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CULTURAL RESOURCES OVERVIEW FOR THE DENNY CENTRE PROJECT KING COUNTY,

April 4, 2017

SWCA ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANTS , WASHINGTON

CULTURAL RESOURCES OVERVIEW FOR THE DENNY CENTRE PROJECT KING COUNTY, WASHINGTON

Report Prepared for

EA Engineering, Science and , Inc.

By

Amber Earley and Brandy Rinck

April 4, 2017

SWCA Project Number 42527 SWCA Report Number 17-152 DAHP Project Tracking Code 2017-02-01166

REDACTED

SWCA Environmental Consultants 221 1st Ave W, Suite 205 Seattle, Washington 98119

CULTURAL RESOURCES REPORT COVER SHEET

Author: Earley and Brandy Rinck

Title of Report: Cultural Resources Overview for the Denny Centre Project, King County, Washington

Date of Report: April 4, 2017

County(ies): King Section: 29 Township: 25 Range: 4 E Quad: Seattle North Acres: 0.58

PDF of report submitted (REQUIRED) Yes

Historic Property Inventory Forms to be Approved Online? Yes No

Archaeological Site(s)/Isolate(s) Found or Amended? Yes No

TCP(s) found? Yes No

Replace a draft? Yes No

Satisfy a DAHP Archaeological Excavation Permit requirement? Yes # No

Were Remains Found? Yes DAHP Case # No

DAHP Archaeological Site #:

ABSTRACT

SWCA Environmental Consultants (SWCA) was retained by EA Engineering, Science, and Technology to conduct a review of a parcel proposed for development in the Denny Triangle neighborhood north of downtown Seattle. The project is subject to the State Environmental Policy Act. SWCA carried out background research to identify previous cultural resources investigations and known archaeological sites within the project vicinity by reviewing historic maps and published historic, ethnographic, and environmental information. Background research indicates the project area has moderate to high potential for cultural resources to be present, and archaeological monitoring during construction is recommended.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Project Location and Description ...... 1 Regulatory Context ...... 1

METHODS ...... 4

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 4 Geology ...... 4 Geomorphology ...... 5 Paleoenvironment...... 6 Vegetation ...... 6 Fauna ...... 6

CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 7 ...... 7 Ethnography/Ethnology ...... 8 Euroamerican History ...... 9 History of Land Use ...... 12 Previous Archaeological Research ...... 13

ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF PROJECT AREA ...... 19

RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 20

REFERENCES ...... 21

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Project location...... 2 Figure 2. Aerial photograph showing project location...... 3 Figure 3. T-sheet, 1875, showing project location and local development...... 10 Figure 4. T-sheet, 1886, showing project location, platted streets, and local buildings...... 14 Figure 5. Sanborn Fire Insurance map, 1893, showing project location and buildings...... 15 Figure 6. Sanborn Fire Insurance map, 1905, showing project location and buildings...... 16 Figure 7. Sanborn Fire Insurance map, 1950, showing project location and buildings...... 17

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Previous Cultural Resource Investigations Within Approximately 0.5 Mile of the Project Area ... 18 Table 2. Previously Recorded Buildings Within the Same Block or Adjacent Blocks to the Project Area .. 19

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INTRODUCTION

BOSA Properties plans to develop Parcel 066000‐2230 with a 40‐story mixed‐use building. SWCA Environmental Consultants (SWCA) was retained by EA Engineering, Science and Technology, Inc. to assess the probability for significant archaeological resources to be present on the parcel proposed for development, and to recommend potential measures for avoiding impacts to significant cultural resources. A building assessment was not included in this investigation.

Project Location and Description

The project is in the Denny Triangle area north of downtown Seattle Washington in Section 29 of Township 25 N, Range 4 East, Willamette Meridian (Figure 1). The project is on Parcel 066000‐2230, bounded by Denny Way on the north, Fairview Avenue N on the west, Boren Street on the southwest, Virginia Street on the southeast, and Minor Avenue on the northeast. The site comprises approximately 24,459 square feet and contains a two‐story office building that was constructed in 1937 (Figure 2).

Regulatory Context

The project is subject to the State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA), which requires project proponents to identify any places or objects on or adjacent to the project that are listed in, or eligible for, national, state, or local preservation registers, and to identify sites of archaeological, scientific, or cultural importance in or adjacent to the project. Project proponents are required to describe proposed measures to reduce or control impacts to those places, objects, and sites. The City of Seattle Department of Construction and Inspections (SDCI) prepared an environmental impact state (EIS) addendum to accompany the project through the City of Seattle’s Master Use Permit (MUP) process, and pursued a Determination of Significance (DS) for the project (SDCI 2017). In its review of the DS, the Washington State Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (DAHP) noted that nearby archaeological sites have been identified on similar landforms and requested that a cultural resources overview assessment for the parcel be conducted, and a report submitted to DAHP and interested Tribes. DAHP also requested that the existing 1937 building be recorded on a Washington State Historical Property Inventory (HPI) form. An “Appendix A” Report was completed for the building Mirro and Jaeger 2015), but submittal of an HPI form is not part of the scope of this overview.

Other Washington state laws address archaeological sites and Native American burials. The Archaeological Sites and Resources Act (RCW 27.53) prohibits knowingly excavating or disturbing prehistoric and historic archaeological sites on public or private land. The Indian Graves and Records Act (RCW 27.44) prohibits knowingly destroying American Indian graves and provides that inadvertent disturbance through construction or other activities requires re‐interment under supervision of the appropriate Native American tribe. In to prevent the looting or depredation of sites, any maps, records, or other information identifying the location of archaeological sites, historic sites, artifacts, or the site of traditional, ceremonial, or social uses and activities of Tribes are exempt from disclosure (RCW 42.56.300).

The purpose of this report is to aid the project proponent in complying with these various legal requirements by assessing, based on background sources and field reconnaissance, the potential for encountering archaeological materials during construction. Recommendations are also included for any additional archaeological resources investigations needed to avoid or minimize adverse effects.

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Figure 1. Project location.

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Figure 2. Aerial photograph showing project location.

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METHODS

The assessment for the project area relied on documents, maps, research publications, King County Assessor records, geotechnical data, and popular articles and books that provided information about settlement and land use within the project vicinity. Background research on the environment and cultural setting of the area was carried out with resources from Suzzallo Library at the University of Washington, the Seattle Public Library, and SWCA’s library. A check was made of the Washington state archaeological site inventory and records at DAHP, King County Historic Preservation Office records, Seattle Department of Neighborhoods Historic Preservation database of historic properties, and City of Seattle Landmarks listing to determine the distribution of previously recorded pre‐contact and historical archaeological sites, ethnographic sites, and historic buildings and structures in and near the project. Logs from geotechnical borings recently conducted in the project area were also analyzed.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Archaeological evidence indicates the Pacific Northwest has been occupied by over the last 13,000 years, since the end of glaciation. Following retreat of the continental ice sheet, geomorphic, geologic, and climate processes continued to shape the landscape and influence the people who resided in the region. Natural processes such as sea‐level rise, changes in climate, and tectonic events have affected the potential distribution of resources used by people and created landforms suitable for human occupation. At the same time, these processes have also altered the archaeological record itself by selectively preserving or destroying sites that contain evidence of how people lived.

Geology

The project area is in an elongated trough and structural depression called the Puget Lowland, oriented on a north‐south axis, and bordered on the east by the and on the west by the . The topography and surficial geology of the Puget Lowland is the result of multiple continental glaciations that advanced south from during the Pleistocene epoch between 1.8 million and 10,000 years ago (Booth et al. 2003; Easterbrook 1993; Porter and Swanson 1998). The most recent glacial cycle, the Vashon Stade of the Fraser glaciation, began about 25,000 years ago and ended abruptly at the close of the Pleistocene (Armstrong et al. 1965). The Puget Lobe of the Vashon Ice Sheet reached the Seattle area by 14,500 radiocarbon years before the present (B.P.) and retreated from the area by 13,650 B.P. during the Vashon Stade (Porter and Swanson 1998). The project vicinity was buried by up to 3,000 feet (900 m) of ice at the height of Vashon glaciation.

Large lakes formed along the front of the ice sheet during glacial retreat. Prior to 13,650 B.P., the lakes drained to the southwest into the ancestral Chehalis River through the Black Lake Spillway (Porter and Swanson 1998). Drainage north to the Juan de Fuca Strait was blocked by the ice sheet (Thorson 1989; Waitt and Thorson 1983). The project area was inundated by meltwater lakes at the close of the Pleistocene (Mullineaux et al. 1965; Thorson 1980, 1993; Troost and Booth 2008). After 13,650 B.P., marine water flooded the Puget Lowland when the Puget Lobe retreated north past the between and the Olympic Peninsula and opened to the sea (Dethier et al. 1995; Mosher and Hewitt 2004). The marine incursion resulted in formation of deep, ‐like embayments, and the remaining glacial lakes drained into the rising marine waters (Thorson 1989). The project area was exposed and available for human occupation when glacial lakes drained.

The Puget Lowland began to rise in elevation soon after it was freed from the weight of ice (Troost and Booth 2008). The rate of rebound was faster than sea‐level rise in the Puget Sound, resulting in a

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relative sea‐level decline between 12,000 and 11,000 years ago. During rebound, rivers established new courses and carved valleys and channels deep into the sediment deposited by the glaciers in an effort to reach their lowered base level. Rebound was complete in the project vicinity around 11,000 years ago, after which continued global sea‐level rise drowned the earliest shorelines (Dethier et al. 1995; Dragovich et al. 1994). The levels of nearby and Lake Union were controlled by the Holocene sea‐level rise and construction of a large alluvial fan at the mouth of the during the early to mid‐Holocene (Troost and Booth 2008).

As a result of this glacial history, the Puget Lowland is characterized by undulating glacial uplands that are crossed by large ice‐carved troughs filled in with unconsolidated sediment. The largest troughs are now occupied by the marine waters of the Puget Sound and freshwater lakes, such as Lake Washington and Lake Union (Galster and Laprade 1991; Liesch et al. 1963; Yount et al. 1993). The uplands are capped with glacial till that was deposited by the ice, and lower elevations between the uplands are blanketed with outwash deposited by the glacial meltwater (Troost and Booth 2008). Older pre‐Fraser sediments deposited before the ice ages are exposed in just a few places where ice scraping was extensive or there are large bluffs.

Geomorphology

The surficial geology of the project vicinity reflects the project area’s glacial formation history. The project area is on the glacial upland where Vashon till and ice‐contact deposits are mapped (Troost and Booth 2008; Troost et al. 2005; Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources 2016). Vashon Stade ice‐contact deposits typically consist of poorly‐sorted silty sand and gravel with a locally hummocky topography suggestive of dead‐ice terrain, with lenses of glacial till and outwash. Older pre‐ Fraser deposits are exposed in the project area as . The pre‐Fraser units are non‐glacial older deposits marked by organic layers and laminated silt deposits. Sandy glacial outwash and glaciolacustrine sediment are also mapped nearby (Troost et al. 2005).

Several geotechnical borings have been drilled in the project area and intersected three stratum including fill, recent deposits, and glacial sediment. The fill consists of 2 to 7 feet (0.6 to 2.1 m) of brown, silty and gravelly, fine to medium sand and silty, sandy gravel with woody “debris.” On average, the fill is 6 feet (1.8 m) thick in the project area (GeoEngineers 2016). A thin instance of Holocene soil was identified between the fill and the glacial strata at 5.25 to 6 feet below the surface (fbs) (1.6 to 1.8 meters below the surface [mbs]) in just one of the borings drilled in the parking lot. The thin layer interpreted as a “recent deposit” consisted of grayish brown, gravelly, silty, fine to medium sand with a trace of organics (GeoEngineers 2016). The fill lies directly on top of glacially consolidated sediment in all the other borings drilled in the parking lot and along sidewalks adjacent to buildings. The glacial sediments were classified as weathered till, till, glaciolacustrine sediment, and older unconsolidated deposits by the geotechnicians logging the boreholes (GeoEngineers 2016).

The fill, Holocene, and Pleistocene glacial deposits in the project area are likely to be disturbed. Past road and building construction resulted in disturbance of the upper soils across the project area and deposition of varying amounts of fill. Today, the elevation slopes down from 136 feet (41.4 m) above sea level (asl) at the south end of the project area to 132 feet (40.2 m) asl at the north end of the project area. The west half of the project area is occupied by surface parking. Sanitary sewers; storm drains; gas, water, electric, and telecommunications fiber utilities; and adjacent street lights have also contributed to project area disturbance.

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Paleoenvironment

As the glacial period ended, newly deglaciated land surfaces were colonized by lodgepole and bracken fern, followed by Douglas‐, white pine, , and (Barnosky 1984). As conditions warmed, grasses, , and hazel appeared along with the Douglas‐fir (Whitlock 1992). Once the environment warmed at the end of the glacial period, Pacific Northwest conditions became warmer and drier than today, with drought‐like periods prevailing in the summer. Forested areas were more open, broken by scattered areas of prairie (Whitlock 1992). From about 10,500 B.P. to 7000 B.P., warming and drying conditions led to an expansion of grasses, oak, and hazel, with Douglas‐fir persisting. After about 7000 B.P. western red cedar and hemlock began to flourish in cooler and moister conditions, and by about 5000 B.P. they were dominant. By about 6000 B.P., conditions began to approach those found in the area today and gradually stabilized, with closed forests of western red cedar, hemlock, and Douglas‐ fir becoming established by about 5000 B.P. (Whitlock 1992).

Vegetation

Before large‐scale urbanization, native vegetation in the Seattle area was typical western hemlock ( heterophylla) forest, dominated by coniferous Douglas‐fir, western hemlock, and red cedar. Alder and big‐leaf maples are the most common deciduous trees and are sometimes more common in disturbed situations. Forest understory communities follow a moisture gradient, and in western hemlock forests generally consist of dense shrubs and herbaceous , including swordfern, bracken fern, salal, Oregon grape, oceanspray, blackberry, red huckleberry, and red elderberry (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). At the end of the nineteenth century, logging throughout the lowlands and on the hills above Lake Union dramatically altered the once densely‐forested environment.

Naturally treeless areas such as marshes and wetlands like those once found at the southwest corner of Lake Union, generally host associations of moisture‐loving to semi‐aquatic plants, including , alder, cattail, reeds, cranberries, skunk cabbage, and wapato (Deur and Turner 2005; Franklin and Dyrness 1973). In their natural state, these areas would have provided food or useful resources for humans as well as food and cover for some of the game and waterfowl they hunted. Historic accounts indicate a large prairie or seasonal meadow was located in the area of today’s Seattle Center, part of it reaching to the southern terminus of Lake Union and westward to the Belltown area above (Bass 1937; Waterman 2001). This type of habitat may have been burned periodically to create a specialized environment that could be relied on seasonally for berry crops and other materials.

Fauna

Much of the wildlife that provided a significant source of food, hide, skins, and bone for Seattle’s native people would also have been important to early settlers in the area. Elk, black‐tailed deer, , and mountain , and smaller such as rabbit, raccoon, red fox, porcupine, squirrel, coyote, weasel, and river otter are all found in . Marshes and wetlands provided habitat for beaver and muskrats and a migration corridor for ducks, geese, and other waterfowl. Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest relied predominately on fish and shellfish. Lake Union, Lake Washington, and nearby rivers and streams supported runs of Chinook, coho, and sockeye salmon, as well as freshwater fish such as bull trout, suckers, Dolly Varden, and sculpin. The tideflats in Elliott Bay and Shilshole Bay supported a variety of shellfish, and saltwater fish, harbor seal, sea , and porpoises were found in coastal waters.

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CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived in the Pacific Northwest at the end of the Pleistocene glaciation over 14,000 years before present, when the modern landscape, climate, and vegetation reached conditions favorable for human occupation. Following the retreat of the continental ice sheet, geomorphic, geologic, and climatic processes continued to shape the landscape, affecting the potential distribution of resources available for human use and creating landforms suitable for their settlement. These processes have also altered the archaeological record itself by selectively preserving or destroying sites that record earlier lifeways. Human modifications that began with Euroamerican settlement have continued to radically alter the landscape, removing or burying earlier remains of pre‐ contact land use and historical development in response to economic, technological, and demographic changes.

Prehistory

The earliest evidence of human presence in Washington comes from distinctive projectile points and stone believed to be associated with highly mobile Paleoindian groups adapted to hunting large fauna such as and (Martin 1973; Meltzer and Dunnell 1987). Materials from this period are rare in Washington, known from widely separated isolated finds (Meltzer and Dunnell 1987). Evidence for this adaptation includes the Manis Mastodon Site near the town of Sequim where extinct and mastodon remains were found in possible association with cultural remains (Gustafson and Manis 1984; Kirk and Daugherty 1978). Radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis confirmed that a mastodon rib on the site was associated with the other remains and is dated to 13,800 years ago (Waters et al. 2011). A fluted point was found in a peat bog on a terrace in Maple Valley, about 14 miles southeast of Seattle. Large concave, unfluted bases, radiocarbon dated to 8420 B.P. to 12,820 B.P., were found beneath peat at the Bear Creek Site near Redmond (Kopperl et al. 2010).

The period from about 8000 to 5000 B.P. is characterized by sites referred to as “Olcott” after the type site in Snohomish County and referred to in adjacent areas as “Old Cordilleran” or “Early Lithic” (Butler 1961; Fladmark 1982; Kidd 1964). The distinctive Olcott large, leaf‐shaped and stemmed points and cobble and flake tools, often made of heavily weathered volcanic rock like dacite or basalt, are usually found inland on raised terraces where human occupation likely became established as landforms stabilized during the middle Holocene (Carlson 1990; Mattson 1971). Beginning about 5000 B.P., sites in the appear to represent increased population with more complex socioeconomic organization. and tools of bone, antler, and shell associated with fishing and plant processing become more common and increasingly diversified. The developing importance of woodworking is evident in the presence of tools such as , wedges, and mauls (Ames and Maschner 1999; Matson and Coupland 1995).

A number of significant archaeological sites in the immediate Seattle area represent occupation over the last 5,000 years. Favored areas for settlement and resource gathering were littoral, riverine, and estuarine locations where today sites may lie under deep fill (Hudson et al. 2005). The West Point Site Complex (45KI428 and 45KI429), used continuously from ca. 4300 B.P. to 200 B.P., consists of two main shell sites with a rich assemblage that includes stone and bone tools (Larson and Lewarch 1995). Several other significant sites have been found from the period between about 1700 B.P. and the historic contact period in the middle of the nineteenth century. These include occupation sites in estuarine settings such as the Duwamish No. 1 Site (45KI123) south of downtown Seattle which revealed cultural materials dating to three main occupation periods between A.D. 15 and A.D. 1600, with evidence of , mat lodges, fish drying racks, , and food processing features in

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association with lithic and bone artifacts and faunal remains (Hudson et al. 2005). Other sites in south Seattle (45KI152) and west Seattle (45KI432) are shell containing charcoal and fire‐modified rock (FMR), bone and lithic artifacts, and remains of shell and fish and bones.

Ethnography/Ethnology

The project area is within the traditional territory of the Duwamish or Xacho‐absh, Lushootseed‐ speakers who had villages along the shorelines of Lake Union, Lake Sammamish, Lake Washington, Elliott Bay, Shilshole Bay, and the Duwamish, Black, and Cedar Rivers in present‐day Seattle and Renton (Ruby and Brown 1992; Smith 1940; Waterman 2001). According to early settlers, Lake Union was known to local Duwamish as “tenas chuck” (little lake/waters) (Bagley 1916:371). An early resident who reminisced about wandering the shores of Lake Union in her childhood recalled a native camp on the southwest shoreline somewhere in the vicinity of the coal train tracks. A cedar structure existed in the late nineteenth century at this location, and local Duwamish were engaged there in traditional activities such as preserving fish and clams, making , and drying berries (Bass 1937:67). Not far from the camp, an expanse of marshy flats on the southwestern end of the lake was known to the Duwamish as Spa’Lxad and undoubtedly provided them with important natural resources.

The Lake Union location provided a perfect access point for movement throughout the Puget Sound region on the inland waterway that connected the Elliott Bay shoreline with Lake Washington and points to the south along the Green and White Rivers. A wagon road between the south end of Lake Union and Elliott Bay seen on an 1856 Government Land Office map was probably built over a native trail, Cta’qwcld (Denny‐Lindsley 1906; Office of Surveyor General 1856; Waterman 2001). Along that trail, an open prairie or seasonal meadow, Baba’kwob, stretched from the southwest end of the lake westward through the area that is now Seattle Center. The site of David Denny’s house at about the present location of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation was used as a gathering place for potlatches (Dorpat 1984:60), and may be related to Baba’kwob. Another trail crossing the northeast end of the lake in the area of today’s Montlake approached a narrow place for portage that met up on the other side with a trail to longhouses that once stood at the site of the present‐day University of Washington (Miller and Blukis Onat 2004; Office of United States Surveyor General 1856; Waterman 2001). On the west side of Lake Union, a narrow creek connected with Salmon Bay and Shilshole, the location of another Duwamish settlement (Waterman 2001:45). Recorded Lushootseed place names for various creeks and promontories around the lake reflect Duwamish familiarity with the area (Waterman 2001:77–80).

The Duwamish had their home base in winter villages of cedar plank houses at the confluences of rivers and major streams, generally at places where large amounts of fish could be harvested seasonally. Village groups were autonomous, with control over nearby resource territories associated with their villages. Duwamish groups were linked by marital ties and shared use of some resource areas with other Duwamish groups as well as neighboring people who included the Suquamish to the west, Snohomish to the north, Snoqualmie to the east, and White and Green Rivers groups to the south known collectively today as the Muckleshoot.

Like other Puget Sound groups, the Duwamish followed an annual cycle of fishing, hunting, and gathering, moving throughout their territory by trail or canoe to take advantage of resources as they became available in different locales at different times. In spring and summer, small bands made temporary camps at fishing or shellfish gathering sites and locations of root foods, ripening berries, or other resources. Surplus foods preserved by smoking or drying for winter use were brought back to the central villages in baskets, twine bags, or cedar boxes (Haeberlin and Gunther 1930; Smith 1940).

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Salmon and shellfish, especially clams, formed the most important part of the Duwamish diet. Other resources included freshwater fish caught in the lakes and streams of the area; deer; bear; small hunted along the valleys, uplands, and lake shores; and waterfowl found on the numerous waterways. Marine resources included mammals, crabs, shrimp, oysters, mussels, and other invertebrates found along the saltwater shoreline. At the end of the food‐gathering season, the Duwamish returned to their villages. The winter months when food‐gathering activities slowed were important for tending to social relationships, visiting, trading, and engaging in festivities and ceremonies with neighboring groups (Haeberlin and Gunther 1930; Miller 1999; Smith 1940).

For the most part, the Duwamish maintained friendly relations with Seattle pioneers, providing them with labor, salmon, shellfish, baskets, and other resources. Treaty era tensions erupted into hostilities throughout the Pacific Northwest, but in spite of some conflict in the Seattle area, the Native people continued to live in the town (Thrush 2007). Diminishing means of pursuing a traditional lifestyle, shifts in settlement and intergroup relationships, and loss of land to the increasing white population eventually brought an end to most vestiges of Native life in the urban area. Today many people of Duwamish descent live among the Muckleshoot, Snoqualmie, Suquamish, and Tulalip Tribes as a result of reservations established by treaties concluded with the U.S. Government in 1855–1856 for the Puget Sound Salish. Other Duwamish continue to seek federal recognition (Ruby and Brown 1992).

Euroamerican History

In 1851 a small scouting party explored the , followed a year later by a group of settlers led by Arthur Denny (Denny‐Lindsley 1906; Watt 1931). Seattle’s pioneers landed first on the shoreline at Alki but soon filed for homestead claims under the Oregon Donation Act in the vicinity of present‐day downtown. Among them, David Denny and Thomas Mercer established homes on the west shore of Lake Union, and W. N. Bell claimed land that extended from Elliott Bay east to include the project area (Bagley 1929:68; Becker et al. 2007; Office of United States Surveyor General 1856). After settler Henry Yesler built Seattle’s first lumber mill on Elliott Bay, settlers cut a road through the thick forest to reach the Lake Union shoreline to gather timber, but settlement was slow around the lake shore due to thick timber and the impassibility of early wagon roads. Bell began construction of a cabin on his claim in 1852, probably closer to the Elliott Bay shoreline. He left Seattle shortly after the January 1856 Battle of Seattle during which local Native Americans, dissatisfied with treaty terms and the encroachment of settlers in their traditional territory, attacked Euroamerican settlements. Bell’s house was destroyed during the battle, and he moved his to California shortly thereafter (Link 2006).

In 1872, the Lake Union area began to open up when the Seattle Coal and Transportation Company started transporting coal from mines in Renton and Newcastle. The coal was portaged across the narrow cut at the north end of the lake, loaded onto barges, and brought to company docks at Valley Street at the south end of the lake. From there the coal was transported along a route now occupied by Terry Avenue N on the company’s narrow gauge railroad to coal bunkers on Pike Street at Elliott Bay (Crowley 2005; Dorpat 1984, 1989:85; Mackintosh Searcher of Records and Dealer in Real Estate 1874; Reinartz 1993). The first Lake Union neighborhood gradually grew up in the area around the coal docks and train tracks at the south end of the lake, and soon after, ferry service was launched from the dock to various points around the lake (Campbell and Jackson 2005). An 1875 map of the area shows the railroad extending west of the project area to the ferry dock at Lake Union. In addition, a road is shown extending north‐south through the project area, which is southwest of a house and shed with associated land that was cleared for cultivation and pasture (Figure 3). Bell returned to Seattle in 1870 and sold some of his land, but retained portions that include the project area, platting and naming streets after

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Figure 3. T-sheet, 1875, showing project location and local development.

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his family, including Olive Street and Virginia Street after his daughters, and Stewart Street after Olive’s husband Joseph Stewart (Link 2006).

When the coal train line was abandoned in 1877, the Seattle, Lake Shore & Eastern Railroad laid streetcar tracks along the same route, running from the vicinity of today’s Westlake Center to the lake. The original line was soon extended north to Fremont on an elevated roadway that crossed the marshlands on the southwest edge of the lake (Armbruster 1999; Bagley 1929; Dorpat 2002). Seattle built its first horse‐drawn streetcar in 1884 and 2 years later extended its route to the lakeshore and along Westlake (Blanchard 1968). By 1890, street cars of the Seattle Electric Railway had replaced the horse‐drawn cars of the original street railway (Fullerton 1982).

As Seattle’s population grew throughout the 1880s, the demand for timber and other commodities grew with it. Increasingly, the thick‐timbered hills around the Lake Union shoreline were logged. Timber could be cut and rolled down to the lake to be floated to the shoreline where it was loaded onto wagons to be taken to area mills (Bagley 1929; Reinartz 1993). In 1882, a group of business partners built the first sawmill on the lake and in 1884 sold it to David Denny, who renamed it the Western Mill Company. Denny built a new larger mill, converted the original mill to a separate door and sash company, and built a separate planing and lathing mill (Campbell and Jackson 2005; Reinartz 1993). Originally built on pilings over the water, the mill gradually moved northward as the lake was filled in with mill waste and facilities expanded. Photos from this period show clusters of wood frame houses, sheds, and lumber facilities on the relatively flat terrain at the south end of the lake between the east side of Denny Hill and Capitol Hill (Peiser ca. 1885; Unknown 1890, 1891). In 1899, Denny sold the mill to two of his employees, J. S. Brace and Frank Hergert, but following a fire, it was rebuilt on fill north of Valley Street. It was sold in 1921 to the Stimson Timber Company which continued to operate it into the 1930s.

At the end of the nineteenth century, a series of historic events led to the growth of Seattle’s population and economic base, bringing new development to the Lake Union area. In 1889, fire devastated much of the town’s central business core, leading to a demand for timber and brick as well as labor for rebuilding. The arrival of the Great Northern Railway in 1893 provided Seattle with a transcontinental link, and in 1897 the Klondike Gold Rush created a boom for local business with an influx of trampers making their last supply stop at Seattle before heading north to the gold fields. In 1909, the Northern Pacific Railroad (NPRR) built a belt line in the Lake Union area, eventually constructing numerous spur lines along Terry Street and Valley Street to provide light along the lakeshore with shipping access (Cole 2000; Nelson 2001; Tobin and Hart Crowser 1995). The line followed Terry Street to Valley Street, where it split into east and west lines that followed the southern shore of the lake. In 1911 or 1912, the NPRR built a track over a 2‐mile‐long wood trestle, extending it from a point near Mercer Street and Westlake Avenue N to the Fremont Bridge, across the shallow shoreline of Lake Union.

Continued growth of the area and connection with the central core was impeded by high hills, like steep Denny Hill that rose between the central business core and Lake Union. Between 1898 and 1930, city engineers carried out a series of three regrading projects to remove Denny Hill and level adjacent terrain, effectively connecting the lake and points north with the main area of Seattle. During this period, low‐lying areas including ravines and the marsh on the southwest corner of the lake were filled with regrade spoils, as were open areas around wharfs and elevated roadways, including the Westlake trestle. It was probably during this period that regrade spoils were dumped into the north‐south‐ trending ravine between Westlake Avenue and Terry Avenue N and extending east to Fairview Avenue (Campbell and Jackson 2005; Lewarch et al. 1999). Between 1907 and 1910, Valley Street, Dexter Avenue, and Fairview Avenue were also graded and filled (Campbell and Jackson 2005; Tobin and Hart

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Crowser 1995; Link 2006). The portion of Stewart Street between 8th and 9th Avenues was also regraded in 1910 (Link 2006).

By the early years of the twentieth century, Westlake Avenue had become a paved thoroughfare, and warehouses, boatbuilding enterprises, and steam laundries were beginning to line the lakeshore (Baist 1905, 1912; Dorpat 1984:58; Nelson 2001; Sanborn Map Company 1905). Growth of light industry and other commercial concerns was facilitated by access to shipping on the NPRR Belt Line around Lake Union. The opening in 1917 of the Lake Washington Ship Canal connected Lake Union with Lake Washington through the Montlake Cut in the northeast end, and with Puget Sound via the Fremont Cut, Salmon Bay, and the Chittenden Locks to the west. Lake Union remained a busy maritime and industrial center until the opening of the Aurora Bridge in 1932 limited mast heights, ending the era of tall ships and the heyday of maritime activity on the lake (Becker et al. 2007; Dorpat 1989:85).

During the Great Depression years of the 1930s, the diverse activity that had made Lake Union a busy economic hub waned. Increased dependence on the automobile brought the next wave of change to South Lake Union. Through the 1930s Westlake and South Lake Union became something of an “auto row” with showrooms and repair and service shops lining Westlake Avenue. Though the area briefly saw a new industrial boom during World War II (WWII), the post‐war economy became more mercantile as new shops selling hardware, household goods, building materials, and industrial equipment moved into South Lake Union, and warehouses replaced many of the older industrial enterprises (Campbell and Jackson 2005).

The project area is on the southwest edge of what was once the Cascade neighborhood, a working area composed of Norwegian, Italian, Greek, and Russian laborers who settled in the area to work in the sawmills, boatyards, lumberyards, brickyards, steam laundries and the other commercial and industrial enterprises that once flourished around the lakeshore. The Cascade community centered on the Cascade School, built in 1893, and churches that included St. Spiridon, St. Demetrios, and Immanuel Lutheran. A shrinking industrial base, condemning of the Cascade School following earthquake damage, and changes in traffic infrastructure all contributed to a decline of the Cascade neighborhood and the surrounding Lake Union area in the middle years of the twentieth century. When the Battery Street Tunnel opened in 1954, traffic and retail patterns in the area changed significantly. Light manufacturing moved into the Cascade area, facilitated by a 1957 zoning ordinance that prohibited new residential uses (Campbell and Jackson 2005). When Interstate 5 (I‐5) was built in the 1960s, close to 300 houses and as many apartment units were demolished, and the new freeway created a physical barrier between remaining sections of the old Cascade neighborhood (Tobin and Hart Crowser 1995).

In recent years, while South Lake Union area has experienced changes as dramatic as any throughout its eventful history, growth in the Denny Triangle, bounded by Denny Way, Westlake Avenue, Olive Way and I‐5, has been slower. Zoned as “commercial” since the mid‐1950s, (Link 2006) until recently, the Denny Triangle has housed a mix of low‐rise residences, businesses, and parking lots. Development in the South Lake Union, downtown, and lower Queen Anne neighborhoods is rapidly encroaching on the Denny Triangle area, and many of the early to mid‐twentieth century buildings have been replaced.

History of Land Use

Early maps of the Seattle area show the changing shorelines of Elliott Bay and Lake Union, and trends related to general development over the decades in the City as a whole are reflected in changes seen in the project area (United States Coast and Geodetic Survey [USCGS] 1875, 1886). In 1875, the project vicinity was still largely forested, with access via a road through the project area, and the coal railroad to the west, connecting with a ferry dock at the south end of Lake Union. Settlements were sparse and

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included houses near the lake, one building to the south of the project area along the road, and a large farm just northeast of the project area (see Figure 3) (USCGS 1875).

By 1886, the character of the project vicinity had changed dramatically. Streets were platted in much the same locations that they remain today, and the area was dotted with buildings, including one within the project area near the corner of Denny and Minor, north of an alley that bisected the project parcel (Figure 4) (USCGS 1886). By 1893, the Sanborn Company had drafted maps of much of Seattle for fire insurance purposes. The maps show details that earlier maps did not, including building types, street names, and the presence of outbuildings. In the project area, by 1893, a dwelling with outbuildings was on the southern part of the project parcel, in what appears to be a different location from the earlier building, which is no longer present. The dwelling faces Virginia Street, which had not been opened to traffic. Nearby parcels also housed dwellings (Sanborn‐Perris Map Company 1893) (Figure 5).

In 1905, the southern half of the parcel had been subdivided, and several new dwellings, oriented to face Boren Avenue, had taken the place of the earlier building. The northern part of the parcel was still vacant, and the alley was still present (Sanborn Map Company 1905) (Figure 6). On nearby blocks, similar dwelling units had sprung up as the neighborhood evolved.

The building currently standing on the project parcel was initially constructed in 1937 in the southern half of the project parcel, and is shown on a 1950 Sanborn map (Figure 7) (Sanborn Map Company 1950). In the same year, the Standard Service Tire Company, who leased the building, vacated the alley on the parcel, and constructed the existing addition to the building, extending it to Denny Way (Mirro and Jaeger 2015). Subsequent alterations to the building included enclosing an area under a canopy and adding brick veneer to the exterior (Mirro and Jaeger 2015). The changing character of the neighborhood after WWII is reflected in Figure 7. Nearly all of the dwellings in the immediate vicinity had given way to light industry and retail spaces, and elsewhere in the neighborhood, single‐family dwellings had been replaced by multi‐family apartments.

Previous Archaeological Research

Previous cultural resources investigations and identified archaeological sites in the project vicinity provide information on the types of resources that could be found in the project area, as well as data on geomorphology and depth of cultural deposits. Table 1 summarizes the 26 investigations related to development of utilities infrastructure, transportation, trails and parks, roadway work, and private construction that have been carried out within 0.5 mile of the project area.

Two archaeological sites are within 0.5 mile of the project area. Although neither is within the project area, they are representative of social and economic themes in local pre‐contact and Euroamerican history. The Denny Park Cemetery (45KI85) is approximately 0.3 mile west of the project area. The land, which was part of the original Denny claim, was donated by the Denny family in 1864 for use as a cemetery. In 1884, the Denny Family re‐deeded the land for use as a public park, and all of the graves were removed to Lakeview Cemetery (DAHP 2017). Site 45KI737, about 0.3 mile east of the project area, is a portion of the puncheon/corduroy Pine Street dating to about 1890 to 1907, prior to regrading. Associated artifacts and roadway and sidewalk features provided information about the construction of the road and the domestic lives of people who lived in the area (Cowan 2006; Lockwood 2011). Just over 0.5 mile northwest is site 45KI958, which was identified on a landform similar to that of the project area. Site 45KI958 is the historical remains of buildings dating from 1902 to 1971, and a historical assemblage representing domestic life of the early 1900s (Valentino 2015).

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Figure 4. T-sheet, 1886, showing project location, platted streets, and local buildings.

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Figure 5. Sanborn Fire Insurance map, 1893, showing project location and buildings.

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Figure 6. Sanborn Fire Insurance map, 1905, showing project location and buildings.

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Figure 7. Sanborn Fire Insurance map, 1950, showing project location and buildings.

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Table 1. Previous Cultural Resource Investigations Within Approximately 0.5 Mile of the Project Area Relation to Author Date Project Results* Project Area Earth Technology 1984a Archaeological Resources Assessment for the Downtown 0.4 mi S Overview Corporation Seattle Transit Tunnel Project Earth Technology 1984b Archaeological Resources Assessment for the Downtown 0.4 mi S Overview Corporation Seattle Transit Tunnel Project Task 2: Archival Research Metro 1985 106 Documentation: Downtown Seattle Transit Project 0.4 mi S Overview SHAPIRO & 1994 Washington State Convention and Trade Center (WSCTC) 0.3 mi S Overview Associates, Inc. Expansion, Cultural and Historical Resources Analysis Forsman et al. 1997 Denny Way/Lake Union Combined Sewer Overflow Control Encompasses Overview Project, Seattle, King County, Cultural Resources Assessment Courtois et al. 1999 Central Link Light Rail Transit Project Final Environmental Adjacent Old Norway Hall; Impact Statement: Historic and Prehistoric Archaeological Volker, William, Sites, Historic Resources, Native American Traditional Building Cultural Properties, Paleontological Sites Rooke 2002 Letter Report: Cingular Wireless project site WA-794 0.5 mi SW None (Securities Bldg) Demuth et al. 2004 Part 2 Historical Resources (Section 106) Technical Report 0.4 mi SW Historical buildings for the Green Line EIS outside of building search area Lewarch et al. 2004 Part 1: Seattle Monorail Project Green Line, King County, 0.4 mi SW None Washington Archaeological Resources and Traditional Cultural Places Assessment Link 2004 Letter Report: Telecommunications antennas attached to 0.5 mi SW Historical buildings 1930 3rd Avenue/301 Virginia Street, Seattle, Washington outside of building (Parcel Numbers 1977201260 & 1977201280), Request for search area Determination Campbell and 2005 Technical Report: South Lake Union Streetcar Project 0.2 mi W Historical buildings Jackson Cultural and Historic Resources outside of building search area Seattle 2005 Environmental Impact Statement for the South Lake Union 0.3 mi N Overview Department of Research and Administrative Office Space: Phase 2 and 3 Planning and Development Development Gilpin 2007 Draft: Archaeological Monitoring at the South Lake Union 0.2 mi N Historic artifacts in Streetcar Maintenance Facility, Seattle fill Durio and Bard 2008 Mercer Corridor Improvements Environmental Assessment, 0.3 mi N Overview Historic, Cultural, and Archaeological Resources Discipline Report Gallacci 2010 Letter Report: Wireless Proposal #SA1209, 1904 3rd 0.4 mi SW Historical building Avenue, Seattle (Stewart and 4th) Request for outside of building Determination: No Historic Properties Adversely Affected search area Rooke et al. 2010 Cultural Resources Discipline Report for the Aurora 0.4 mi W Historical buildings RapidRide—E Line Project, NEPA Documented Categorical outside of building Exclusion Final Historical, Archaeological, and Cultural search area Resources Discipline Report Blake and Huber 2011 Archaeological Resources Monitoring of Geotechnical 0.5 mi NW Historic debris in fill Borings from Harrison Street to Thomas Street, SR 99 Alaskan Way Viaduct Replacement Project, Seattle, Washington Hoyt et al. 2012 Archaeological Monitoring and Data Recovery at 45‐KI‐737 0.3 mi SE 45KI737 update Old Pine Street, Sound Transit University Link Light Rail Pine Street Stub Tunnel (U230), Seattle, Washington Dellert et al. 2013 Addendum to Cultural Resources Discipline Report for the 0.4 mi W Overview Aurora RapidRide E-Line Project Finley 2014 Letter Report: Results of a cultural resources study of the 0.2 mi SW None SEA Denny Regrade cell site (Trileaf #613331), Seattle, King County, Washington Gunn 2014a Technical Memo: WA798 Denny Park 0.2 mi W Overview Gunn 2014b Technical Memo: SA1174 Denny Hill 0.4 mi E Overview

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Table 1. Previous Cultural Resource Investigations Within Approximately 0.5 Mile of the Project Area Relation to Author Date Project Results* Project Area Sheridan 2014 Appendix A Historical Resource Assessment: 1920 Terry 0.1 mi S 1920 Terry Avenue Avenue, Seattle, Washington Stevenson 2014 Results of Archaeological Monitoring for King County Metro’s 0.4 mi W Historic debris in fill RapidRide E-Line, Seattle, Washington Castronuevo 2015 Archaeological Survey, Site Name: SEA Convention Center 0.2 mi SE Overview AWS, Seattle, King County, Washington Heideman 2015 Cultural Resources Assessment for the 1016 Republican 0.3 mi N Overview Street Development, Seattle, King County, Washington

Several historical buildings have been recorded on adjacent blocks (Table 2). The Volker Building is listed in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) as an example of early art deco design in Seattle. The Old Norway Hall is a City of Seattle Landmark, important as an example of the Norwegian influence on the development of Seattle. The remaining buildings are not evaluated, have been demolished, or have not been nominated for historical registers.

Table 2. Previously Recorded Buildings Within the Same Block or Adjacent Blocks to the Project Area Compiler/Date Age Description Relation to Project Area Wickwire 2000 1951 Fire Station No. 15 (1933 Minor Avenue) Block to SE Tvete 1978 1915 Old Norway Hall (2015 Boren Avenue) Block to SW Sheridan 2016 1949 Seattle Surgical Supply (1920 Terry Avenue) Block to S Peckham 1979 1902 1900 Boren Avenue (demolished) Block to SE Sullivan and Brack 1983 1928 45KI81: Volker, William, Building (1000 Lenora Street) Block to W

ARCHAEOLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF PROJECT AREA

The project is on a glacial upland landform where there is typically relatively low potential for encountering intact, significant pre‐contact or ethnographic period archaeological resources. But there is heightened archaeological sensitivity around creeks, lakes, and other water features, such as Lake Union, and around prairie habitats. Baba’kwob, the prairie that occupied much of the area now occupied by Seattle Center, was of major significance to local Native American groups. Prairies often provided habitat for resources that were important, and the open spaces were often used as meeting and gathering spots.

Any pre‐contact cultural materials found in undisturbed portions of the glacial upland would probably not be buried deeper than 3 feet (0.9 m) below the base of the fill. If present, potentially significant evidence of pre‐contact or ethnographic‐period human activity might include FMR, bone, concentrations of shell, ground and flaked stone tools, flaked stone ‐making debris, burned earth, cordage or fiber, organically stained sediments, charcoal, ash, and exotic rocks and minerals. Construction of roads, buildings, and the addition of fill across the project area during the historical period may have resulted in the blading away of most naturally‐formed soils at the surface and disturbance where Holocene‐aged soils were not removed prior to blading and filling. One of the borings drilled below the parking lot contained a 0.75‐foot‐thick (0.2‐m‐thick) layer of grayish brown, gravelly, silty, fine to medium sand with a trace of organics interpreted to be Holocene soil between 5.25 and 6 fbs (1.6 to 1.8 mbs), but none of the other borings contained Holcoene‐aged deposits between the fill and underlying glacial sediment.

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Historical development of the project area began prior to 1875 with the construction of a road through the parcel, and the establishment of a farm to the northeast. A series of single‐family residences were constructed on the parcel, beginning as early as 1893 with several construction episodes until the current building was constructed in 1937. Regrade projects carried out between 1898 and 1930 leveled topographic highs and filled low‐lying areas in the project vicinity. Regrade spoils often bury significant earlier historical deposits. For example, site 45KI737, a remnant of an early version of Pine Street, was buried by regrade fill. The fill itself could also contain remains or artifacts related to different periods of historic activity.

RECOMMENDATIONS

No previously‐identified significant archaeological resources are within the project area. Borehole data indicate that fill rests directly on glacial sediment that predates human occupation of the area. However, one borehole excavated in the parking lot encountered a buried soil at the boundary between the fill and unmodified glacial sediment. The presence of a buried soil indicates a relatively stable surface that could harbor pre‐contact or early historic archaeological material. Furthermore, the northern half of the parcel appears to have remained relatively undeveloped until 1950 when an addition was constructed to the 1937 building. Depending on the construction methods for that building, stable pre‐contact and early historic surfaces with archaeological material may be present. Additionally, remains of the various dwellings that were once present in the southern half of the parcel may be preserved subsurface by fill episodes between construction episodes.

Given the presence of potentially stable surfaces within the project parcel, archaeological monitoring during construction is recommended to identify any significant archaeological sites that may be present. Monitoring should focus on depths where the fill intersects with underlying sediments, and where the Holocene soil was identified in the geotechnical boring. The monitoring should be guided by a monitoring and discovery plan submitted to DAHP and affected Tribes for review prior to construction.

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