last three stages of moral development. James Rest’s four component model of morality identifies other processes, besides moral judgment, that are important to the production of moral behavior (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Rest (2000), along with others, also adapted
Kohlberg’s moral stage theory into schemas and identified it as the Defining Issues Test. These authors and their findings demonstrate the difficulty in comparing cross-cultural thoughts and ideas concerning morality. This will be discussed further after a brief discussion of each researchers work.
John Snarey (2007) conducted a critical review of 45 empirical studies of moral development carried out in 27 countries. His aim was to examine the evidence against or for the empirically testable assumptions implied by Kohlberg’s universality claims. He also examined ways in which the moral dilemmas and questions were translated and adapted to be used in different cultures (Gibbs, Basinger, Grime & Snarey, 2007). Snarey found preconventional and conventional levels to be virtually universal in all the cultures he studied. The post conventional level was much more elusive and Snarey was unable to find post conventional reasoning as defined by Kohlberg. This led Snarey to suggest a degree of cultural partiality (Gibbs, Basinger, 35
Grime & Snarey, 2007). Snarey identified a need for an expansion of cultural breadth in
Kohlberg’s stage typology and scoring manual. He found that Kohlberg’s standard issue scoring
system and manual had application difficulties with village or communitarian cultures because
they did not take into account non-Western philosophies or worldviews. He also suggested that
future researchers examine whether or not the Kohlberg’s dilemma method and associated moral
values are broadly applicable across cultures (Gibbs, Basinger, Grime & Snarey, 2007).
Carol Gilligan (1982) conducted research on gender bias and moral development
research. Her work championed the “feminine voice,” which had been largely ignored in moral
development theory. Gilligan believed that moral judgments of women differed from those of
men because she felt that women’s judgments are tied to feelings of empathy and compassion
(Gilligan, 1982). Gilligan proposed that morality as care is more prevalent in the female way of
thinking while morality as justice is more prevalent in the male way of thinking. She further
argued that gender identity for females is tied to attachment and intimacy and gender identity for males is tied to separation and individuation. She indicated that these conceptions on morality and identity are significantly related to gender, but are not absolutely dictated by gender
(Gilligan, Langdale & Lyons, 1982). Gilligan also believes that morality as care ties development to the understanding of responsibility and relationships while morality as justice ties development to the logic of equality and reciprocity (Gilligan, 1982). The researcher believes that even though Gilligan’s research is biased in a Western context the basic principles will still apply cross-culturally.
Heubner and Garrod (1993) conducted a study on moral reasoning among Tibetan monks utilizing Kohlberg’s model of moral reasoning. The researchers indicated there were two purposes to their study. The first was to test Kohlberg’s claims of universality in his model of 36
moral reasoning by observing its operation in a historically independent and non-western society.
The second was to examine the suitability for this model for representing the moral domain of a
Buddhist culture (Heubner & Garrod, 1993). The researchers found that it was largely difficult to
interpret the monks’ moral reasoning using Kohlberg’s scoring manual due to the fact that the notion of karma, a concept fundamental to Buddhist culture, was not utilized in the scoring system.
The Buddhist worldview is formed by two fundamental concepts: karma and
dharma. The former is the cosmic law of cause and effect, which explains that all
bad actions produce bad results and all good actions, produce good results. The
latter is the notion of duty and devotion and is the cornerstone of Buddhism.
Together they form the fundamental laws of existence and provide the context in
which Buddhist construct the moral world. (Heubner & Garrod, 1993, p. 171)
Heubner and Garrod also discuss the notion of compassion and detachment found in Buddhist culture. Compassion is seen as the ability to empathize with one another. Detachment can be viewed as divorcing one’s self of personal desires for permanence and immortality. However, it is more commonly seen as a detachment from the desire for personal comfort and material goods
(Heubner & Garrod, 1993). Heubner and Garrod found that the Buddhist concepts of karma and dharma as well as the role of compassion and detachment were not taken into account in
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development or represented in his scoring manual. They also found no evidence of post conventional reasoning, as defined by Kohlberg, within their sample
(Heubner & Garrod, 1993).
Dora Shu-Fang Dien (1982) contrasted Kohlberg’s justice based, individually biased,
Western notion of morality with the Confucian notion of morality that emphasizes a harmonious 37
interdependent social existence. She identified two different conceptions of morality of which
Kohlberg’s stage theory is based upon. They include the Judeo-Christian religion and Greek philosophy in which man is an autonomous being and must take responsibility for his own actions (Dien, 1982). Dien 1982 reveals that Kohlberg’s stage theory cannot work in an Eastern
Confucian philosophical context because they differ in that the Western perspective is
individualistic and the Eastern perspective is collectivistic or group oriented. The Chinese
maintain the belief that human beings are born with certain instinctive moral tendencies; the
most important of these is jen. There are various translations of this term, which include love,
benevolence, human heartedness, sympathy, and perfect virtue. Basically its meaning comes
down to a deep affection for kin rooted in filial piety and extended through the family circle to
all men. In a sense, an individual is expected to downplay his own identity to the interest of the group (Dien, 1982). The Confucian notion of morality also differs from the West in that the preferred method of conflict resolution is in reconciliation rather than in choice and commitment
as in the West (Dien, 1982).
Hing Keung Ma (1988) revised Kohlberg’s theory of moral development by extending and retooling his last three stages. The objective was to integrate the Chinese perspective, including Confucianism, Taoism, and common Chinese traditional thoughts. This researcher believed that Kohlberg’s last three stages of moral development, when expressed in different cultures, may need to be expressed in terms of culture-bound sub-structures (Ma, 1988). Ma indicated in stage four of Kohlberg’s theory that the Chinese tend to hold a very strong
collectivist perspective and that they are bound by group orientation and group conformity.
There is a soft attitude towards resolving conflicts; an involuntary kinship bondage throughout
the whole life span and their norms are usually ridged and inflexible (Ma, 1988). In stage five, 38
individuals generally hold an autonomous affective and self-sacrificing attitude towards the
nation or society. This stage also exhibits the belief that it is right to protect the majority’s basic
rights and happiness with a willingness to sacrifice one’s own rights, happiness, freedom, or life
(Ma, 1988). Ma indicates that in stage six, good will is a natural will that complies with nature
harmoniously. Individual’s principles are self chosen by a free and natural will. The Taoist
principal of non-evaluative judgment also is present in which everyone and every group is
treated as ethically neutral (Ma, 1988). Ma believes that these alternative stages may be
applicable to other oriental societies such as Taiwan, Singapore, and other Southeast Asian
societies (Ma, 1988).
James Rest identified four processes that are important to the production of moral behavior, which he designated the four component model of morality. These four processes
include moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character (Bebeau &
Thoma, 1999). Moral sensitivity is the act of interpreting a situation as moral and recognizing
that a moral issue is involved in a situation (Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). This indicates an
awareness of how an individual’s actions affect other people. More specifically, this involves
being cognizant of the different possible actions that are available in a situation and how each
action may affect one’s self and others (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Moral sensitivity involves
having empathy and role taking skills, being able to recognize cause-consequent of events in a
real world context, and having the ability to imaginatively construct possible scenarios (Bebeau,
Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). Moral judgment is the act of judging which of the available actions are
morally right or wrong (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999; Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). The focus is
on judging which of the various actions available are the most morally and ethically justified
(Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). This particular process is emphasized in Kohlberg’s work (Bebeau, 39
Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). Moral motivation is the act of prioritizing moral values over other personal values (Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). The main concern of this process is the question of why one should be moral (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). With this process it is important to acknowledge that individuals have many legitimate concerns, such as career pressure, relationships, and other personal concerns, which may or may not be compatible with the moral choice (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Moral character is having the ability to implement actions that serve the moral choice. This component represents the processes in which an individual formulates an appropriate course of action, exercises self discipline, and has the strength and courage to act on this action (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Bebeau, Rest, and Narvaez (1999) advocate for the expansion of the four component model and its use as criteria for successful moral educational programs.
James Rest (2000), along with others, also designed what they identify as a neo-
Kohlbergian approach to morality research. They created the Defining Issues Test (DIT), which utilizes schemas rather than stages as in Kohlberg’s theory. There are three identified schemas, which include the personal interest schema, the maintaining norms schema, and the post conventional schema (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma & Bebeau, 2000). The personal interest schema is derived from Kohlberg’s stage two and three. This schema justifies a decision as morally right by appealing to the personal stake the individual has in the possible consequences of the action
(Rest, Narvaez, Thoma & Bebeau, 2000). The maintaining norms schema is derived from
Kohlberg’s stage four. This schema has the following elements, (1) the identified need for generally accepted norms to govern a collective, (2) the need for norms to be applied across society, (3) the necessity for norms to categorical, uniform, and clear, (4) the norms are viewed as establishing a reciprocity, and (5) the establishment of authority and duty, chains of command, 40
and hierarchical role structures (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma & Bebeau, 2000). The post conventional schema is derived from Kohlberg’s stage five and six. This schema has the following four elements, (1) primacy of moral criteria, (2) appeal to an ideal, (3) shareable ideals, and (4) full reciprocity (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma & Bebeau, 2000). The DIT was a device designed using many core themes from Kohlberg’s moral stage theory. It is primarily a way to quantify and classify an individual’s moral thinking. The DIT is administered by reading moral dilemmas and issue statements, which activate moral schemas (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma & Bebeau, 2000).
The field of morality research is fragmented and can be hardly said to be dominated by any one approach (Rest, Narvaez, Thoma, & Bebeau, 2000). Kohlberg, Snarey, Gilligan,
Heubner and Garrod, Dien, Ma, and Rest, work demonstrates the difficulties experienced in the realm of morality research. The difficulties are even more confounded when attempting to apply these theories across cultures. Kohlberg is truly one of the first to attempt to apply moral theory across cultures with his studies in Mexico, Taiwan, and Turkey. His groundbreaking research has opened the field to many others who have attempted to either modify his theory or create their own. Snarey (2007) was one of the first to conduct longitudinal study in moral research across cultures. His work expanded Kohlberg’s research and showed his universality claims to be in need of more thought. Gilligan (1982) introduced the feminine voice to morality research, a largely ignored aspect that has affected the ways others have formulated their own theories.
Heubner and Garrod (1993) examined the difficulties in applying morality research to eastern
Buddhist cultures in their Tibetan monk’s research. Dien (1982) examined the Chinese perspective to morality research and introduced the difficulties in applying western thoughts to eastern collectivist societies. Ma (1988) applied and adapted Kohlberg’s moral stage theory in an attempt to assess moral judgment development in the Chinese society. This research 41
demonstrates the ingenuity of researchers to create and adapt new ways of looking at moral theory. Rest examined other processes besides moral judgments that are important to the production of moral behavior (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Rest (2000) and others also created the
Defining Issues Test and developed moral schemas in an attempt to quantify individual’s moral development. These researchers have created, built on, and improved moral research to accommodate cross-cultural analysis.
Role of Language on Identity and Morality
Language is a factor when attempting to examine morality from a cross-cultural perspective for several reasons. First, in order to teach or learn morality one must have the necessary vocabulary to explain and understand central concepts associated with morality.
Second, language is a factor that binds cultures together. To examine morality from a cross- cultural perspective one must be sensitive to the fact that vocabulary and grammatical ways of explaining and understanding central concepts associated with morality may be different or not exist in the culture’s language being examined. Finally, language is very powerful and for most is central to cultural identity. Halstead and Pike (2006) indicate that understanding ways in which certain groups of people speak and communicate is necessary in order to understand the identity of these groups of people.
Dien (1997) identified how worldviews and morality intersect. She indicated that that as individuals acquire their native language, they learn classificatory terms to label objects and living things, including human beings, and these terms shape the way in which individuals think about their world. This in turn creates a unique worldview according to the language individuals speak (Dien, 1997). Personal experiences contribute to the formation of one’s worldview as well, and as individuals live in communities, these shared experiences come to form a shared 42
worldview among like individuals within a given cultural-linguistic community (Dien, 1997).
The way in which people create and shape their views of morality and what they identify as morally right is intricately connected to an individual’s worldview.
Mark Tappan (1997) explored the idea of applying a Vygotskian perspective to moral development and identified language and culture as factors that play a large role in this. Tappan indicated that from a Vygotskian perspective, moral development does not occur in the same fashion, nor follow the same sequence, for all individuals around the world, but rather it is specific to unique social, cultural, and historical contexts (Tappan, 1997). He believes that
Vygotskian perspectives to moral development entail’s four central assumptions. First, moral functioning is mediated by words, language, and forms of discourse. Second, such mediation occurs in private or inner speech, most likely in the form of inner moral dialogue. Third, with language as the social medium, processes of social communication and social relations necessarily give rise to moral functioning. Fourth, given the fact that words, language and forms of discourse are inherently sociocultural phenomena, moral development is consistently shaped by the particular social, cultural, and historical context in which it occurs (Tappan, 1997). From this perspective, moral development is shaped by the language in which individuals were taught and how they identify what is morally right. This in turn is shaped by their gender, racial, cultural, and socioeconomically circumstances. Tappan (1997) also indicated that differences in moral development exhibited by members of different sociocultural groups are to be expected.
Tappan took his Vygotskian perspective a step further and utilized Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to describe the relationship between narrative and moral development. The zone of proximal development is the idea that children learn through their interactions with more experienced peers and adults, who assist them in engaging in 43
thinking that is beyond the “zone” in which they would be able to perform without assistance
(Rogoff, 2003). This is a process of guided participation in which students actively engage in
interaction and dialogue, and thus transform specific cultural practices (Tappan, 1998). Tappan
points out that the use of narrative not only expresses important dimensions of people’s lived
moral experience, but also mediates and shapes that experience in critical ways (Tappan, 1998).
This position suggests, while narratives play a critical role in shaping individual thought, and promoting moral development, the educational process where this shaping occurs does not take place by simply exposing a child to a particular story. Rather, it occurs through an ongoing set of social interactions, mediated by narrative, as adults and more competent peers can assist children in moving through ZPD and create higher levels of moral reasoning (Tappan, 1998). This approach of narrative and moral development creates alternative ways of factoring in the importance of language and moral development.
The following chapter includes the methodology used for this case study. First, qualitative methods will be discussed in regards to this study. Second, information concerning case study research and how it applies to this study will be provided. Third, limitations of the study and validity concerns will be addressed. Fourth, the participant process will be discussed.
Finally, the research process from conception to finished research paper will be presented.
44
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
Moral education, at best, is a difficult subject to teach in different cultural and situational
settings. This case study assessed how moral education is taught or imparted to street children who attend non-traditional school classrooms. Six main research questions were used to explore this phenomenon. 1) How is moral education taught in non-traditional school settings in
Vietnam, a socialist state? 2) In what ways is moral education being taught in this school? 3)
What does it mean to be a good citizen? 4) Can street children be taught to be good citizens? 5)
In what ways are students learning what it means to be a good citizen? 6) In what ways are these
students contributing to their community?
The researcher chose to conduct this case study in order to fulfill a graduate degree
requirement in the Master of Arts in Cross-Cultural and International Education (MACIE)
program at Bowling Green State University. The principal researcher is an American male with
a Western contextual knowledge of the issue being studied. Previous researcher experience with
living in Korea for 12 months and Japan for three months had given the researcher exposure to
an Eastern cultural context in framing this research study. This experience, however, does not
equate with an understanding of the Vietnamese culture just because of past experience with
other Asian countries. The three months the researcher spent in Vietnam did, however, create a
foundation for understanding Vietnamese culture and customs and aided in data analysis. The
researcher also conducted research on Vietnamese customs and culture prior to arrival to the
research site in order to gain a better understanding of the cultural setting.
Qualitative Methodology
This study is a qualitative case study with a focus on moral education. There are several
characteristics that are unique to qualitative research. First, qualitative researchers are primarily 45
concerned with the research process rather than the products or outcomes (Merriam, 1988). This
means that the researchers are more interested in why certain events take place and what
happens over time. Second, qualitative researchers are interested in the meanings participants
give to or associate with their experiences. In other words, they are interested in how people
interpret the world around them, the way they experience things, how they interpret these
experiences, and how they structure their social worlds (Merriam, 1988). Third, in qualitative
research, the researcher is important because he or she is the primary instrument for data
collection and analysis (Merriam, 1988). In this sense, the data are examined by the researcher
rather than a computer program or scantron reader. Fourth, qualitative research usually entails fieldwork. Fieldwork must be conducted by an individual or a group of individuals who go out into the “field” (i.e., setting, site, institution) in order to observe people’s behavior in their natural setting. This is important because in case studies research the researcher usually must become intimately familiar with the phenomenon under study (Merriam, 1988). Fifth, the findings from qualitative research are normally descriptive in nature. Researchers are interested in words and pictures rather than numbers to convey what the researcher has learned about the phenomenon under study (Merriam, 1988). Finally, qualitative research is generally inductive in nature. Qualitative research builds theories, hypotheses, or concepts, rather than testing existing theory. Building theory is important because with inductive research researchers hope to find theory that explains their data (Merriam, 1988).
Case Study Research
Creswell (2007) described a case study as a study in which an issue is explored through one or more cases within a bounded system. Case study is an apt methodology for dealing with critical problems of practice, and it can aid in extending the knowledge base of various aspects of education (Merriam, 1988). Stake (1994) indicated that a case study, as a form of research, is 46
defined by interest in individual cases, not by the methods of inquiry used. This case is of interest to the researcher; and, therefore, it can be identified as an intrinsic case study. An intrinsic case study is undertaken because one wants a better understanding of a particular case or phenomenon (Stake, 1994). In this particular study, the researcher was interested in moral and civic education in a cultural context other than the dominant democratic context of Western countries. For this study, the case is a non-traditional school in Vietnam designed to teach
English to street children. The phenomenon is the extent to which moral and civic education is being taught.
Sharon Merriam (1988) identified four characteristics of a qualitative case study. These characteristics include particularistic, descriptive, heuristic, and inductive. The first property, particularistic, indicates a focus on a particular situation, event, program, or phenomenon
(Merriam, 1988). This study focused on moral education and how moral education is represented in one school catering to street children in Vietnam. The second property, descriptive, suggests that the end product of a case study has a rich, thick description of the phenomenon under study (Merriam, 1988). In this particular study, rich description of the school setting is provided, so that if the reader were to go to this particular school in Vietnam he or she would come to many of the same conclusions about the school as the researcher. The third property, heuristic, means that the case study enlightens the reader’s understanding of the phenomenon under study (Merriam, 1988). Vignettes, which are used to convey the participant’s responses to the interview questions, help to contextualize the responses and illuminate the understandings participants hold about moral education. The fourth phenomenon, inductive, refers to the notion that a case study relies primarily on inductive reasoning. This particular study relied on inductive reasoning due to the fact that the researcher was a participant observer 47
within the school over a period of time (i.e., three months), which provided detailed insight to
the research questions underlying the study.
This case study is ethnographic and descriptive by design. According to Merriam (1988),
an ethnographic case study is distinguished from other forms of case studies due to its
sociocultural analysis of a given unit of study. This study is ethnographic in nature because it examines a particular group of people’s understandings of moral education and how moral
education is taught in the Vietnamese culture to a particular group of people. A descriptive case
study presents a detailed account of a certain phenomenon under study and is useful in
presenting information about areas of education in which little research has been done before
(Merriam, 1988). This study is descriptive in nature, as great detail has been presented on the
school in which the research takes place and in the participant’s responses to the research questions. Moreover, the study examined an area of education that has received little attention in
relation to not only street children, but also moral education found in socialist states.
There are several advantages to choosing case study research over other forms of
research. Donmoyer (2000) identified accessibility, seeing through the researcher’s eyes, and
decreased defensiveness as advantages in choosing case study research. Accessibility refers to
the fact that case studies have the ability to transport a reader to places where they may never
have an opportunity to go. Case studies allow readers to experience vicariously, unique
situations and individuals within our own and foreign cultures (Donmoyer, 2000). Seeing
through the researcher’s eyes simply refers to the fact that case studies allow readers to look at
the world through another lens and, by doing so, allow readers to see things they otherwise
might not have noticed (Donmoyer, 2000). As such, the reader is not necessarily viewing the
world through the researcher’s personal or distinctive perspective, but a perspective that might 48
be the intersubjective or shared theoretical perspective of a field of study or discipline. In other words, case studies can help readers who have little knowledge of a particular theoretical viewpoint come to understand that viewpoint (Donmoyer, 2000). Decreased defensiveness refers to the idea that a vicarious experience provided by a case study may be preferable to a direct experience, for a vicarious experience is less likely to produce resistance and defensiveness on the part of the reader to learning (Donmoyer, 2000).
The researcher utilized an international volunteer organization to gain access to the research site and to participants in Vietnam. The international volunteer organization provides opportunities to volunteer in areas such as English and information technology teaching, conservation, eco-tourism and community development. Founded in 2002, the organization’s headquarters is located in Thailand and caters to volunteer sites in 11 countries. The organization reports that all volunteer fees are used for running the programs and supporting different causes, such as combating pedophilia, in the host countries. The stated mission of the organization is to help develop education in developing countries and to bring people together to enhance cross-cultural understanding.
Due to the nature of the volunteer assignment, the researcher acted as a participant observer with an active, established role in the research site. Participant observation is when the researcher plays an established participant role at the scene studied (Atkinson & Hammersley,
1994). In this particular case, the researcher taught English as a Second Language (ESL) classes ranging from beginner to conversational English classes throughout the duration of the study.
The researcher spent three months at the research site. Arrival and departure of the researcher to the research site was framed by two specific Vietnamese holidays. The researcher arrived on site on September 2, 2008, which is Vietnam National Day. This is when Vietnam declared its 49
independence, forming the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The researcher’s arrival was
promptly followed by the Mid-Autumn Moon Festival and is traditionally held on the 15th day of the 8th Lunar Month, September 15, 2008. The researcher’s departure from the research site was on September 21, 2008, one day after National Teacher Day, a holiday which allows students to express their respect to past and present teachers. The school in which the research took place catered to the larger community and targeted street children as their primary population. The school was located in the back of a popular bar in the international district of a seaside resort town in Vietnam.
As a participant observer, the researcher was able to not only develop a strong relationship with the participants, but to also gain their trust as a competent teacher and
researcher. The researcher developed strong relationships with the participants. For example, the
researcher assigned a task during an English class he was teaching, in which the students were to
create and act out sketches. The researcher not only created his own sketch and went first, but
also played a role in several of the sketches designed by the student participants. This activity
demonstrated the researcher’s willingness to be an active participant to develop and enhance
relationships with the students. The researcher also developed rapport with research participants by attending outside class activities organized by the student participants. Rapport was also
enhanced by the researcher by sharing an afternoon meal each day with students from the
morning class and participating in several evening meals with the student participants after the
evening class.
Limitations and Validity
Limitations with any study can often be identified and assessed through validity.
Maxwell (2005) defines validity as the “correctness or credibility of a description, conclusion, 50
explanation, interpretation, or other sort of account” (p. 106). There are two types of validity: internal and external. Internal validity deals with reality and how a researcher’s findings match reality (Merriam, 1988). Limitations associated with internal validity may include researcher bias, reactivity, and reliability. External validity refers to the degree to which the findings of one study can be applied to other situations (Merriam, 1988). Limitations associated with external validity may include generalizability. Based on the case study nature of this research, the primary focus is on internal validity. Internal validity can be assessed by demonstrating how various threats, which might affect the interpretation of results, are managed in the research design (Eisenhart & Howe, 1992). An analysis of researcher bias, reactivity, reliability, and generalizability will be examined below. Following this, ways in which validity in a case study can be evaluated and assessed will be discussed.
Maxwell (2005) identifies researcher bias as a specific validity threat. Researcher bias deals with researchers’ preconceptions and their selection of data. In other words, this deals with how researchers’ values and expectations influence the conduct and conclusions of the study
(Maxwell, 2005). This is a limitation the researcher has taken into account throughout the research process. Issues that were identified were the fact that the researcher is a foreign male researcher with a Western contextual knowledge of the issue being studied. Previous experience with living in Asia gave the researcher exposure to an Eastern cultural context. This experience, however, does not equate with an understanding of the Vietnamese culture just because of past experience with living in Asia. The three months the researcher spent in Vietnam did create a foundation in understanding Vietnamese culture and customs and aided in data analysis.
Maxwell (2005) identifies reactivity as a specific validity threat as well. Reactivity refers to the influence the researcher may have on the setting or individuals studied (Maxwell, 2005). 51
The actual influence of the researcher as a variable cannot be eliminated. The goal in qualitative
research is not to eliminate this variable, but to understand it and use it effectively (Maxwell,
2005). Researcher influence in this study may include the fact that the researcher was a
participant observer and a foreign male. The interaction the researcher had as a participant
observer may have had an influence on the participants of the study in the way they interacted
with the researcher and the way in which they answered the research questions. The researcher
is also conscious of the fact that he is a foreign male researcher and realizes that gender does
play a role in how the participants interacted with the researcher. This is so due to the fact that the study took place in Vietnam, a patrilineal society in which men are afforded more respect
than women. It is quite possible that a woman conducting the same study would be treated
differently by the participants and attain different results. In the case of using interviews as a
means for obtaining data, as is the case for this study, what the interviewee says is always influenced by the interviewer and the interview situation (Maxwell, 2005).
Another concept associated with internal validity is reliability, or the ability for replication of the study leading to similar results or findings (Merriam, 1988). However, this researcher believes that strict reliability is a concept that is not-well suited to case study research. A case study is a snapshot of a particular phenomenon at a particular place and time, and events are in such a constant state of flux that replication is not possible. The researcher acknowledges that any attempt in replicating this study will not reproduce the same results
obtained in this study. An attempt to do so may result in similar findings but would be subject to
future events that may have an effect on any such findings.
External validity, as stated above, refers to the degree in which the findings of one study
can be applied to other situations (Merriam, 1988). This involves the question of how 52
generalizable are the results of the study in question. Generalizability is a concept that
researchers who conduct case study research tend to look at in one of two ways. One way is to
assume that it is impossible to generalize from a single case study and find it a limitation of the
method, or they attempt to reinforce external validity by using standard sampling procedures
(Merriam, 1988). Another way of looking at generalizability is through Robert Stake’s (2000)
naturalistic generalization. This is “arrived at by recognizing the similarities of objects and issues in and out of context by sensing the natural covariations of happenings” (Stake, 2000, p.
22). In other words, the reader comes to accept what is read, as if he or she had experienced them (Stake, 1994). Another way of viewing it is that, as readers become familiar with essential similarities to cases of interest to them, they establish the foundation for naturalistic generalization (Stake, 2000). It is this researcher’s view that naturalistic generalization is the best way to establish generalizability with this case study.
There are a number of ways in which validity in a case study can be evaluated. One way is through intensive long-term involvement, which can increase the chances of obtaining a more authentic picture of specific events and situations under study. Eisenhart and Howe (1992) indicate that
the internal validity of ethnographic research is judged to be strong when
researchers spend long periods of time in the field so as to get to know
participants, their views, and situations; when the researcher’s actions and
interviews are conducted in the idiom of participants; and when the researcher is
directly involved in the lives of those being studied. (p. 647)
In this particular study, the researcher spent three months as an observer, living and working with the participants of the study. 53
Another way in which validity can be assessed is in the collection of rich data. This is data that is thorough and varied enough that it presents a full and revealing picture of the phenomena under study (Maxwell, 2005). It is this researcher’s opinion that a full and revealing picture has been achieved because of the large amount of data gained from interviews with the participants, and because the interview transcripts were translated verbatim. An additional way of assessing validity is through the use of respondent validation or member checks. This is simply seeking feedback about data and conclusions from the people under study (Maxwell,
2005). This was done to an extent in this study when the researcher sought additional information from the participants during the second interview concerning key concepts discussed during the first interview. An example of this would include an instance in which the researcher asked one of the male student participants to clarify a statement he had made concerning morality and how it was different for males and females. This technique is particularly useful in avoiding misinterpretation of the participants’ perspectives and actions
(Maxwell, 2005). Yet another way that validity can be assessed is though the use of intersubjectivity or peer examination. Intersubjectivity refers to the way in which two or more collaborators agree on the same definition of a task and its setting (Jacob, 1992). After the data gathering was complete, the researcher constantly asked friends and advisors for their opinions on the research findings as they emerged.
Participant Selection
This case study is a within site study and consisted of qualitative sampling in which nine participants were interviewed twice over a three-month time span. The participants (four men and five women) were all 18 years of age or older and had verbal fluency in the English language. The participants constitute three different groups: the first being administration and 54
staff, which included the owner of the school and the full time teacher; the second being former
volunteer teachers, which are husband and wife; the third being current students of the school.
All three categories included a gender mix. Eight of the participants were Vietnamese citizens,
and one of the participants was an American married to a Vietnamese national residing in
Vietnam. The Bowling Green State University Human Subject Review Board reviewed sampling
and data collection procedures and gave approval for implementation of this study prior to the
research taking place (see Appendix A).
A brief discussion of each of the participant’s backgrounds, as well as number identifiers
for each of them, is presented here. Participant 1 is a 49-year old Vietnamese woman who runs a
bar with the English school located in the back, as well as an additional spa business. She started
the bar and English school 10 years ago. The school, with English as the language of instruction,
was started in order to help street children by giving them a safe place to learn English and basic computer skills, as well as to aid in combating pedophilia. English classes were later opened to the greater public in the form of night classes. She also holds a Bachelor’s degree in computer technology from a Canadian university. Participant 2 is a 51-year old Vietnamese man who has been teaching English classes at the school for over six years. He has a Bachelor’s degree obtained in Vietnam. Participant 3 is a 73-year old American man who is retired and now resides in Vietnam. He has a Master’s degree in Business Administration obtained from an American university. He is a former volunteer at the school and currently teaches a daily English class out of his home. Participant 4 is a 57-year old Vietnamese woman who is married to Participant 3 and is retired as well. She has a Bachelor’s degree in French from Vietnam. She is a former volunteer at the school and currently teaches a daily English class out of her home with her husband. Participant 5 is a 28-year old Vietnamese man who is a student and occasional 55
instructor at the English school. He has a Bachelor’s degree in technical engineering from
Vietnam and is currently an instructor at the local university. Participant 6 is a 23-year old
Vietnamese man who is a student and occasional instructor at the English school. He has a
Bachelor’s degree from Vietnam and currently works in the manufacturing field. Participant 7 is a 25-year old Vietnamese woman who is a student at the English school. She has a Bachelor’s degree in biology from Vietnam and is currently an instructor at the local university. Participant
8 is a 24-year old Vietnamese woman who is a student at the English school. She has a
Bachelor’s degree in biology from Vietnam and is currently working as a biology researcher.
Participant 9 is a 21-year old Vietnamese woman who is a student at the English school. She is also a student at the local university. Gender, group membership (i.e. administrative staff, former volunteer teacher, and student of the school), and number that the researcher assigned to participants is associated with participant quotes. Participant citations will be presented in this manner so as to best inform the reader whose voice is being heard.
Practical considerations such as convenience and availability, as well as purposeful sampling strategies, were used in selecting participants for this study. Purposeful sampling strategies used in qualitative research mean that the researcher “selects individuals and sites for study because they can purposefully inform an understanding of the research problem and central phenomenon in the study” (Creswell, 2007, p. 125). Several sampling strategies including criterion, convenience, and chain sampling were used to select participants. Criterion sampling indicates that all the participants selected for the study meet some form of criteria (Miles &
Huberman, 1994). For this study, all the participants had to meet three criteria possess: adequate fluency in the English language, be at least 18 years of age, and have some form of affiliation with the school. These three criteria may be viewed as a limitation of the case study and might 56
have limited the amount and level of rich data the researcher was able to gather. It is possible that other participant candidates that were not selected due to lack of English language fluency may have resulted in different data. Chain sampling, also known as snowball or network sampling, begins with the identification of a few select participants and then asks them to recommend other individuals who meet the same criteria to take part in the study (Mertler &
Charles, 2008). The owner of the school and the on-site full-time English teacher were contacted initially by e-mail addresses provided to the researcher before arriving on-site. Once in country, the aforementioned potential participants were asked for their advice in recruiting and contacting other potential participants. This process was also used to identify the student participants.
Convenience sampling is simply identifying sites or individuals from which the researcher can access and easily collect data (Creswell, 2007). Nearly all of the participants selected for this study fall in this category, due to their affiliation with the school.
Research Process
When potential participants were first contacted concerning the study, they were informed about what the study entailed and what requirements of them were requested (see
Appendix B). The participants were then given the researcher’s contact information, which could be used at any time throughout the research and after the research was completed. Participants were asked to participate in two participant interviews that were conducted in a place of their own choosing, usually in the upstairs school classroom. The duration of each interview ranged from 15 minutes to one hour. The first roundof interviews began in October 2008, and the second round of interviews ended in November 2008. The first interview was used to gain demographic and preliminary information on the study topic, namely moral education and citizenship education. The second interview was conducted approximately two to four weeks after the first 57
interview. The second interview was used to gain information on participants’ views of the
school concerning moral education and their involvement with it. It became clear to the
researcher after the first round interview that it was necessary to supply the participants with a
list of general definitions. These definitions included morality, moral education, and citizenship
education (see Appendix C). These definitions were created by the researcher and translated into
Vietnamese by a student participant and then cross checked by another student participant. This
was done so by giving the translated definitions to the second student and having that student engage in back translation of the definitions into English. They were deemed necessary by the researcher to clarify central themes for use in this case study. It is possible that these definition
restrictions can be viewed as a limitation of this case study and may have affected the results of
the study. In two instances, the participants were given both sets of interview questions due to
scheduling constraints.
Confidentiality of all study participants has been maintained by the researcher. This was
done by taking protective steps in storing and securing research material. All informed consent
documents and interview data were kept in locked files and will remain there until seven years
have passed, upon which time the files will be shredded. The digital recorder used to tape the
interviews was kept in a locked room when not in use, and the recordings were downloaded to a
password protected computer. All other data were entered into a password protected computer
and kept in a locked room when not in use. Participant identifiers have been used in place of
participant’s names in connection with the information collected for this study.
The participants who were selected for participation in this case study were asked
questions concerning their views of morality, if they thought street children could be taught to be a morally good citizen, in what ways students were learning what it meant to be a morally good 58
citizen, and in what ways (if any) the students of this school contributed to their community.
Those that were interviewed were given the same open-ended questions. A sampling of the
questions asked during the interviews included: “What philosophy (e.g., socialism, Confucian
thought, and democracy) has shaped your view of citizenship and morality?,” “In your opinion,
is there a difference between traditional morality and socialist morality?,” “In your opinion, are
the children in this school taught to be morally “good” citizens?,” “If you attended this school as
a student, what did you learn concerning morality and citizenship?” All participants were given
the same amount of time to answer the questions to the best of their ability. For a full listing of
the interview questions (see Appendix D).
Once the interviews were conducted, the researcher began to transcribe verbatim what the
participants said during the interviews. It is important to remember that all participant interviews
were transcribed literally and all grammatical inconsistencies found in participant quotes are intentional to fully represent the voices of the participants. The researcher took notes during the transcription process to also identify possible themes. The transcription process was started in
Vietnam through the course of the study and was completed once the researcher returned to the
United States. When all of the interviews were transcribed, the researcher read through each of the interviews twice, during which time themes and illustrative quotes were identified and cross- referenced with each of the participant’s transcripts. All of the themes were recorded in outline format and ordered by subject relevance. These themes include: definition of street child, purpose of the school, what is taught at the school, classroom community, funding, local
community, morality, civics, philosophy concerning citizenship and morality, traditional
morality and socialist morality, gender and morality, general teaching students to be moral, street 59
children and moral education, andstudent attendance and what learned. The subsequent
information was then used to report the findings of the case study.
The format and organization for this case report has been borrowed from Stake (1995),
who recommends writing the report using vignettes. “A vignette is a focused description of a
series of events taken to be representative, typical, or emblematic in the case you are doing”
(Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 81). Vignettes aid in formulating core issues for the researcher, colleagues, and the reader (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The format Stake (1995) recommends is as follows: The report should begin with an opening vignette and then move on to identifying the issue, purpose, and method of study. This is followed by an extensive narrative description of the case and includes relatively uncontestable data; much like what the reader would have come up with had they been there (Stake, 1995). This is accompanied by the development of key issues and a review of relating literature. Following this is the methodology section in which information regarding data collection and analysis is presented. After the methodology section there will be a discussion of the findings of the study and then a discussion of what these findings mean. The report then concludes with the use of a closing vignette and remarks (Stake,
1995).
The following chapter includes the research findings. Much of this information will be drawn from the second round interviews. Topics discussed include: morality and citizenship, participant philosophy associated with citizenship and morality, traditional morality and socialist morality, gender and one’s ability to be moral, teaching morality, street children and moral education, learning at the school, learning English as a second language and morality, and student attendance and what learned.
60
CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS
The following chapter includes the research findings. Participant responses to interview questions have been collated into categories the researcher feels are important to the research.
Much of this information will be drawn from the second round interviews.
Morality and Citizenship
The first round interviews asked general biographical information as well as how they would define moral and citizenship education. It became clear to the researcher after the first round interview that it would be necessary to supply the participants with a list of general definitions. These definitions include morality, moral education, and citizenship education.
These definitions were created by the researcher and used to clarify central themes for use in this case study. Morality is defined as socially acceptable, proper behavior and manners, and in other cases, as dominant ethical values that are generally shared by a specific society (Ha & Que,
2006). Moral education is defined as education in which individuals are taught what morality involves, what the various grounds for being moral are, and helps students to recognize and respond to ethical issues (Barrow, 2007). Citizenship education is defined as the striving of the state to instill virtues, knowledge, and skills in all youth as a means to form adults who are prepared to participate in a society, and are knowledgeable of their responsibilities as citizens of their own country (Doan, 2005). The researcher collaborated with one of the students whose
English proficiency was quite high and translated the English definitions into Vietnamese. The definitions above and the alternate Vietnamese ones were given to each participant before the second interview took place so as to ensure that there were no misunderstandings regarding vocabulary. 61
Morality
Participants were asked to define what it meant to be moral. Their answers varied from being short and succinct and long and well thought out. When this question was posed to the administrative staff, which includes the owner and the full time teacher, their answers were very short and concise. The owner indicated that there were “two kinds of people, good people and bad people … you do good to other people so you don’t want anybody to do bad things to you”
(Female, Administrator, Participant 1). The full time teacher stated that “moral mean[s] always go with your conscious action making a moral life” (Male, Administrator, Participant 2). The students seemed to give more detailed descriptions of what it means to be moral. One female student in her response gave two separate definitions in regards to gender. For males she responded:
A person that is moral, he is good, and he thinks that his action is good, and it
doesn’t harm or hurt other people … but moral is not only just to take care of
themselves, they must have something to do good for himself and other people
surrounding him. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
In regards to women, she stated “a moral woman is the one who always take care of their family
… when the husband dies a moral woman, a moral life, a mother will take care of the children especially their sons” (Female, Student, Participant 7). Another female student replied “a moral person is a person who has responsibility to family, community, and society, and they can know the difference between right and wrong” (Female, Student, Participant 8). A third female student when posed with the question stated “to be moral that mean[s] what is inside each person and if you have action you should have responsible about your action” (Female, Student, Participant 9).
One male student asserted, “I think moral is something useful for society for everyone in our 62
lives. For example, when I do something and I concern what I do I chooses something that is
useful for everyone” (Male, Student, Participant 5). Another male student stated “I think being
moral means that you always have good behavior in every situation, and you can satisfy yourself in a way that you don’t harm other people’s benefits” (Male, Student, Participant 6). When this question was posed to a former volunteer teacher at the school he indicated that it simply means
“to not hurt anybody else” (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3).
Moral Education
When asked to define what moral education is, one student answered, “You teach people about not lying you teach people about living in society and behavior and the way you live”
(Female, Student, Participant 8). Another student pointed out that “the teachers… give them some excitement so that they… something in their minds not imitate what other people say and that’s the reason that they can create something new that no one has had before” (Female,
Student, Participant 7). One of the male students revealed:
In Vietnam in class, teachers usually teach moral education by telling us the way
to become good, to be good, and how we can use our knowledge when we
graduate to be better society and to help people and moral education for me I
think ah is to improve many things close to our lives ah how can you can behave
… how you can become a good child to your family and the culture in the family
when you have job after graduation. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
One of the former teachers pointed out that moral education is when “you teach people to get along in society without hurting anybody else and hopefully to a minimum of damage to themselves when they’re too young to make good judgment” (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher,
Participant 3). Another former volunteer teacher stated, “I think moral education is live the way 63
of people know how to treat each other and most important is in public” (Female, Former
Volunteer Teacher, Participant 4).
Citizenship Education
Participants that answered what citizenship education means to them gave detailed and interesting responses. One student pointed out that “the relationship between morality and citizenship [is] very important; if you have good morality, you will become a good citizen and maybe you can give a lot of things for your country” (Female, Student, Participant 9). A former volunteer teacher stated:
I think that all countries want their residents to have a regard for their country,
and so to the degree that that’s taught in the schools, that would be citizenship
education, it can be as detailed as understanding the make up of the government
and how everything works or it can simply be a case of why its important to
support your country. (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3)
Another former volunteer teacher indicated that “citizenship education is… when you can make your country more beautiful inside and outside” (Female, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant
4). One student answered:
A good citizen is a man who know[s] how to take care of themselves and take
care of other people surrounding them … I live for myself and for my family too
and I live for other people. And if you meet some other peoples with troubles, if
you want to help them, it means you a good citizen. A good citizen also want the
place that they live more beautiful in the eyes of other people. (Female, Student,
Participant 7) 64
Another student replied that citizenship education is when “you teach people to love each other
and to help people when in a bad situation” (Female, Student, Participant 8). One male student’s
response indicated how the public schools teach citizenship education:
Schools in Vietnam emphasize …the things you must do for your country for
your government. For example, you could have good knowledge about … the
Socialist Party and you must be very strong and wise enough to distinguish
between good thing and bad thing. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
Another male student connected citizenship education with love for one’s customs and
culture (Male, Student, Participant 5).
The responses the participants provided concerning morality, moral education, and citizenship education were varied. The responses regarding morality revealed a number of themes. These themes include responsibility to one’s self, concern for family, and concern for community. The responses regarding moral education were similar to that of the responses regarding morality, with the added responsibility of bettering one’s
family and community. The responses regarding citizenship education revealed a shared
sense of duty to one’s country, with an emphasis on the betterment of society. The
researcher believes the themes regarding morality, moral education, and citizenship
education to be representational of a communitarian culture.Vietnam was in fact a
communitarian culture. Today the former communitarian culture is becoming fractured as
Western ideas, imported through the practice of doi moi, take root in Vietnamese culture.
Philosophy Associated with Citizenship and Morality
Participants were asked during the second interview what philosophy has shaped their
view of citizenship and morality. They were given examples such as Buddhism, socialism, 65
Confucian thought, ancestor worship, and democracy. There were four dominant philosophical
ideas that the participants indicated. They include the Golden Rule, Buddhism, Confucian
thought, and as one participant identified Ho Chi Minh philosophy. A former volunteer teacher,
who is American, pointed out that the Golden Rule has shaped his view of citizenship and
morality. This participant also drew a connection with the Golden Rule and how it is represented
in one form or another in every religion and philosophy (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher,
Participant 3). The owner of the school, who had spent 13 years living in Holland and Canada,
stated that her “Golden Rule is like never do anything bad for other people. You know, think
about other people like my self to other people” (Female, Administrator, Participant 1).
Buddhism was the most favored philosophy that students chose as being most influential in
shaping their views concerning citizenship and morality. One student stated:
I think that Buddhism thought has strongly shaped my view of citizenship and
morality because I am Buddhist like the majority of people living in Vietnam. I
am a Buddhist so when I was a child I knew about the theory of cause and effect,
and my parents my grandparents talk a lot of stories about cause and effect … the
price of what we do today we will have to pay tomorrow. So when I do
something, I always think about the results. Maybe I hurt one people and another
day another people will hurt me, so it is dynamic. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
Another student revealed that he does not subscribe to any one religion, but Buddhism has had
the strongest influence on him. He illustrated in Buddhism one must love their family and friends and must have nurturing relationships with their loved ones (Male, Student, Participant 5). A
third student did not use the term Buddhism or Confucian thought; however, his explanation to 66
the question was similar to remarks made by other participants who identified with Buddhism and with Confucian thought. The student stated:
I have a simple reason for morality and citizenship. You know, I was born and
grew up, here so I love my friends, I love my family, and I love every beautiful
scenery in my country. I enjoy every day with them, and I enjoy everywhere that I
have been to with my friends. When I was a child, so I always feel responsibility
to grow up into a good citizen to defend my country and to build up my country
because when I do that I can make a good environment and a peaceful life for my
family and my friends. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
A former volunteer teacher responded that she identifies with Confucian thought. She stated,
“Before 1975 my parents taught me the way of Confucian thought, but now the young generation of Communist[s] they are so different, ah different in many ways from the way of politicking and form the way of society” (Female, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 4). One student answered that the philosophy of Ho Chi Minh has shaped her views of citizenship and morality the most because that is what she was taught in school (Female, Student, Participant 9).
There were four dominant philosophical ideas associated with citizenship and morality communicated by the participants. These philosophical ideas include the Golden Rule,
Buddhism, Confucian thought, and as one participant identified Ho Chi Minh philosophy. Those who associated with the Golden Rule had spent time living abroad. Those who associated with
Buddhism and Confucian thought included the student participants and one former volunteer teacher. Their responses reflect religious and philosophical ideas associated with citizenship and morality. The lone student participant who identified with Ho Chi Minh philosophy was the youngest participant and is still attending school.This identification of Ho Chi Minh philosophy 67
may be due to a university class that all students are required to take entitled “Philosophy” in
which Ho Chi Minh philosophy is taught.
Traditional Morality and Socialist Morality
Participants were asked if they thought there was a difference between traditional
morality and socialist morality. One student simply stated that “traditional morality is more
serious than socialist morality” (Female, Student, Participant 8). Another student replied that there is a difference and that “today socialist morality focuses on the love of their country [and] the love of the people to their country and the Socialist Party” (Female, Student, Participant 7).
She also stated that “traditional morality and socialist have something same same, it’s in the way we behave with our family, the way we behave with our neighbor, and the way we behave with ourselves” (Female, Student, Participant 7). Another student revealed that traditional morality and socialist morality were the same in his opinion; however, he was taught that “socialist morality is different from traditional morality in terms of a political standpoint your loyalty to your country and something … related to defense your country when invaded by another country” (Male, Student, Participant 6).
Participants were asked if there was a difference between traditional morality and socialist morality in order to determine if there was a difference between formal and informal conceptions of morality. Doan (2005) indicated traditional morality is disseminated through informal channels of education, such as religious instruction and family education. Socialist morality is enforced through formal channels of the national curriculum and in various socialist activities (Doan, 2005). Participant responses indicate that there are differences, with socialist morality exhibiting a political dimension.
68
Gender and One’s Ability to be Moral
When participants were asked is there was a difference between males and females in one’s ability to be a moral individual, their answers differed. The owner of the school indicated that there is a difference and that this difference is seen in the view of males and females regarding marriage. Males have more expectation than females within the family because when a son gets married he continues on the family’s name and tradition. When a female is married, she essentially belongs to her husband’s family (Female, Administrator, Participant 1). One male student responded that he felt that it is easier for a woman to become a good citizen because
“women…they are much more emotional and most of them always care about their friends about many people around them, and they are most responsible than men, they are feeling responsible to their family more than a man” (Male, Student, Participant 6). A female student stated:
In my opinion males and females have the same ability to be moral, but in
Vietnam to call females moral is more serious than male[s]. Like for example, if I
go out late at night someone might say I am not a good moral person, but a male
come late at night he still a moral person. (Female, Student, Participant 8)
Another female student wished to make it known that “there is no discrimination between them and the difference between them is the way we are educated not their gender” (Female, Student,
Participant 7). Her answer was supplemented with an example that she and her brother were raised the same way and, therefore, share the same characteristics. She indicated that other individuals raised in different households may have been educated differently concerning how to be moral individuals (Female, Student, Participant 7).
Vietnam is a patrilineal society; as a result, participants were asked if there was a difference between males and females in one’s ability to be moral. This was done to assess if 69
gender preferences play a role in one’s ability to be moral. Participant responses revealed that
there is little to no difference in one’s ability to be moral. The difference lies in expectations
regardingthe way each sex is treated.
Teaching Morality
Teaching moral individuals is very complex, and there are many different ways to go
about it. The participants in this study were nearly all in agreement as to how to go about
teaching moral individuals. One student gave his answer with a metaphor:
Bamboo trees, when they are small, we can bend it every way you like however
when it grown you can’t I mean that when students are children … you should
teach them everything good, we should show them the good way to be kind …I
think it is better then when they are older. (Male, Student, Participant 5)
Four other participants indicated that in order to teach students to be moral the teacher must first be moral. One student stated that “firstly the teachers must be a moral person” (Female, Student,
Participant 8). This same student also pointed out that children should be taught to respect their elders and to take care of people. And as they grow older, they should be taught to respect not only their family but other citizens and society (Female, Student, Participant 8). Another student made it clear that “the teacher must be moral because the teacher is like a mirror for the student”
(Female, Student, Participant 7). She also advocated that illustrations be used in teaching morality:
The teacher must to give some situation so the student the children imagine what
happen and play a role in this situation and finally the student themselves have the
lesson, know the lesson by themselves why they should do this and what they
shouldn’t do. (Female, Student, Participant 7) 70
One male student indicated three things that must be achieved to teach morality. First, there is
the need for a good moral teacher. Second, the importance of morality must be emphasized.
Thirdly,
You should have a very effective way to help your student learn morality because
in Vietnam the teacher always tell student something very far from their lives, for
example you should [be] loyal to your country, you should [be] brave enough to
defend your country when invaded, but we are in peaceful time and these
examples are not practical. I think they should mention something close to the …
life of their student … for example when you see an old woman trying to go
across the street but she couldn’t, although you are very busy, but you spend a
little time to help her. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
A former volunteer teacher concurred that illustrations should be used to show how people are
hurt by others so that they can recognize how to be morally good (Male, Former Volunteer
Teacher, Participant 3). This same individual pointed out that “if children can be taught when
they are very young that they have more than their own personal little world at stake … they can
be better citizens you know they can cooperate more with other people” (Male, Former
Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3).
Moral education at best is a difficult subject to teach. The participants in this study were
nearly all in agreement in that, in order for students to benefit from moral education, the teacher
must first be a moral individual. Participants also indicated a need for engaging practices such as
role modeling. Another important factor identified was the need to make moral education
personal to the individual student.
71
Street Children and Moral Education
Participants were asked if they believed that street kids could be taught to be moral individuals. All the participants indicated “yes” they can, but it would be very difficult. One student revealed that she believed “they can but it’s very difficult because if you want to become
[a] good citizen maybe you have good foundation from your family, from your friends” (Female,
Student, Participant 9). Another student replied that street children’s ability to learn is no different than anybody else, but “their behavior is different, of course, because street children have difficulty in their lives so maybe their behavior is not good because they try their best and struggle for their life” (Female, Student, Participant 7). Yet another student stated “everything they know is from their life and maybe they know the bad things, but they don’t know they are bad things and so we must teach them … to be a moral person” (Female, Student, Participant 8).
One female student revealed that she was aware of many families in her home town that are very poor and that these families are more concerned about sending their children out to earn money for the family than teaching them morality (Female, Student, Participant 9). A male student answered:
Yes, I think it possible, but it [is] much more difficult than other kids because, in
my opinion, street kids have to face the reality of life when they are too young.
And when they go out, when they go to the street to earn their life, they are not
old enough to distinguish what is right and what is wrong. And if their fathers are
not wise enough to teach them [then] every day they can meet many kinds of
people and all kinds of people can have [a] bad influence on them. So, that’s why
I say it [is] very difficult to educate the street kid become morally good citizen.
(Male, Student, Participant 6) 72
One former teacher pointed out that there are many young teenagers that live away from their families in order to sell things on the streets and that three or four kids may share a single living space with no adult supervision, which makes it hard for them to learn what is morally right and wrong (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3).
All participants indicted that street children have the ability to become moral individuals.
They also were all in agreement that becoming moral individuals would be more difficult for individuals classified as street children as compared to those who are not. Their reasoning is that street children tend to lack a stable home life. They are often thrust into adult-like activities, such as selling items on the street, before they are mature enough to cope with the realities of life.
Learning in the School
Individuals who participated in this study were asked if they thought that the children being taught in this school were being taught to be good citizens. The owner of the school revealed that she does not have any regular classes that teach morality. She does have an employee that teaches Ti Kwan Do every morning and occasionally fills in for English class when there are no volunteer teachers and teaches them about right and wrong behavior (Female,
Administrator, Participant 1). She also sponsors a monthly trip with the students where all the classes get together and must learn how to get along together and learn how to behave (Female,
Administrator, Participant 1). One former volunteer teacher stated:
In life there are a lot of opportunities to … teach them how to be good student, if
we have a plan to, to help them, then I think we can do that with a second
language we can do that in the program. For example maybe one day we have a
picnic and they … play together, we divide into two teams and after two teams we
compete … they win, maybe they lost, they will have some good or bad behavior, 73
we can teach them and we should teach them. (Female, Former Volunteer
Teacher, Participant 4)
One student replied that learning English in this school is not enough in regards to teaching them what it means to be a good person. She believes that the students must first know their mother tongue so that they can understand what it means to be moral because you can tell a student not to use bad English or swear words but they may not understand why you should not use them
(Female, Student, Participant 7). Another student believes that students in this school are learning what it means to be moral through indirect learning. He indicated that when you teach a student to be on time for class, to turn the lights on and off at the beginning and end of class, and to be silent and respect other students when they are talking that they are learning how to be a good citizen (Male, Student, Participant 6). One student revealed that the students that attend the school are learning what it means to be a good citizen because they “have [a] chance to talk about everything they like and speak out their opinions and then they learn themselves. They are aware of topics and aware of what they keep inside” (Male, Student, Participant 5).
Learning what it means to become a good citizen in this school takes place in a variety of ways. One way in which students learn to become good citizens is through indirect learning or the hidden curriculum. This is done through learning proper classroom behavior to proper social skills during group outings. Students also learn to become good citizens through open discussion where they are encouraged to give their own opinions andto listen to others.
Learning English as a Second Language and Morality
English as a Second Language is not necessarily associated with learning what it means to be a good citizen, but, when asked if they thought that the students in the school were learning what it means to be a good citizen, the participants had much to say. The owner of the school 74
believes that the students are learning indirectly what it means to be good citizens through their
day to day lessons (Female, Administrator, Participant 1). A former volunteer teacher pointed out that “it would just be a matter of what the individual teacher would happen to have incorporated in their lesson the kind of illustrations or stories they use” (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher,
Participant 3). One student stated:
Learning English gives them a chance to see many sides of our world, our life,
and they have chance … to open their minds because before they just know their
custom, the customs, the old traditions, and when they learn English that mean
they learn a second culture. (Male, Student, Participant 5)
One student gave an example from an assignment she was given in class in which students were placed in small groups and asked to create a skit on a topic of their own choosing. She revealed this about role playing in class:
I remember two girls talk about who want to kill herself and her friend come and
try her best to help her friend to forget the decision to kill herself, it’s good to and
I look at them and ask myself that if my friend want to kill himself/herself what
should I do. I think these activities are good for me when someday maybe this
situation come true I know what should I do. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
Another student demonstrated that she is learning what it means to be a good citizen because she
is learning about team work and how to explain her ideas when working with others (Female,
Student, Participant 9).
Students are exposed to morals through learning English as a Second Language in a
variety of ways. One way is through indirect learning or the hidden curriculum in the day-to-day
lessons. Another way is through whatever moral emphasis the teacher places on lessons being 75
taught. Students also learn morals through role playing in the classroom. Finally, leaning new cultures is another way in which students learn morals, in that they are opening their minds to new ideas and learning about themselves in the process.
Student Attendance and What Learned
Student participants were asked what they learned about being a morally good citizen while attending the school. One student pointed out that she is learning basic behavioral practices, which include turning off her mobile phone when in class and maintaining good relationships with other students in and out of class. Another student talked about an incident that took place in class where a student, a 12-year old who was the only one in the evening class under 18, was exhibiting bad behavior. Three other members of the class took the student aside and explained to her what behavior she was exhibiting that was bad and encouraged her to correct what she was doing. She stated, “I learn from them the way they behave, the way they try to make them better and better… they want to make the student in our class feel like in a family”
(Female, Student, Participant 7). This same student gave another example concerning a topic that was taught in the class on how to respect and give positive feedback to classmates after they had given a speech. She indicated that she had a problem with a co-worker who, upon returning to work after a vacation, made some mistakes on some paperwork that needed to be turned in. The student became very upset because this person’s work affected not only themselves but her as well and she became very angrywith her coworker. She replied that she wished that she had this lesson before the incident took place so that she would have treated her co-worker better
(Female, Student, Participant 7). One student from the evening class revealed the following about his class: 76
We have very interesting topic about health issue in society, for example should
death penalty be allowed … we can make a debate a discussion on it. For
example, when you make a debate on should death penalty be allowed, one
student said if you keep death penalty you kill a mother and who will look after
their children when she died? That’s the way they show their morality, and you
can know a lot from student. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
Another student who is also a university instructor learned from observing the volunteer English teachers and how they interacted with the students. He is in charge of the English class when there are no volunteer teachers and had separated himself from the students exhibiting the typical strict role of teacher/student relationships. He learned that as a teacher you can be friends with your students and still have a professional relationship with your students (Male, Student,
Participant 5). Another student pointed out that some of the volunteer teachers are professionals who have taught before,while others are just vacationers with little experience teaching and that it’s difficult to learn from their actions. “We must distinguish what we should learn from them and what we shouldn’t. It’s difficult to do” (Male, Student, Participant 6).
The primary mode of learning what it means to be a good citizen in the school appears to be through learning proper classroom decorum. One of the ways this is achieved is by students fostering a family atmosphere in class. Learning how to give constructive feedback to fellow students is another method. Debates in the classroom are yet another way in which students are learning to become a good citizen.
The next chapter includes a thorough discussion of the findings as expressed through the use of vignettes. The vignettes not only convey the participants’ responses to the interview questions, contextualize the responses, and illuminate the understandings theparticipants hold 77
about moral education. Each vignette is drawn from a quote from one of the participants. Each quote is analyzed using central concepts from the review of related literature. Researcher perceptions concerning the driving research questions will be discussed as well. Each of the driving research questions will be discussed utilizing participant responses derived from the participant interviews, information presented in the review of relating literature, and researcher perceptions. 78
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION
The results from the participant interviews will be presented and discussed with the use
of vignettes linked to literature. Ten vignettes will be presented. These vignettes will utilize
specific quotes from the participant interviews as the catalyst for discussing the various theories
and ideas of moral education that may be inferred from each quote. It is important to remember
that many of the theories and ideas concerning moral education used in discussion of the quotes
for each vignette are rooted in a Western context and are being applied to Eastern contextual
phenomena. The discussion is presented in this manner so as to convey this information to a western audience using a frame of reference familiar to the researcher. The vignette themes include morality, citizenship, philosophical association, gender and one’s ability to be moral, bending bamboo and morality, morality and role playing, street children and moral education, learning and importance of language, learning English as a second language in the school, and debates and learning good citizenship. Researcher perceptions concerning the driving research questions will be discussed as well. The research questions which have guided this study include, how is moral education taught in non-traditional school settings in Vietnam, a socialist state; in what ways is moral education being taught in this school; what does it mean to be a good citizen; can street children be taught to be good citizens; in what ways are students learning what it means to be a good citizen; in what ways are these students contributing to their community.
Each of the driving research questions will be discussed utilizing information presented in the review of relating literature, participant responses derived from the participant interviews, and researcher perceptions. It is the hope of the researcher that the information presented here will be used by the reader to examine and redefine one’s own conceptions of morality and moral education. 79
Morality
The term ‘moral’ in the Vietnamese context is very broad and refers to the practice,
manners, and conduct of human beings in relation to each other. Moral education is also
associated with standards of behavior and is viewed by individuals as right and proper, and is to be conducted willingly without interference of law (Doan, 2005). “What does it mean to be moral?” was the first question during the second interview posed to the research participants.
This one question set the tone for the rest of the interview; all other questions asked related to this single question. One female participant response stood out from the rest. She gave two separate answers that differed in gender. For males she responded:
A person that is moral, he is good, and he thinks that his action is good, and it
doesn’t harm or hurt other people … but moral is not only just to take care of
themselves, they must have something to do good for himself and other people
surrounding him. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
In regards to women she stated, “A moral woman is the one who always take care of their family
… when the husband dies a moral woman, a moral life, a mother will take care of the children
especially their sons” (Female, Student, Participant 7).
The field of morality research is fragmented and can hardly be said to be dominated by
any one approach, and there is an added level of difficulty when attempting to apply these
theories across cultures. The participant’s response differentiating between genders can be
examined in a number of different ways. One way of examining this may be to look at
Rydstrøm’s research in which she discusses equality of the sexes and patrilineal ancestor
worship. Rydstrøm (2001) indicates that the official position of the Vietnamese government is in
support the idea of ‘equality of the sexes’ and that patrilineal ancestor worship and male 80
preference is a practice that no longer exists; however, this is not the case. A son is presumed to
be a vital addition to any family because his body and blood is thought of as a link between the
deceased and the living members of his patrilineage. He is considered to embody morality,
honor, and reputation of his past and future patrilineage. To have a son is considered a family’s
ability to manifest good morality, and by having a son one can pay respect to one’s patrilineal
ancestors. Women are not considered to be able to continue their father’s lineage and therefore do not embody morality, honor, or reputation (Rydstrøm, 2002). The participant’s response regarding what it means to be moral and giving two separate definitions according to gender may be linked to a cultural preference of males over females. This is illustrated in her response when she indicates that a moral woman, a mother, will take care of the children, especially their sons if their fathers die. A mother taking special care of a son after his father dies protects the inside lineage (ho noi) so that it may be passed on to the son’s future male children.
Another way of looking at this participant’s response is to examine Gilligan’s (1982) research regarding morality as care. Gilligan believed that moral judgments of women differed from those of men because she felt that women’s judgments are tied to feelings of empathy and compassion, what she identifies as morality as care. Gilligan (1982) proposed that morality as care is more prevalent in the female way of thinking, while morality as justice, a theory purposed by Kohlberg, is more prevalent in the male way of thinking. The participant’s response to the question of “What does it mean to be moral?” exhibits Gilligan’s morality as care approach in both her answer’s regarding males and females. For males she states, “Not only just to take care of themselves they must have something to do good for himself and other people surrounding him” (Female, Student, Participant 7). For females she indicates, “A moral woman is the one who always take care of their family” (Female, Student, Participant 7). Both statements may be 81
attributed to the fact that the participant is female, and her responses align with Gilligan’s morality as care theory.
Yet another viewpoint to consider is that of the Confucian notion of morality that emphasizes a harmonious interdependent social existence (Dien, 1982). The Chinese maintain the belief that human beings are born with certain instinctive moral tendencies; the most important of these is jen. The meaning of jen indicates a deep affection for kin rooted in filial piety and extended through the family circle to all men. In a sense, an individual is expected to downplay his own identity to the interest of the group (Dien, 1982). This is revealed in the participant’s response when she states that men must “not only just to take care of themselves they must have something to do good for himself and other people surrounding him” (Female,
Student, Participant 7). The response reveals a consideration to not only the individual but to one’s family and society.
Citizenship
Participants in this study were asked in both interviews what citizenship meant to them.
Several of their answers were very interesting. One student’s answer was short and succinct and stood out from the rest because she chose to comment on the relationship between citizenship and moral education. She pointed out that, “The relationship between morality and citizenship
[is] very important; if you have good morality, you will become a good citizen and maybe you can give a lot of things for your country” (Female, Student, Participant 9). The reason for the link the participant drew between citizenship and moral education may be connected to the national curriculum of Vietnam.
The connection the participant made between citizenship and moral education may be because of the gradual shift from moral education to citizenship education in the national 82
Vietnamese curriculum as student’s progress from primary school to secondary school. The
teaching of national identity or citizenship is conducted through four main subjects: history,
geography, civic education, literature, and Vietnamese language. These subjects are only taught
in secondary school; however, many of the topics are highlighted in primary school as well as
the addition of moral education as a subject taught (Salomon & Kêt, 2007). Moral education in
primary schools focuses on character and personality building. In secondary schools, the focus is on citizenship education and emphasizing the idea of developing a good socialist citizen (Doan,
2005).
For secondary school, textbooks are entitled Citizenship Education. In lower secondary
schools (Grades 6-9), the citizenship education content is similar to that of primary school with
the introduction of the Constitution of Vietnam and the basic rights and duties of Vietnamese
citizens. Basic areas of social policy, such as existing laws and socio-economic policy, are taught
as well (Doan, 2005). Citizenship education in upper secondary schools or high school (Grades
11-12), introduces philosophy and principles of Marxism and Leninism. The notion of fostering
the growth of a socialist citizen is strongly highlighted at this point in formal education (Doan,
2005). These subjects are not normally taught by specialized teachers. For example, in primary
school this subject is usually taught by the teacher in charge of the class. In secondary schools,
moral education is generally taught by the headmaster or the support staff whose main job is to
maintain the activities of the Communist Party unit located within the school (Doan, 2005).
Another reason for this link between citizenship and moral education may be due to the
way in which the researcher chose to conduct the second interview. After the first round
interviews, it became clear to the researcher that definitions regarding morality, moral education,
and citizenship education needed to be presented to the participants so as to make sure that there 83
were no misunderstandings regarding vocabulary. The researcher felt this was necessary as a form of quality assurance because it gave the participants the same vocabulary base with which to frame their answers during the second round interviews. Citizenship education was defined as the striving of the state to instill virtues, knowledge, and skills in all youth as a means to form adults who are prepared to participate in a society and who are knowledgeable of their responsibilities as citizens of their own country. All subsequent answers to the second round interviews would have been framed with the participants’ own understandings of morality, moral, and citizenship education, as well as the vocabulary the researcher chose.
Philosophical Association
Participants were asked during the second interview what philosophy has shaped their view of citizenship and morality. They were given examples such as Buddhism, socialism,
Confucian thought, ancestor worship, and democracy. There were four dominant philosophical ides that the participants indicated. They include The Golden Rule, Buddhism, Confucian thought, and as one participant identified, Ho Chi Minh philosophy. One student did not use the term Buddhism or Confucian thought; however, his explanation to the question was similar to remarks made by other participants who identified with Buddhism and with Confucian thought.
The student stated:
I have a simple reason for morality and citizenship. You know, I was born and
grew up here, so I love my friends, I love my family, and I love every beautiful
scenery in my country. I enjoy every day with them, and I enjoy everywhere that I
have been to with my friends. When I was a child, so I always feel responsibility
to grow up into a good citizen to defend my country and to build up my country 84
because when I do that I can make a good environment and a peaceful life for my
family and my friends. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
This student’s response is similar to another student’s response to the same question that identified Buddhism as the defining philosophical thought that has influenced him. This second student indicated that, in Buddhism, one must love their family and friends and must have nurturing relationships with their loved ones (Male, Student, Participant 5). These two students’ responses are similar in that they both indicated a love for family and friends. These students’ responses differ in that the first student’s response has elements of not only Buddhist but
Confucian philosophy as well.
This Buddhist and Confucian connection may be related to Vietnamese history in that during Chinese occupancy (111 BC to 939 AD) and the period following (939 to 1854), the cultural and intellectual patterns of the Vietnamese society were strongly influenced by the
Chinese philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Doan, 2005). Doan (2005) indicates that in Vietnam traditional morality is associated with a system of virtues and values rooted in Confucianism. Confucius principles have had a long lasting influence on Vietnamese culture, which emphasizes social order and the self improvement of human beings. Under
Confucianism, social order is maintained through the implementation of strict principles of human relations, both in the family and society at large. This student’s response is associated with Confucian philosophy in that his statement reflects a desire or responsibility to provide a good environment and a peaceful life for his family and friends.
This student’s statement also reflects Confucian notion of morality that emphasizes a harmonious interdependent social existence (Dien, 1982). Dien contrasted Kohlberg’s decidedly
Western theory of moral development with the Chinese idea of jen. She believes that Kohlberg’s 85
stage theory cannot work in an Eastern Confucian philosophical context because it differs in that
the Western perspective is individualistic and the Eastern perspective is collectivistic or group
oriented. She identifies jen as a deep affection for kin rooted in filial piety and extended through the family circle to all men (Dien, 1982). This student’s statement reflects the Chinese idea of jen
in that he feels a responsibility to his family and friends to provide a good environment and
peaceful life.
Another way of looking at this student’s response is to examine it through Ma’s modified
fifth stage of moral development. Ma (1988) revised Kohlberg’s theory of moral development by
extending and retooling his last three stages. The objective was to integrate the Chinese
perspective, including Confucianism, Taoism, and common Chinese traditional thoughts. Ma
(1998) believed that Kohlberg’s last three stages of moral development, when expressed in
different cultures, may need to be expressed in terms of culture-bound sub-structures. In Ma’s
modified fifth stage of moral development, individuals generally hold an autonomous affective
and self-sacrificing attitude towards the nation or society. This stage also exhibits the belief that
it is right to protect the majority’s basic rights and happiness with a willingness to sacrifice one’s
own rights, happiness, freedom, or life (Ma, 1988). The student’s response reflects Ma’s stage
five in that he reveals a desire or responsibility to grow up into a good citizen to build up and
defend his country.
Gender and One’s Ability to be Moral
Participants were alsoasked if there was a difference between males and females in one’s
ability to be a moral individual. The reason this question was asked is because the researcher
realizes that most of South-east Asian people live in a patrilineal society. When searching for
background information on moral education in Vietnam before entering the research site, the 86
researcher came across Rydstrøm’s study concerning patrilineal ancestor worship and its effects
on morality in Vietnam. Her research prompted the researcher to include an interview question
regarding males and females and one’s ability to be moral in Vietnam. The participant responses
to this question varied. Some thought there to be a difference in gender and one’s ability to be
moral, while others believe no difference exists.
When asked if there was a difference between males and females regarding one’s ability
to be a moral individual, the owner of the school indicated that there is a difference and that this
difference is seen in the view of males and females regarding marriage. Males have more
expectation than females within the family because when a son gets married he continues on the
family’s name and tradition. When a female is married, she essentially belongs to her husband’s
family (Female, Administrator, Participant 1).
The school owner’s response relates to Rydstrøm’s 2001 research concerning patrilineal
ancestor worship and its effects on morality in Vietnam. According to Rydstrøm’s (2001), a son
is presumed to be a vital addition to any family because his body and blood is thought of as a
link between the deceased and the living members of his patrilineage. He is considered to
embody morality, honor, and reputation of his past and future patrilineage. To have a son is considered a family’s ability to manifest good morality, and by having a son one can pay respect to one’s patrilineal ancestors. Women are not considered to be able to continue their father’s lineage and therefore do not embody morality honor or reputation (Rydstrøm, 2002). Men are considered to represent the inside lineage (ho noi), while women are said to represent outside lineage (ho ngoai) because they cannot reproduce their patrilineage (Rydstrøm, 2001). A woman, through gradual embodiment (tinh cam), can demonstrate good female morality; by doing so, she can generate good reputation and honor for her household. However, women also have the 87
ability to lose this storage of reputation and honor by acting immorally (Rydstrøm, 2002). The
owner’s response relates to Rydstrøm’s (2001) findings that males have more expectation than females within the family because when a son gets married he continues on the family’s name and tradition. When a female is married, she essentially belongs to her husband’s family. This corresponds with Rydstrøm’s (2001) research where she indicates that men represent the inside lineage (ho noi), while women are said to represent outside lineage (ho ngoai). This contrast between males and females demonstrates that there are two different sets of expectations regarding morality.
The owner’s response can be examined through Gilligan’s (1982) research on gender and
morality as well. Gilligan (1982) argued that moral judgments of women differ from those of
men because women’s judgments are tied to feelings of empathy and compassion, what she
identifies as morality as care. Gilligan (1982) proposed that morality as care is more prevalent in
the female way of thinking while morality as justice, a theory purposed by Kohlberg, is more
prevalent in the male way of thinking. The owner’s response reflects this difference in that the
Vietnamese people recognize a distinction between males and females, particularly in regards to
familial rights. This distinction between males and females may be due to the way in which each
gender views morality and makes moral judgments.
Bending Bamboo: Morality
One of the driving questions the researcher had in designing this study was, “How does
one teach morality?” Taking this question one step further, participants were specifically asked
“How does one teach students to be moral individuals?” One participant’s response stood out
from the rest because he chose to answer the question with a metaphor. 88
Bamboo trees, when they are small, we can bend it every way you like however
when it grown you can’t I mean that when students are children … you should
teach them everything good, we should show them the good way to be kind …I
think it is better than when they are older. (Male, Student, Participant 5)
The participant’s metaphor comparing children’s ability to learn with bamboo growth is very interesting. He is implying that children are like young bamboo in that bamboo, when it is young, is very flexible and can be shaped in any way you wish without breaking. Children are much the same way in that, when they are young, they are like sponges and soak up knowledge without any biases. When children grow older they are more set in their ways and have
preconceived notions or biases of how things should be and are less flexible than when they were
younger. Bamboo is the same way. When it grows older, it becomes ridged, stiff, or unyielding
and is no longer flexible. The participant’s response reflects the Vietnamese way of teaching
morality in that education starts when children are very young in primary school and are still
flexible like young bamboo.
The Vietnamese curriculum of moral education in primary and secondary schools, as
with all subjects, is centrally controlled through the use of compulsory textbooks. For primary
school, these textbooks are entitled Ethics Education. The textbooks used present ethics lessons
in a variety of ways, which are taught through pictures, games, storytelling, rhythm and rhyming
verse. Lesson content falls into five main aspects; matters relating to self, character and
personality; relationship of self to other people; matters relating to nature; matters relating to
national identity and love of nation; and matters related to community and society (Doan, 2005).
This national curriculum falls under the category of what Doan (2005) identifies as socialist
morality. Socialist morality is enforced through formal channels of the national curriculum and 89
in various socialist activities (Doan, 2005). The participant’s response falls in line with the
Vietnamese national curriculum in that they begin teaching children how to be moral individuals when they are very young, before they become too inflexible like full grown bamboo.
Morality and Role Playing
When the question of “How does one teach morality?” was posed to one of the participants, she identified the teaching strategy of role modeling.
The teacher must to give some situation so the student the children imagine what
happen and play a role in this situation and finally the student themselves have the
lesson, know the lesson by themselves why they should do this and what they
shouldn’t do. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
This participant’s response reflects the character education approach to moral education. The character education approach can be defined as the transmission or indoctrination of a culture’s time honored values (Power & Kohlberg, 1987). This approach utilizes stories and narratives to teach values and virtues to students. Proponents of this approach have adopted the traditional view that stories, myths, poems, and other narrative material provide powerful models for moral education (Tappan, 1998). Rydstrøm’s (2001) identified role modeling as a teaching practice used in primary schools.
Rydstrøm’s (2001) discusses how students in the primary grades are often encouraged to role play in the classroom. This role playing in the classroom is conducted by dividing children up into various groups and having them mirror the functions of a certain group in adult social life, such as construction workers, a family, a shop owner, a doctor, and nurse. They are then critiqued as to how well they imitated the persona (Rydstrøm, 2001). This practice is similar to what the participant’s response suggests in that primary age studentsrole play in order to learn what is socially acceptable behavior when taking on certain roles. Rydstrøm (2001) indicates that 90
as students are encourage to imitate good role models they can then learn about parent’s ‘love’ and how to stimulate ‘harmony’ within the family. This practice is also used in the Pioneers’ which is an organization that is affiliated with the local youth organization and the local
Communist Party and is a good example that can illustrate the connection between moral educational approaches and socialist socialization (Rydstrøm, 2001). Students who enter the
Pioneers club are encouraged to interact with older students and find a role model that will serve as a ‘bright moral example’. At the senior level of primary school, students that understand moral standards and have the intellectual capacity are selected to become a member of the organization (Rydstrøm, 2001). Younger students are then encouraged to imitate senior role models. Within the organization, students are taught how to practice good morality (Rydstrøm,
2001). The participant’s response reflects the teaching practice of role modeling which is used by the Pioneer organization.
The participant’s response can also be examined through Tappan’s (1998) theory of teaching moral education which utilizes Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development
(ZPD). The idea that children learn through their interactions with more experienced peers and adults, who assist them in engaging in thinking that is beyond the “zone” in which they would be able to perform without assistance is known as the zone of proximal development (Rogoff,
2003). This is a process of guided participation in which students actively engage in interaction and dialogue, and thus transform specific cultural practices (Tappan, 1998). Tappan points out that the use of narrative not only expresses important dimensions of people’s lived moral experience, but also mediates and shapes that experience in critical ways (Tappan, 1998). This position suggests that, while narratives play a critical role in shaping individual thought and promoting moral development, the educational process where this shaping occurs does not take 91
place by simply exposing a child to a particular story. Rather, it occurs through an ongoing set of social interactions, mediated by narrative, as adults and more competent peers assist children in moving through ZPD and create higher levels of moral reasoning (Tappan, 1998). The participant’s suggestion of using role modeling as a technique for teaching moral education reflects theory of teaching moral education through the use of ZPD. As students role play in the classroom, what they learn becomes personal and is more meaningful to the student.
Street Children and Moral Education
Participants were asked if they believed that street kids could be taught to be moral individuals. All the participants indicated yes they can, but it would be very difficult. One student participant stated:
Yes, I think it possible, but it [is] much more difficult than other kids because, in
my opinion, street kids have to face the reality of life when they are too young.
And when they go out, when they go to the street to earn their life, they are not
old enough to distinguish what is right and what is wrong. And if their fathers are
not wise enough to teach them [then] every day they can meet many kinds of
people and all kinds of people can have [a] bad influence on them. So, that’s why
I say it [is] very difficult to educate the street kid become morally good citizen.
(Male, Student, Participant 6)
There are many challenges to teaching underrepresented populations, especially those from a low socioeconomic class.
The changes in Vietnamese education brought on by doi moi and the Education Law of
1998 have not all been in the best interest of the population of Vietnam. One area in education that has become a serious problem is the gap between the rich and the poor (Toyama, 2001). 92
Even though the average income of Vietnamese citizens had risen, many families still cannot
afford to pay for school fees and other expenses such as school uniforms, transportation, and
school supplies. Under doi moi, the government subsidy for education has decreased and many
students from poor families either cannot afford to attend school or have to work after school
more often than not selling small items on the street (Toyama, 2001). This participant is referring
to the street children that can be found in and around the research site. These children can often
be found wandering the beaches or streets with baskets selling items such as used books, cigarettes, maps, and food to tourists. The researcher noticed this same phenomenon on a daily basis.
The participant stated that it is difficult for these students to “distinguish what is right and what is wrong and if their fathers are not wise enough to teach them and every day they can meet many kinds of people and all kinds of people can have bad influence on them so that’s why I say it very difficult to educate the street kid become morally good citizen” (Male, Student,
Participant 6). One way of interpreting this statement is by looking at Kohlberg’s cognitive development approach to moral development. The first of his three levels consists of the
preconventional level, which consists of two stages, namely punishment and obedience
orientation and instrumental relativist orientation (Kohlberg, 1980). In the first stage, punishment
and obedience orientation, Kohlberg’s notion of right action’s quality of being good or bad is
weighed against the physical consequences. The second stage, instrumental relativist orientation,
contends that right action is governed by that which satisfies one’s own needs and occasionally
the needs of others, assuming that others do the same (Kohlberg, 1980). The street children the
participant is referring to more than likely would fall into one of these two levels in the
preconventional level. The reason for this is that the actions the street children choose are most 93
likely chosen when weighed against the physical consequences of these actions. They can either starve or sell things on the street in order to make enough money to help feed their family.
Selling things on the street serves their own needs and possibly the needs of their family.
The participant’s statement can also be examined through Rest’s personal interest schema. The personal interest schema is derived from Kohlberg’s stage two and three. This schema justifies a decision as morally right by appealing to the personal stake the individual has in the possible consequences of the action. The selling of goods on the street and the interactions they have with their customers may be driven by the personal stake they have in the consequences of making money and eating or not making money and starving.
Learning and the Importance of Language
Participants were asked if they thought that the children being taught in this school were being taught to be good citizens. One student replied that learning English in this school is not enough in regards to teaching them what it means to be a good person. She believes that the students must first know their mother tongue so that they can understand what it means to be moral because you can tell a student not to use bad English or swear words but they may not understand why you should not use them (Female, Student, Participant 7). The participant’s response regarding language and knowing their mother tongue is very important because language is the lexicon in which we base all understanding.
Language is important when attempting to examine morality from a cross-cultural perspective for several reasons. First, in order to teach or learn morality, one must have the necessary vocabulary to explain and understand central concepts associated with morality.
Second, language is a factor that binds cultures together. To examine morality from a cross- cultural perspective, one must be sensitive to the fact that vocabulary and grammatical ways of 94
explaining and understanding central concepts associated with morality may be different or not exist in the culture’s language being examined. Finally, language is very powerful and for most is central to cultural identity. Halstead and Pike (2006) indicate that understanding ways in which certain groups of people speak and communicate is necessary in order to understand the identity of these groups of people.
Dien (1997) identified how worldviews and morality intersect. She indicated that as individuals acquire their native language, they learn classificatory terms to label objects and living things, including human beings, and these terms shape the way in which individuals think about their world. This, in turn, creates a unique worldview according to the language individuals speak (Dien, 1997). In the participants response they are alluding to the fact that the student must first know their mother tongue in order to have a frame of reference to learn what it means to be a moral individual. Personal experiences contribute to the formation of one’s worldview as well, and as individuals live in communities, these shared experiences come to form a shared worldview among like individuals within a given cultural-linguistic community
(Dien, 1997). The way in which people create and shape their views of morality and what they identify as morally right is intricately connected to an individual’s worldview. Street children that are learning English as a Second Language are learning a second worldview and this can have an effect on their personal worldview based in their knowledge of the Vietnamese language.
The participants statement can also be examined through Mark Tappan’s (1997) exploration of applying a Vygotskian perspective to moral development. He identified language and culture as factors that play a large role in moral development. Tappan indicated that from a
Vygotskian perspective, moral development does not occur in the same fashion, nor does it 95
follow the same sequence for all individuals around the world. Rather, it is specific to unique
social, cultural, and historical contexts (Tappan, 1997). The participant’s response, indicating a need for fluency in one’s mother tongue, is very important because there are several deciding factors in how street children learn what it means to be moral. These factors include gender, race,
cultural, socioeconomic backgrounds, and above all the primary language in which they learn.
Tappan (1997) believes that a Vygotskian perspective to moral development entails four central assumptions. First, moral functioning is mediated by words, language, and forms of discourse.
Second, such mediation occurs in private or inner speech, most likely in the form of inner moral dialogue. Third, with language as the social medium, processes of social communication and social relations lead to moral functioning. Fourth, given the fact that words, language, and forms
of discourse are inherently sociocultural phenomena, moral development is consistently shaped
by the particular social, cultural, and historical context in which it occurs (Tappan, 1997). From
this perspective, moral development is shaped by the language in which individuals are taught
and how they identify what is morally right. A Vietnamese street child who is learning English
as a Second Language may have difficulty in his/her personal moral development if he/she does
not have the prerequisite knowledge in the Vietnamese language as a basis for identifying what it
means to be a moral individual.
Learning English as a Second Language in the School
English as a Second Language (ESL) is not necessarily associated with learning what it
means to be a good citizen, but, when participants were asked if they thought that the students in
this school were learning what it means to be a good citizen, they had a great deal to say. One
student’s response was very interesting because it refers to learning new cultures. 96
Learning English gives them [students] a chance to see many sides of our world
our life and they have chance … to open their minds because before they just
know their custom, the customs, the old traditions and when they learn English
that mean they learn a second culture. (Male, Student, Participant 5)
This statement is important because the students that attend the English school more than likely are coming to the school with a preconceived cultural identity. This cultural identity can be challenged with the learning of new cultures.
Cultural identity is the basis on which all other identities are examined. This gives individuals a sense of belonging and accentuates the sense of connectedness and continuity (Ha
& Que, 2006). The students that attend this school are examining the cultural traits that are associated with the English language through their own Vietnamese cultural identity. These
English language cultural traits more than likely come from Western English speaking countries such as the United States, Canada, and Great Britain. These new cultural traits can have an effect on the development of their own national cultural identity, which can be good and bad. This new knowledge of other cultures may enable them to appreciate cultural diversity and learn new things about themselves and their own culture. This new knowledge may also develop an internal conflict between their cultural identity and that which they are learning, causing alienation of certain cultural practices.
This participant’s response can also be viewed through Dien’s (1997) work on worldviews. Dien indicates that language shapes the way in which individuals think about their world. This in turn creates a unique worldview according to the language individuals speak.
Personal experiences also contribute to the formation of one’s worldview, and, as individuals live in communities, these shared experiences come to form a shared worldview among like 97
individuals within a given cultural-linguistic community (Dien, 1997). The worldview that each
student has in this school is constantly being challenged and updated due to the array of new cultures they are being exposed while learning ESL.
Debates and Learning Good Citizenship
Student participants were asked what they learned about being a morally good citizen
while attending this school. One student from the evening class revealed this regarding debates
and learning good citizenship in their class:
We have very interesting topic about health issue in society, for example should
death penalty be allowed … we can make a debate a discussion on it. For
example, when you make a debate on should death penalty be allowed, one
student said if you keep death penalty you kill a mother and who will look after
their children when she died? That’s the way they show their morality, and you
can know a lot from student. (Male, Student, Participant 6)
Debates were used quite often in the evening English class at the school. The students requested
to do at least one debate per week, chose the topics discussed, and even created rules so that
everyone was able to voice their opinion. The topics chosen for discussion were quite diverse
and demonstrated their knowledge of practices that take place outside of their own culture. This
student’s response above is an excellent example of the thought process used during many of the
discussions.
This participant’s response can be examined through John Dewey’s (1980) ideas
concerning conduct and behavior. Dewey viewed conduct and behavior as part of the backbone
of moral growth. He distinguished three levels of behavior and conduct. First, behavior is
motivated by various biological instincts and fundamental needs. Second, behavior or conduct is 98
regulated by customs and standards of society. Third, conduct is regulated by standards that are both rational and social, which are examined and critiqued through personal reflection (Dewey,
1980). The participant’s response reflects his/her concern over others and awareness that the death penalty has far reaching consequences to not just those who are condemned but also the condemned’s responsibility to others.
This participant’s response can also be examined through Kohlberg’s ideas concerning the purpose of moral education. Kohlberg (1980) viewed the purpose of moral education as the stimulation of the natural development of the individuals own moral judgment, which would allow one to use his/her own moral judgment to control one’s own behavior (p. 72). The participant’s statement reflects the awareness and use of individual moral judgment. These debates, and the student’s responses to them, can be seen as similar to Kohlberg’s Moral
Judgment Interviews. These interviews consisted of moral dilemmas or value conflicts (Gibbs,
Basinger, Grime & Snarey, 2007). Kohlberg’s participants were given a specific scenario and asked probing questions, which were used to assess participants’ reasoning concerning the decision issues and values encompassed in the dilemmas (Gibbs, Basinger, Grime & Snarey,
2007). The debates conducted in the English classes may have produced the same conditions and participant thought processes as that of Kohlberg’s interviews.
James Rest’s (1999) four component model of morality is another way to examine the participant’s response. Rest’s four component model of morality includes moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Moral sensitivity is the act of interpreting a situation as moral and recognizing that a moral issue is involved in a situation (Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). This indicates an awareness of how an individual’s actions affect other people. More specifically, this involves being cognizant of the 99
different possible actions that are available in a situation and how each action may affect one’s
self and others (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). Moral sensitivity also involves having empathy and role taking skills, being able to recognize cause-consequent factors of events in a real world context, and having the ability to imaginatively construct possible scenarios (Bebeau, Rest, &
Narvaez, 1999). This is demonstrated by the participant’s concern over the welfare of those affected by the death penalty.
Moral judgment is the act of judging which of the available actions are morally right or wrong (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999; Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). The focus is on judging which of the various actions available are the most morally and ethically justified (Bebeau & Thoma,
1999). The participant’s response reflects an awareness of whether or not the death penalty is
ethically justifiable when compared to the needs of others.
Moral motivation is the act of prioritizing moral values over other personal values
(Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999). The main concern of this process is the question of why one
should be moral (Bebeau & Thoma, 1999). With this process it is important to acknowledge that
individuals have many legitimate concerns, such as career pressures, relationships, and other
personal concerns, which may or may not be compatible with the moral choice (Bebeau &
Thoma, 1999).
Moral character is having the ability to implement actions that serve the moral choice.
This component represents the processes in which an individual formulates an appropriate course
of action, exercises self discipline, and has the strength and courage to act on this action (Bebeau
& Thoma, 1999). The participant’s statement demonstrates moral character in that he had the
strength and courage to respond to the debate topic in the manner in which he did particularly 100
because Vietnam does not use the death penalty and discussions on the topic are frowned upon
by the government.
Driving Researcher Questions and Perceptions
The following will include a short discussion of the driving research questions and how
the research data answers these questions. Ideas and impressions the researcher developed as a participant observer will be identified as well. This discussion will present information the researcher feels was an important outcome of the research and that which may not have been revealed in the participant interviews. These conclusions may not be represented in the
participant interviews, and, given that this is a case study which looks at a particular
phenomenon at a specific time and location, may not be replicable by future researchers. The
research questions which have guided this study include, how is moral education taught in non-
traditional school settings in Vietnam, a socialist state; in what ways is moral education being
taught in this school; what does it mean to be a good citizen; can street children be taught to be good citizens; in what ways are students learning what it means to be a good citizen; in what ways are these students contributing to their community. Each of these questions will be addressed separately with information derived from the interview data and the researcher’s own impressions as a participant observer.
Moral Education Taught in Non-Traditional Schools in Vietnam
The driving research question regarding moral education and how it is taught in non- traditional school settings in Vietnam, a socialist state, is very difficult to answer. From the researcher’s own observations and impressions from the research site and other non-traditional schools visited in Vietnam, moral education is not emphasized in any capacity other than as an unintended effect of the curriculum. The teachers at the research site are volunteers and may 101
volunteer for just one class or for as long as they want. Due to the fact that the majority of teachers are volunteers, it is difficult to have and maintain a long term curriculum. A former volunteer teacher pointed out in regards to teaching morality in this school that “it would just be a matter of what the individual teacher would happen to have incorporated in their lesson the kind of illustrations or stories they use” (Male, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 3). It seems that the students that attend this school receive the bulk of moral education through the hidden curriculum.
The term “hidden curriculum” refers to a school’s indirect means of helping students learn the norms and values of their society (Pai, Adler, & Shadiow, 2006). In this school, the norms and values the students are obtaining are a hybrid of Vietnamese and whatever dominant norms the foreign teacher intentionally or unintentionally exhibits in their lesson plan. Elizabeth
Vallance (1983) indicated that there are three dimensions to the “hidden curriculum.” First, the term “hidden curriculum” can refer to any of the contexts of schooling, including teacher-student interaction, classroom structure, and the whole organizational blueprint of the educational establishment as a microcosm of the social value system. Second, the term “hidden curriculum” can bear on a variety of processes operating in or through schools including maintenance of class structure, socialization, and values acquisition. Third, the term “hidden curriculum” can exhibit degrees of intentionality, which can range from incidental and unintended results of the given curriculum to outcomes embedded in the historical social function of education (Vallance, 1983).
The term “hidden curriculum” also has been linked to the idea of “lived curriculum,” which emphasizes the informal sets of practices that define the day to day experiences of students and often can assume much greater importance than the formal, subject matter curriculum (Pai,
Adler, & Shadiow, 2006). Many of the ELS lessons the students attend utilize a wide range of 102
teaching techniques such as role playing, debates, and listening to music and filling in blanks on
a lyric sheet. In all of these activities, the students are not just learning English, but also whatever
cultural significance the teacher places on the lesson or the hidden curriculum.
How Moral Education is Being Taught in this School
Moral education in this school is being taught in a variety of ways. As the students are
learning English as a Second Language, they are being taught using a variety of teaching
strategies. One of these teaching strategies includes an activity the students request every day.
This lesson includes listening to a song and filling in blanks on a lyric sheet. The teacher goes through all new vocabulary found in the lyrics and explains phrases the students do not understand. The song selection is up to the teacher and sometimes the students help identify a song. They are learning morals from this lesson through the discussion that takes place when terms and phrases are being explained. The messages from these Western songs are then compared to the students’ Eastern contextual understanding and they learn about themselves and others in how they would react to situations presented in the songs. Another way in which they are learning morals from the lessons is through the classes debates. The students have the opportunity to discuss a given situation and make decisions as to how they would react in situations concerning the death penalty, sex before marriage, and environmental responsibilities, such as dynamite fishing and coral reef protection. Yet another avenue of learning moral English language acquisition is through role playing and role modeling in class. This is achieved through students creating skits and acting them out in class. Many of the skits are centered on social situations and how they choose to react to them. In one such situation, a student revealed the following about role playing in class. 103
I remember two girls talk about who want to kill herself and her friend come and
try her best to help her friend to forget the decision to kill herself, it’s good to and
I look at them and ask myself that if my friend want to kill himself/herself what
should I do. I think these activities are good for me when someday maybe this
situation come true I know what should I do. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
In this situation, the students who act out the skit and those who watch the skit learned how they
would react to the situation if it ever came true for them.
What it Means to be a Good Citizen
In the driving question concerning what it means to be a good citizen, participants revealed a great deal regarding citizenship and its social dimensions in Vietnam. One student participant emphasized the relationship between citizenship and morality. This student participant pointed out “The relationship between morality and citizenship very important if you have good morality you will become a good citizen and maybe you can give a lot of things for your country” (Female, Student, Participant 9). This statement is important because it reveals the importance morality plays in being a good citizen.
A former volunteer teacher indicated that a good citizen is “when you can make your country more beautiful inside and outside” (Female, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 4).
Another participant made a similar remark concerning what it means to be a good citizen. This participant stated:
A good citizen is a man who know[s] how to take care of themselves and take
care of other people surrounding them … I live for myself and for my family too
and I live for other people. And if you meet some other peoples with troubles, if
you want to help them, it means you a good citizen. A good citizen also want the 104
place that they live more beautiful in the eyes of other people. (Female, Student,
Participant 7)
This statement is important to answering what it means to be a good citizen because they indicate a need or desire to help others and enhancing a positive image regarding their environment.
The researcher believes these statements are important in identifying what is means to be a good citizen in Vietnam. These statements demonstrate a desire to maintain a positive image of the community by community members. Many of the community members the researcher came in contact with constantly asked for the researcher’s perceptions of Vietnam and their community. These inquiries indicate a connection with good Vietnamese citizenship and enhancing the perception others have with their community.
Street Children and Good Citizenship
The research question regarding whether or not street children can be taught to be good citizens was answered with a resounding yes, but it will be difficult by all the participants. As noted before, a street child is identified as a child between the ages of 5 and 17. They can generally be found on the street or the local beach front. These students may or may not have parents, although in the researcher’s experience most of the street children come from broken homes. They are routinely removed from school in order to contribute to the family income by stealing, begging, and more often than not selling small items on the street such as cigarettes, tourist maps, and food. These children are most often denied an education and robbed of their childhood due to their adult like activities. The children often suffer from neglect which includes physical, educational, medical, and emotional/psychological neglect. The researcher noticed that the most visible form of neglect exhibited by these street children manifests itself in the form of malnutrition. In some cases, these children are exposed to physical and sexual abuse. The 105
opinion of the researcher is the same as that of the participants, street children can be taught to be
morally good citizens.
One participant indicated that teaching street children to become good citizens will be
difficult because they lack the necessary foundation provided by family and friends to be brought
up with good morals (Female, Student, Participant 9). The foundation street children are lacking
puts them at a disadvantage in that they do not have a basis of behavior expectation when in
certain situations. Another participant revealed:
Yes, I think it possible, but it [is] much more difficult than other kids because, in
my opinion, street kids have to face the reality of life when they are too young.
And when they go out, when they go to the street to earn their life, they are not
old enough to distinguish what is right and what is wrong. And if their fathers are
not wise enough to teach them [then] every day they can meet many kinds of
people and all kinds of people can have [a] bad influence on them. So, that’s why
I say it [is] very difficult to educate the street kid become morally good citizen.
(Male, Student, Participant 6)
This participant’s response also speaks to the lack of foundation that these street children have in that they are required to face the realities of life before they have the necessary skills to do so. This response also demonstrates the fact that the adult activities they are involved in has an influence on them and this influence can be good or bad. When the parents of street children do not live up to their responsibilities, particularly in regards to teaching their children to become morally good citizens, it then becomes the responsibility of the community to ensure a good moral foundation for these children. It 106
is the researcher’s belief that the English school for street children has taken on some of the responsibility in providing these children with the foundation they are lacking.
How Students are Learning to be Good Citizens
Students are learning what it means to be a good citizen in a variety of ways. Many of the students told the researcher that they not only learn English in the school, but also confidence.
This confidence comes from the school environment that is created by the students themselves as well as the volunteer teacher in charge of the class. They gain confidence in their English word pronunciation, speaking skills, and most importantly their social skills in being able to interact with a variety of people from all walks of life. One student stated, “When we come here we not only learn about English we also learn how to live independently, about travel around the world and about culture and when we come here we have a more open mind” (Male, Student,
Participant 6). This statement showcases a number of other things students learn about becoming a good citizen. These students are learning how to obtain a certain level of independence through
English language acquisition in that they can confidently interact with foreigners. The contact with foreign teachers allows them to learn about different cultures and professions. The students have the opportunity to open their minds to new thoughts and ideas as they learn about new cultures. This can all aid in their development in becoming a good citizen.
Students also are learning to be a good citizen through indirect learning or the hidden curriculum. One student revealed that he believes that students in this school are learning what it means to be moral through indirect learning. He indicated that when you teach a student to be on time for class, to turn the lights on and off at the beginning and end of class, and to be silent and respect other students when they are talking that they are learning how to be a good citizen
(Male, Student, Participant 6). It is the researcher’s opinion that the indirect learning or hidden 107
curriculum is the primary mode of learning what it means to be a good citizen in this English
school.
Students Contributing to their Community
Students who are attending this school are contributing to their community in a variety of ways. One of the most important contributions the students are making is by leaning English they are raising the number of competent English speakers in the town. This is important because the town in which they live has become a tourist destination. Many of the students work in the tourist industry and their proficiency in English makes the town more tourists friendly. This increase in English proficiency can create more tourism and may precipitate more economic expansion which can be good for the local population. One student stated that:
When they [volunteer teachers] come here they learn, they talk to the local people
like me or some student at [the] school, they have chance to understand the local
culture, and some student can help the community to advertise the local image.
(Male, Student, Participant 5)
The local image of the town is increasing as these students interact with tourists and share their culture.
As the students interact with their foreign volunteer teachers and tourist in the town, they have an opportunity to share their culture and Vietnamese customs. One student participant indicated that he often speaks with tourists about Vietnamese style and culture. He indicated that the tourist’s often identified that their opinion of Vietnam has changed after speaking with him
(Male, Student, Participant 5. This participant’s statement indicates a sharing of cultural ideas.
As he shares his culture with others, he also can learn about other individual’s culture. This interaction creates a greater cultural awareness by both parties and contributes to the community 108
by building up its reputation with foreign travelers. A teacher who had taught at the school four years ago also revealed that she and her husband often come across two brothers who were
former students while walking on the beach. On one occasion the boys told them that they try to
protect foreigners by giving them tips on how to protect their possessions from being stolen
(Female, Former Volunteer Teacher, Participant 4). What these two former students are doing, in protecting foreigners by giving them tips on how to protect their belongings, demonstrates a moral consideration they are making that directly effects their community. The actions of these two students make their community safer for foreigners which can have an effect on the overall tourism industry in the region.
The following chapter is comprised of the researcher’s concluding thoughts. A participant quote that was presented to the reader in the introduction of this paper will be revisited. The limitations of the study will also be examined. Finally, recommendations for further study will be provided.
109
CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSION
This study examined the problem Vietnam has with educating a student population that is
too large for the current education system to handle by assessing how moral education is taught
or imparted to street children who attend non-traditional classrooms. This study will benefit society for several reasons. There has been very little research conducted in Vietnam that is
accessible to English-speaking populations. The available research pool becomes even smaller
when taking into account the more recent changes in Vietnam such as doi moi (renovation) and
the Education Law of 1998, which changed the structure and curriculum of the Vietnamese
education system. This study adds to the research completed in Vietnam since the Education
Law of 1998, creating greater depth and breadth of knowledge concerning civics and moral
education in Vietnam. This study also benefits other societies that are attempting to improve and
adapt their own moral education programs by serving as an example of what is being done in
countries that have had previous success with moral education.
At the beginning of this case study, the author presented a quote from the research
findings. This quote came from an adult student who regularly attends one of the conversational
English classes. She indicated that she helped teach one of the beginner English classes for a
short time. In one of the interviews, she stated:
I know one student in your [the researcher’s]class. When I taught, he was a kid,
and his mother is really cruel. He have some burns in his ear, and I saw and I ask
but he didn’t answer but some other student in the class answer … that his mother
hit him or something like that and he blood. (Female, Student, Participant 7)
This quote is important because it demonstrates the need for individuals to have their own
conception of morality. The participant’s moral response to this situation could be examined in a 110
number of different ways. One could view a response through Lawrence Kohlberg’s (1980) moral development theory and come to a conclusion as to what stage the participant is in according to Kohlberg’s moral reasoning scale. Another way to look at a possible response would be to view it through Carol Gilligan’s (1982) morality as care rather than Kohlberg’s morality as justice model. One could also examine a response in regards to what philosophical ideal the participant subscribes. Yet another way to look at a response to this situation would be to discover what moral education background the individual has. Any one of these methods or other methods discussed in this study could be used to examine a possible response from the participant. In each analysis of a possible outcome, there is one shared important factor and that is the level of moral education the individual who is making the decision has. This very reason is why civic and moral education is so important.
Recommendations for Further Study
Possible future research may include expanding this study to include minors, ages 5-17 that attend school at the research site. The researcher also would recommend expanding research to include parents and guardians of students attending school at the research site. Additionally research could be expanded by including other non-traditional schools in Vietnam that teach
English as a Second Language. Another route may be to conduct similar research in traditional schools in Vietnam and then compare and contrast the data to that of non-traditional schools.
Other avenues may include research in non-traditional schools located in other Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. Another option the researcher finds appealing would be to conduct research in other socialist states such as Moldova and China and compare data to that found in Vietnam. Expanding the research to include other countries would be 111
beneficial to Vietnam and the other countries used for comparison because they would have the
opportunity to learn about each other’s civic and moral education practices.
Concluding Thoughts
As a case study, which looks at a particular phenomenon at a specific time and location, it may not be replicable by future research. One must also keep in mind that all conclusions and linkages made with similar research were shaped by the principle researcher and different conclusions may be developed and expanded upon by others. It is the hope of the researcher that the information presented in this case study will be used by the reader to examine and redefine one’s own conceptions of morality and moral education. Examining and redefining conceptions of morality and moral education is important because as cultures evolve from contact and interaction with other cultures their conceptions of morality and moral education evolve.
112
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APPENDIX A: HSRB APPROVAL
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APPENDIX B: PARTICIPANT CONSENT LETTER
Dear Participant:
You are invited to participate in a research study being conducted by Eric Buetikofer and Dr. Patricia Kubow in the School of Leadership and Policy Studies in Educational Foundations and Inquiry at Bowling Green State University Ohio, USA. The purpose of this study is to gather information about the perceptions of adults affiliated with the Travel-to-Teach English school for street children in NhaTrang, Vietnam. Also being examined is morality and the street children of Vietnam.
If you choose to participate in this study, you will be one of approximately five to ten adult individuals asked to take part in two interviews in which you will answer questions concerning morality and street children of Vietnam. You will be asked to participate in two interviews that will be conducted approximately four weeks from each other. You will be given an advance copy of the first set of interview questions once you have signed this consent form. The first interview will be used to gain demographic information and some general information on the study topic. At the end of the first interview you will be given an advance copy of the interview questions for the second interview. The second interview will be conducted about four weeks after the first interview. This second interview will be used to gain information on your views of the school and your involvement with it in regards to moral education and practices. Each interview will take one hour of your time. The estimated total amount of time for your participation is two hours.
There are no any foreseeable direct risks associated with your participation in this study. Potential benefits of participating in this study may include the following. By participating in this study you will have the opportunity to reflect on your affiliation and work with the school through answering interview questions. Another added benefit may be that you will be posed with interview questions regarding intended curriculum and the intended and unintended results of that curriculum. This will serve as an assessment of the strength’s and weaknesses of the current program and may foster change in the curriculum for the better. You will also have the added benefit of feeling as though they have contributed to the greater knowledge of Vietnamese moral education that is accessible to English speaking people. Your participation will help us understand the level at which moral education is being taught directly or indirectly to the students attending the Travel-to-Teach English school for street children.
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any time without penalty. You may refuse to answer any questions without explanation. Participation or withdrawal will not affect any rights to which you are entitled, nor will it affect your relationship or standing with the Travel-to-Teach English school, researchers or the University.
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APPENDIX B: PARTICIPANT CONSENT LETTER CONTINUED
All of the information collected will be kept confidential. Paper copies of the consent forms and data will be kept in locked files until completion of this study, upon which time these documents will be shredded. Data will be entered into a password protected database to which only the researchers will have access. Upon completion of this study, data will be reported at the group level and as single cases. At no time will your name be reported or disclosed in connection with the information you provide for this study. Direct quotes from the interviews may be used; however, your identity will be protected through the use of a fake name (pseudonym).
If you have any questions about this research study, you may contact me, Eric Buetikofer, at **-*-(***) ***-**** (local phone number :______) or *****@bgu.edu. You may also contact Kimmy Le, at +** ** ******. You may also contact my advisor, Dr. Patricia Kubow, at **-*- (***) ***-**** or ******@bgsu.edu. If you have any Questions about your rights as a research participant, you may contact the Human Subjects Review Board at Bowling Green State University at **- *-(***) ***-**** or ****@bgnet.bgsu.edu.
By signing this consent form, I agree to participate in this research study and acknowledge that I have received a copy of this consent form for future reference. Moreover, all of my questions have been answered and I have been encouraged to ask any questions that I may have concerning this study in the future.
______
Name (Printed)
______
Signature Date
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APPENDIX C: DEFFINITIONS
Citizenship Education: The striving of the state to instill virtues, knowledge and skills in all youth as a means to form adults who are prepared to participate in a society, and are knowledgeable of their responsibilities as citizens of their own country
Giaoduc cong dan: la sudinhhuongcuanhanuocnhamtaonen mot the he thanhnien co day du nhungduc tinh, kienthuc, kynang tot de truongthanh, hoanhapvaoxa hoi vanhanthuc day du venghia vu cong dancua minh doivoidatnuoc.
Morality: Is socially acceptable, proper behavior and manners, and in other cases, as dominant ethical values that are generally shared by a specific society
Dao duc: la nhunghanhvi, cu chi tot duoctoanxa hoi chap nhan. Trongnhieutruong hop daoduc la nhunggia tri tot depnhatcua mot dantocduoctruyenlai qua tungxa hoi.
Moral Education: Education in which individuals are taught what morality involves, what the various grounds for being moral are, and helps students to recognize and respond to ethical issues
Giaoducdaoduc: la sugiaoductrong do tung ca nhanduoc day venhungdieu lien qua den daoduc, venhungly do phaitrothanhnguoi co daoducvagiupnguoi hoc nhanthucva co trachnhiemdoivoicac van de cuadantoc.
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APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Interview Protocol:
Session 1:
1. Male/Female 2. What is your name? 3. How old are you? 4. Where you born and raised here in Vietnam? 5. If you were not born in Vietnam how many years have you lived in Vietnam? 6. What is your highest education level? 7. Have you had any other prior experience with NGO’s before becoming affiliated with Travel-to-Teach? If so please explain. 8. How did you become affiliated with the English school for street children and what is your status with the school now? 9. If you attended this school how many years did you attend? 10. Please explain the purpose of this school. 11. Please explain what is taught at this school. 12. What impact does this school have on the local community? 13. How is the school funded? 14. How would you define moral education? 15. How would you define citizenship education? 16. Is there any other information you would like to add?
Session 2:
1. What does it mean to be moral? 2. What philosophy (e.g., socialism, Confucian thought, and democracy) has shaped your view of citizenship and morality? 3. In your opinion, is there a difference between traditional morality and socialist morality? 4. In your opinion, is there a difference between males and females in ones ability to be a moral individual? 5. In your opinion, how does one teach students to be moral individuals? 6. In your opinion, can street children be taught to be morally “good” citizens? 7. In your opinion, are the children being taught in this school taught to be morally “good” citizens? 8. As students are learning English as a second language are they also learning what it means to be a “good” citizen? If so, how? What are they learning? 9. If you attended this school what lessons did you learn about being a “good” citizen? 10. If you attended this school as a student what did you learn about concerning morality and citizenship? 11. In what ways are these students contributing to their community? 12. Is there any other information you feel I should know?