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The Sustainable Livelihood Approach: a Vulnerability Context Analysis of Ngwatle’S !Kung Group Basarwa, Botswana

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The Sustainable Livelihood Approach: A Vulnerability Context Analysis of Ngwatle’s !Kung Group Basarwa, Botswana 2005 Written by: Nyambura Gachette Njagi Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Social Science of Development Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. 1 Declaration This dissertation is the original work of Nyambura G. Njagi and has never been submitted at any university for any degree or other purpose. All references have been fully acknowledged and cited in the text. The participant rights to anonymity, withdrawal from the study or from photos without prejudice and intellectual property were respected during the undertaking of this research. Signature: ____________________________________________________________ Date: ________________________________________________________________ 2 Acknowledgments First and foremost I would like to thank God for leading me to this research topic, opening the doors that have allowed me to pursue primary research in Botswana and getting me through the process of completing this thesis. It has been a truly gratifying experience. There are some special places in this world and the Kalahari is one of them! I would also like to thank: Dr Richard Ballard, my supervisor, for providing the guidance and support necessary to help me develop an idea from thought to fruition; Professor Keyan Tomaselli, the CCMS department and the 2004 & 2005 Kalahari research teams for furnishing me with all manner of resources from transcripts to books to networks, financial support and thought provoking camp fire discussions; Mr and Mrs Njagi Makanga, my parents, for the complete and un-abating support of my education that has seen me accomplish a Masters Degree in Social Science; My brother Makanga for his positive comments & insights; Myriam Velia who helped me so much in the 11th hour, despite massive amounts of her own work; The people who acted as translators and key informants1 during field research in 2004 and the follow up trip in 2005. Your assistance was a crucial element in the undertaking of this research; Nelia Oats and Mary Lange for taking care of us in Ngwatle and acting as translators and transcribing; All of the participants from Ngwatle for selflessly giving of their time and sharing their stories with me; and finally I would like to thank all my friends and family who stayed up with me till the wee hours of the morning in the computer lan, kept me focused when I was discouraged and helped me to close this chapter of my formal education. A special thanks to Makaka Missano and the Mnyani family for helping me find the resources that made completing this thesis possible under given time constraints. 1 Names withheld for purposes of anonymity. 3 Abstract This thesis uses aspects of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) to investigate how global trends and national eco-political factors in Botswana impact the livelihood strategies or actions of a group of individuals who identify as !Kung Group Basarwa in a small village called Ngwatle, located in the south western Kalahari. These global and national forces produce and reproduce institutions, structures and processes that constitute the particular vulnerability context in which Ngwatle is couched. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, a key component of SLAs, is used here as a tool of analysis to identify barriers and constraints to livelihood aspirations. Basarwa, known as Bushmen or San people more generally, have a history of strained relationships with more powerful majority groups including the Setswana (or Tswana) who account for 79% of the population as well as wealthy cattle owning minority groups. This history, understood in a wider global context, makes livelihood construction extremely difficult for people living in Ngwatle. The research is exploratory in nature and seeks to contextualize a problem or a set of problems given a particular set of circumstances rather than establish categorical causality between variables. The approach of this research has been methodologically investigated by answering three primary research questions. The first question seeks to establish the major activities undertaken in Ngwatle households that help people in the community to make a living. In this regard, the research clearly establishes that several specific livelihood actions, such as making crafts and conducting cash-generating entrepreneurial activities are performed on a daily basis in Ngwatle. The second research question asks whether resources (assets) are constrained by institutions, structures and processes and if so, how. In fact, resources are constrained by these factors and are informed by historical precedence. The third research question focuses on how institutions, structures and processes impact livelihood strategies in Ngwatle in more detail. Links are established between the macro (global), meso (national) and micro (community) economic and political environments. The suggestion is that aspects of capitalism and neo-liberalism at the global and State levels have informed and strengthened various mechanism of control designed to manipulate and direct the 4 movement of individuals (bio-politics). In essence prejudices and discriminatory practices have served to radically alter Basarwa social systems and seriously undermine livelihood strategies. 5 Acronyms CBNRM Community Based Natural Resource Management CCMS Culture, Communication and Media Studies Department, UKZN CHA Controlled Hunting Area CKGR Central Kalahari Game Reserve BIDPA Botswana Institute of Development Policy Analysis DFID Department for International Development DWNP Department of Wildlife and National Parks EIU Economist Intelligence Unit FPK First People of the Kalahari GDP Gross Domestic Product GC GhanziCraft HH Household IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development ITCLTD Intermediate Technology Consultants Enterprise Development Programme KD1 Kgalagadi District 1 MI Mises Institute MLGL&H Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing NKXT Nquaa Khobee Xeya Trust RAD Remote Area Dweller (often used to refer to San or Basarwa) PIP box Policies, Institutions & Processes (aka Structures, Institutions & Processes) PDL Poverty Datum (or Data) Line SAcoast South Africa’s Coast SL Sustainable Livelihood SLA Sustainable Livelihood Approach SGL Special Game License TGLP Tribal Grazing Land Policy TWT Third World Traveler WMA Wildlife Management Area UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal UNDP United Nations Development Programme ZENID The Queen Zein Al Sharaf Institute for Development 6 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction..................................................................................................9 The Field Site...........................................................................................................10 Context/ Objectives..................................................................................................11 The SLA Methodology & Limitations of the Study ................................................12 Poverty .....................................................................................................................13 Unit of Analysis .......................................................................................................15 The Research Method & Data Analysis...................................................................15 Research Method .....................................................................................................16 Chapter 2: Sustainable Livelihoods .............................................................................18 Livelihoods ..............................................................................................................19 Capital Assets and the Livelihood Portfolio ............................................................21 Actions vs. Strategies...............................................................................................23 Adaptive Strategies vs. Coping Strategies...............................................................24 Mitigating Effects of External Shocks and Trends..................................................25 The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)........................................................26 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework ................................................................29 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................34 Chapter 3: Global Vulnerability Context - ‘Global Fascism’ & the State...................36 ‘Global Fascism,’ the State and the Basarwa...........................................................37 Impact ......................................................................................................................45 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................46 Chapter 4: Local Vulnerability Context - A History of the Study Site........................48 “Living for Tomorrow:” A History of Ngwatle and Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM)...........................................................................49 The Redefinition of Community..............................................................................53 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................55 Chapter 5: Ngwatle Livelihood Portfolios
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