Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007

HOLOCENE SUBISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS: MOUNT RAINIER AND THE MONTANE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

Greg C. Burtchard1

ABSTRACT landscapes, to prehistoric people, however, has only recently become widely recognized The last two decades have witnessed in the Pacific Northwest. Perhaps because of increased interest regarding the role of elevation, unpredictable weather and rugged mountain landscapes in regional subsistence terrain, places like Mount Rainier have been and settlement systems, and the manner in regarded by many as marginal to subsistence which those systems changed through time. and settlement strategies that focused instead The 1998 report (revised 2003) Environment, on lowland settings east and west of the Prehistory and Archaeology of Mount Rainier Cascades. National Park, Washington deals with these issues as they apply to Mount Rainier, with The mountain locally known as Takhoma1 was implications for the Cascades generally. This renamed Mount Rainier by George Vancouver paper extracts key arguments from that report, during his Puget Sound explorations (Morgan updated and refined through recent research, 1979:8). It is the highest and most massive of to address long-term land-use processes as the stratovolcanos that form the eastern spine they apply to Mount Rainier and Cascade of the Cascade Range, which extend from Mt. landscapes; and to consider the capacity of Baker in northern Washington to Mt. Lassen the archaeological record to improve our in northern California. For at least the last understanding of these processes. This paper 75,000 years (Harris 1988:240), Rainier has first introduces Mount Rainier’s basic loomed above the surrounding western environmental characteristics, and addresses Cascade peaks, dominating the landscape the capacity of this, and other mountain from the Puget Trough to the Cowlitz River landscapes, to attract and sustain precontact valley on the west, and from the Kittitas to hunters and gatherers. Sections that follow Yakima valleys on the east. Owing to the discuss the forager to collector continuum as combined effects of elevation, mass, latitude it applies to the Pacific Northwest, and and position relative to Pacific westerlies, employs these principles to develop a Mount Rainier sustains the single largest Holocene subsistence and settlement model glacier system in the 48 contiguous states designed to fit Mount Rainier patterns into (Harris 1988:231). These glaciers are the larger regional land-use systems. source of several major Northwest rivers — the Nisqually, Mowich-Puyallup, Carbon, and INTRODUCTION White Rivers draining into Puget Sound; and the Ohanapecosh-Cowlitz system emptying Mount Rainier’s upper elevation landscapes into the Columbia River at Longview north of have been used seasonally by hunting and Portland. gathering people for most of the 8,500 to 9,500 years that the mountain has been free of Mount Rainier National Park forms an Pleistocene glacial ice. The importance of approximately square 235,612 acre box Mount Rainier, and other mountain around the mountain’s base; including the

1Mount Rainier National Park, Ashford, WA; [email protected]

3 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. geologically older Tatoosh pluton peaks on its side-- (see Figure 2), Mount Rainier should northern and southern flanks, and the Cascade have been a particularly valuable resource crest to the east (Figure 1). Environmental procurement destination throughout much of characteristics vary with elevation, aspect, and the time that people have occupied the region. landform. Over the years, different taxonomic Assuming these resources did indeed attract systems have been employed to group these precontact people, Mount Rainier’s characteristics in the form of floral, principally archaeological record should preserve forest, composition (e.g., Brockman 1947; evidence of that use, distributed in greatest Franklin and Dyrness 1973; Moir 1989). For abundance in its more productive subalpine, our purposes, it is useful to modify these alpine and other early to mid seral stage systems slightly to accommodate vegetation- environments. resource zones of differential value to prehistoric people. For Mount Rainier, this The seasonal resource richness of upper can be accomplished in a four-part system that elevation landscapes has not always been includes 1) low to mid-elevation closed forest appreciated. Perhaps because mountains associations (here referred to as the Northwest appear to be remote, difficult-to-access places maritime forest) and associated river with severe winters, many have assumed that floodplains, 2) patchy subalpine parklands, 3) they were poorly suited to precontact human alpine tundra above tree-line, and 4) perpetual use in other than a cursory manner, or as snowfields and glaciers. barriers to be crossed on the way to somewhere else (cf., Mierendorf 1999:14-15). Mount Rainier’s environmental characteristics Ethnographic evidence to the contrary (Smith are important because they play a critical role 2006), presumed unimportance of high in conditioning the manner in which its elevation landscapes was implicit in the river landscapes were used during the prehistoric valley emphasis of Mount Rainier’s first past. Arguably, seasonal availability of formal archaeological survey (Daugherty economically important subsistence resources 1963), and lingered into the mid-1970s as constitutes the primary reason that people witnessed by statements alluding to the park’s used Mount Rainier during precontact times.2 limited potential for archaeological remains The most useful of these resources (e.g., (Bohannon 1974, 1975). mountain goats, elk, deer, marmots, bears, game birds, and huckleberries) tend to co- Since that time, the count of precontact occur in greatest abundance in subalpine, archaeological site locations at Mount Rainier, alpine, and other early- to mid-seral stage and in other mountain settings across the habitats wherever they occur. Accordingly, it Pacific Northwest, has climbed steadily. By is reasonable to expect precontact hunter- 2008, almost 100 site and isolated finds had gatherers to have favored these environments been documented in Mount Rainier National over more heavily forested, relatively Park (Figure 3) despite widespread presence resource-impoverished lower elevation slopes; of artifact -obscuring ground cover, repeated at least within the fishery-poor boundaries of volcanic deposits, and limited survey effort. Mount Rainier National Park. Consistent with patterned resource abundance on the mountain, most of these archaeological Because upper elevation subalpine and other properties are located in upper elevation early seral stage environments tend to be forest, subalpine and alpine settings. large, non-isolated, and widespread above 5,500 feet –especially on its drier northeastern

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Nisqually River Tatoosh Pluton

N

Cascade Crest

White River Figure 1. Mount Rainier viewed from the northeast. Base map generated by Mount Rainier National Park GIS Office.

Figure 2. Mount Rainier and sub-alpine parklands in Spray Park. Photo by author.

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Figure 3. 2008 Documented precontact Sites and environmental zones in Mount Rainier National Park. Map generated by Mount Rainier National Park GIS office.

FORAGERS, COLLECTORS, AND time as well as variation across space. In the MOUNTAINS years since, many archaeologists have come to accept basic tenets of the forager-collector If we had better understood the resource model as modified and elaborated to qualities of mountain environments, and the accommodate organizational change through economies of early Holocene hunter-gatherers, time in patchy, temperate environments. In the archaeological community might not have essence, the model anticipates that, for ignored the importance of mountains to terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene precontact people for so long. In order to colonizing populations, the most effective better understand these issues, it is useful to economic strategy was one dominated by consider the manner in which precontact small, highly mobile foraging groups whose societies were organized and how they movement was determined largely by seasonal changed during the last 12,000 years or so. availability and productivity of locally obtainable subsistence and maintenance Lewis Binford (1980) developed basic resources. Human population density and elements of the forager-collector model to competition for available food resources were explain spatial variation in hunter-gatherer low. The relatively few foraging groups in the subsistence and settlement patterns in tropical region were relatively unencumbered in their environments. Schalk and Cleveland (1983) capacity to move to new hunting and extended these principles to the Pacific gathering places (including mountains) in Northwest; applying them to change through accordance with seasonal, or other, changes in

6 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. the availability and abundance of their most principles to lay the groundwork for important resources. Storage needs were anticipating the nature of social and minimal and residential moves could be made archaeological changes by drawing attention by the entire social unit. It is reasonable to to 1) basic shifts in regional and montane expect use of high elevation landscapes by land-use practices through time, and 2) early Holocene foragers assuming the implications, if any, for the archaeological mountains’ economic opportunities were record of the Washington Cascades as sufficient to outweigh travel and weather represented in Mount Rainier National Park. difficulties inherent in their use. ORIGINS OF THE FORAGER TO During the mid to late Holocene, the COLLECTOR CONTINUUM economic draw of montane habitats became more complicated. Assuming increasing To evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of regional population density and elevated the forager to collector principles in regard to resource competition, unfettered use of upland modeling regional land-use systems, it is (and other) habitats by small, autonomous useful to understand how these concepts were groups should have become increasingly developed, and how they came to be used to unreliable. With or without environmental characterize temporal variation in subsistence change, a time had to come when there simply and settlement systems in the Pacific were too many people competing for too few Northwest. resources in too little space. Such conditions provided economic stimulus for more Though anticipated in Nunamiut intensive use of subsistence resources Ethnoarchaeolgy (Binford 1978), Lewis wherever they could be found and sustained, Binford (1980, 1983) formally presented his accompanied by heightened reliance on mass forager to collector ideas in the Willow Smoke harvest and in-place storage (salmon, camas, article. Binford’s interest in that article lay and a few other mass-harvestable resources) to not in addressing change through time, but bridge seasonal shortfalls. Settlement sizes rather in explaining a fundamental became larger and movement restricted by organizational contrast between low and high labor and storage requirements of the new latitude hunter-gatherers. His two-part model economy. In essence, mobile foragers became contrasts settlement systems adapted to semi-sedentary collectors with harvest regions lacking marked seasonal or spatial responsibilities focused, to a large extent, on variation in critical resource abundance with lowland rivers or exceptionally productive those characterized by highly seasonal or camas meadows. extremely patchy environments. All else being equal, more temporally and spatially It is important to note that strict application of uniform environments tend to be located in forager to collector principles strongly implies non-desert, equatorial settings. Resource that the way in which the region’s mountain seasonality –what Binford terms temporal landscapes were linked to lowland populations incongruity or phasing– generally increases changed dramatically from early to late with latitude north and south. Spatial Holocene. However, the manner in which incongruity may occur at any latitude where these changes are mirrored by corresponding critical resources are widely separate. variation in the character of archaeological assemblages has yet to be demonstrated. The Simply put, Binford argues that the most intent here is to use forager-collector viable subsistence strategy in uniform

7 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. environments is a foraging mode of temporally or spatially incongruous resource production in which consumers maintain high base. Because food resources tend to be residential mobility, moving to new resource unavailable for an extended winter period procurement areas as local productivity and/or too distant to be accessed by repeated declines. Accordingly, forager settlement short-distance, short-duration moves, the most systems are characterized by frequent, practical strategy tends to be one in which relatively short distance residential moves goods are moved to consumers by logistically with negligible storage at any of the organized food procurement groups. residential bases. Due to relatively short Collector residential bases tend to be situated duration stays, bulk resource input and in places that optimize access to resources or processing tends to be minimal at any specific at places where particularly critical resources point. are abundant. Residential moves are infrequent. Rather than shifting primary Redundancy in land-use practices from place residence to multiple procurement areas, to place tends to limit forager site type collected goods tend to be returned to the variability. Binford suggests that forager sites center for storage and redistribution. Because could be collapsed into two basic kinds – of more intricate organizational requirements, residential bases and resource acquisition collector systems tend to be more socially locations. Binford (1983:343) sees a complex than foragers. While not addressed residential base as the “hub of subsistence in the Willow Smoke article, collector systems activities, the locus out of which foraging generally are capable of supporting higher parties originate and where most processing, population densities than foraging systems manufacturing and maintenance activities take (when not in severely resource limited place.” Locations are places where extractive environments), and I maintain, typically tasks are carried out. Use limitations are require elevated population levels simply to expected to affect the character of the meet labor requirements of the logistic system archaeological record of these places. Binford itself. (1983:343) notes that: Inter-site variation is greater among collector Since foragers generally do not populations because of greater functional stockpile foods or other raw materials, variation in the use of space. Binford attempts such locations are generally ‘low bulk’ to accommodate this variability by adding procurement sites. That is to say only field camps, stations and caches to the limited quantities are procured there residential bases and locations common to all during a given episode, and therefore hunter-gatherers. He (Binford 1983) defines the site is occupied for only a very field camps as places where hunting parties short period of time. In addition, since are maintained while away from the bulk procurement [for storage] is rare, residential base –essentially short-term, task- the use, exhaustion, and abandonment specific (or limited-task) residences in which of tools is at a very low rate. In fact, only a portion of the larger group resides. few if any tools may be expected to Stations or observation sites are used for remain at such places. information collection on game presence or movement. Caches are temporary storage In contrast, a logistic or collecting mode of places. Locations are used by foragers, but production is the most viable strategy for among collectors may be tethered either to groups residing in environments with a residential bases or to field camps.

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FORAGERS AND COLLECTORS: strategies. To do so in a seasonal SPATIAL VARIATION VERSUS environment, hunter-gatherers must develop TEMPORAL CHANGE subsistence practices centered on seasonally abundant staple resources that can be mass The power of Binford’s forager-collector harvested for storage and redistribution model lies in its capacity to subsume much of without collapsing from overly intensive use. the basic organizational variability in ethnographically documented hunter-gatherer In the Pacific Northwest, subsistence populations world-wide; and does so by resources that can sustain intense exploitation relying on pan-cultural causal principles that are few –anadromous fish, marine resources, facilitate empirical examination of camas, wapato, lomatium and perhaps a few archaeological expectations. The utility of others. I suggest that the mid-Holocene shift these ideas notwithstanding, there are two toward intensive use of these resources and obvious problems involved in applying the development of aggregated, semi-sedentary dichotomy to temporal shifts in hunter- communities across the region is most gatherer settlement and subsistence systems in parsimoniously explained by regional the Pacific Northwest. First, the model population density elevated beyond carrying originally was developed to explain patterned capacity sustainable with a forager based variation in hunter-gatherer populations in the economy (cf., Schalk 1988:10-12; Mierendorf ethnographic present; it was not intended to 1996; Burtchard 1987, 1990:14-25, and address change through time. Second, casual 1998:124-155). This is due, I believe, to the application of the model’s arguments imply inability of less labor-intensive, high return, that only collectors, not foragers, would fit the unmanaged plant and animal resources to seasonal environmental constraints of the support increasing human predation pressure; Pacific Northwest. Each of these issues ultimately forcing region-wide logistic warrants brief comment. reorientation toward reliance on alterative resources capable of withstanding intensive Even though Binford’s ideas address exploitation over the long-term. Across most organizational variation from simple of the non-coastal Pacific Northwest, this (foragers) to complex (collectors) across space means salmon. rather than through time, the capacity of the model to address temporal variation in this Some of the above considerations also apply regard need not be so limited. I suggest that to the second issue (i.e., that a foraging mode autonomous, small group foraging economies of production would not be expected in tend to function poorly in a context of high regions with marked winter seasonality). population density and resource competition. Indeed, this is the point of view taken by Assuming increasing population density and Aikens et al. (1986) in their Affluent resource competition over time, at some point Collectors article. This certainly was so in the foraging groups, in order to sustain ethnographic record that figures in Binford’s themselves, must either emigrate to new areas, (1980) and Schalk’s (1978) early ideas. The find ways to arrest population density at ethnographic pattern, however, lacks time sustainable levels, or develop means to depth. There is compelling reason to believe squeeze more food energy out of existing that early Holocene land-use patterns differed space. The latter option involves adopting fundamentally from those of the late Holocene more intensive and complex resource in the Pacific Northwest. There is little doubt, acquisition, storage, and distribution for example, that early Holocene group sizes

9 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. were smaller, residential mobility was higher HUMANS AND ECOSYSTEMS: A FEW and assemblages less complex than during the ASSUMPTIONS late Holocene. In any case, even if early Holocene, winter season mobility was reduced Foraging and collecting principles, and the somewhat relative to summer, such restriction model offered here, are rooted in ecological did not approach the level of sedentism and theory. I assume that, to function successfully logistical organization common to later in the long-term, human organizational collectors. systems must fit the constraints of larger environmental systems of which they are a Utility of the forager-collector model part. Over time, human groups organize their notwithstanding, it is important to recognize use of space and adjust resource procurement that the pattern should not be expected to patterns in response to environmental occur as a simple dichotomy, or to be variables in a cause and effect manner everywhere uniform (see Kelly 1995). comparable to other organisms. While Binford (1983:355) himself warns that language, culture and the technological “logistical and residential variability are not to capacity that flows from them confer be viewed as opposing principles ...but as substantial competitive advantage, they do not organizational alternatives which may be free humans from ecological constraints. employed in varying mixes in different Rather, the primary effect of language and settings.” Across the greater Pacific culture is to increase the range of potential Northwest, a settlement and subsistence human responses and dramatically enhance pattern characterized by high residential the speed at which those responses can be mobility, low bulk processing and negligible made. Human group behavior patterns storage appears to have sustained the early constitute cultural traits that can respond Holocene’s low density (foraging) quickly when factors inducing change are populations, while a relatively abrupt regional severe. Because cultural traits are subject to change toward restricted residential mobility rapid change, attempts to explain subsistence with high bulk procurement and storage of and settlement practices by reference to anadromous fish (collecting) took place about culturally-based phenomena such as group 5,000 to 4,000 years ago (cf., Ames 1985; mind-sets, expectations, linguistic differences, Ames and Mashner 1999:93-94; Burtchard and so on are inherently tautological. Such 1990:6-25, 180-183, 1998:124-149, 161-165; attempts cannot reach to more basic causes of Mierendorf 1986:50-63; Mierendorf et al. the cultural phenomena themselves and, 1998:35-3; Schalk 1988: 7-15, 107-121; hence, cannot come to grips with processes Thoms 1989:27-43, 353-357; Thoms and that take place over very long periods of time. Burtchard 1987:222). This shift was most plausibly to accommodate increased It is more productive, I believe, to view population demands for limited subsistence variation in regional cultural patterns in their resources. Accordingly, despite differences in broader environmental context. Dominant focus from Binford’s original intent, the cultural patterns at any given point in time and forager-collector model remains a useful tool place reflect dynamic system states rooted in to characterize subsistence and settlement complex and ongoing feedback relationships systems of early versus mid to late Holocene between humans and the environments within hunter-gatherers in the Pacific Northwest. which they strive to survive and reproduce (cf., Leonard and Reed 1993:649-650). Cultural systems –including settlement and

10 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. subsistence systems of primary interest here– POPULATION DENSITY, RESOURCE can be expected to remain relatively stable so AVAILABILITY AND LAND-USE long as they function well enough to sustain INTENSIFICATION most of their members most of the time. Systems can be expected to change, perhaps Implications of population and resource rapidly, when critical shortfalls become processes in the Northwest have been widespread and chronic. The explanation for discussed in some detail by Schalk (1988:10- relative stability versus change, then, does not 12), Burtchard (1987, 1990:15-16, 1998:111- lie in the cultural system itself, or even in 155), and Schalk and Atwell (1994:[5]1-42). introduction of new cultural systems or ideas All of these approaches assume that resource into a region, but rather in the selective distribution and abundance relative to context through which some ideas are adopted population density is fundamental to and transmitted, while others are ignored or determining the basic form and relative fall into disuse. It is this focus on selective stability of regional settlement and subsistence context that underlies the long-term land-use systems. Stability, however, is difficult to approaches and allows them to predict basic maintain. The biological tendency toward settlement and subsistence patterns well increasing population density among beyond the shallow temporal depth of successful species –particularly pronounced ethnohistoric models. Equally important, among colonizing species such as early archaeological predictions derived through Holocene humans in North America– will, application of ecological models provide over time, result in resource instability, even direction and interpretive context for research in the absence of environmental change. In efforts, and permit rejection or refinement of essence, these processes create a natural ideas as new data become available. distinction between economies of 1) colonizing systems functioning in a context of Please note that these considerations do not low population density and relative resource imply that all cultural manifestations are abundance, versus 2) regionally packed adaptive; or that cultural systems cannot act, systems forced to develop mechanisms to for a time, in ways that are actively support higher population density in a context maladaptive (i.e., that serve to reduce the of heightened competition for limited critical fitness of its members) in the face of resources. environmental pressure to the contrary. I suggest simply that cultural traits respond to Though the process is most easily understood external stimuli, and that the relative stability in terms of polar extremes (here foragers of these traits through time may be understood versus collectors), it should be borne in mind by reference to cause and effect relationships. that actual circumstances at different times In essence, traits serving to enhance the fitness and places lead to variable responses. The of the members (or that are at least selectively common thread, however, is a tendency neutral) tend to be differentially replicated and toward more intensive exploitation of the perpetuated through time. Traits that reduce landscape as population density increases fitness tend to be lost. and/or critical resources become limiting. Intensification, or the process of extracting increasing amounts of energy from finite land area (Schalk and Atwell 1994:[5]15; cf., Boserup 1965:43-44), is the heart of changing land-use strategies and the forager to collector

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shift as it is applied to land-use systems in the Social responses to chronic shortfalls Pacific Northwest. (ostensibly in the mid-Holocene) should include increased competition and punctuated We should also recognize that the manner in change in the form of emigration, which humans organize use of the landscape development of social mechanisms such as at any point in time reflects feedback territorial boundaries and trade networks to relationships between established practices buttress resource supply, increased labor rooted in the past and the practical need to investment relative to return, and/or focused maintain a stable supply of critical resources management or exploitation of lower return in the present and predictable future. Because resources and those most responsive to intense these feedback relationships are complex, exploitation (e.g., increased reliance on because solutions to resource problems are domesticates, or intensively exploitable non- generally experimental and multifaceted, and domesticates such as salmon or camas). because of lag time between individual recognition of the need for change (stimuli) The general manner in which resource- and the general adoption of modified land-use population processes play out through time practices (response), there is no reason to will vary with the capacity of regional expect any land-use system to be truly optimal resources to sustain intensive use without when viewed only in a narrow time frame. collapse. In essence, regions with edible resources amenable to domestication, and/or Despite this complexity, the most viable, and capable of sustaining intense exploitation, will hence successful, groups over the long-term tend to develop settlement and subsistence are those whose land-use systems are best fit systems oriented toward them (e.g., to local resource constraints. Accordingly, horticulture or salmon acquisition). Regions while recognizing that the fit will not be lacking intensively exploitable commodities perfect, over the long-term hunter-gatherers cannot sustain comparable changes and will should 1) exhibit regularities in the ways instead tend toward mechanisms such as subsistence and settlement practices emigration and population control to cope accommodate resource abundance and with chronic resource pressure within the distribution patterns, and 2) tend to optimize basic status quo anti. return of critical resources (particularly staple food supplies, clothing, shelter and implement In the Pacific Northwest, we can expect materials) for labor investment. development of a series of resource-related mid-Holocene subsistence and settlement Successful groups must routinely adjust changes; all leading toward more intensive use subsistence and settlement strategies as of the landscape and elevated social members strive to maintain a stable resource complexity. Expected responses include: a base in the face of variable climate and rising punctuated shift toward greater reliance on population density. During periods in which anadromous fish along productive river resources are stable and abundant relative to systems, increased reliance on storable staples demand (e.g., the early Holocene) it is such as camas or wapato in appropriate reasonable to expect relatively simple land-use habitats, increased reliance on marine systems, minimal inter-group contact, and resources and lower return resources such as stability in land-use practices through time. smaller body size game and marginal plant Times of acute shortfalls should narrow the resources, and increased efforts to improve range of successful subsistence strategies.

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ungulate habitat with fire (cf., Schalk interacted to create selective contexts favoring 1988:11-12). development and continuance of land-use systems capable of extracting and distributing To accommodate more people to a more increasing resource output from fixed or spatially constrained resource base, mid- declining territory. Holocene processes also selected for aggregated settlement in places that optimized I focus on forager-collector ideas as the access to mass harvested and stored staples. foundation for these approaches not so much Exploitation of resources at logistically because these ideas can be applied challenging places like Mount Rainier should uncritically, but because of 1) their capacity to continue, or even expand, but would be subsume critical organizational elements at obliged to accommodate scheduling and labor both ends of the hunter-gatherer continuum, 2) demands of more critical lowland their predictive power for basic site type and commodities such as salmon. Accordingly, at distribution patterns, and 3) their acceptance a broad scale, we can expect land-use as a baseline approach, with established practices to have become logistically tethered application to regional prehistory. Figure 4 to lowland villages.3 The change from summarizes several regional models that, mobile, small group foraging economies to except for the general period reference on the such logistically constrained collector far left, incorporate these concepts. strategies is central to the forager-collector continuum applied to Pacific Northwest The Mount Rainier model shown on Figure 4, hunter-gatherers, and is an essential element and described in greater detail below, predicts of the Mount Rainier model outlined below. patterned change in subsistence and settlement systems from early Holocene foragers moving AN INTENSIFICATION MODEL FOR between resource patches as small, residential MOUNT RAINIER AND groups with minimal reliance on bulk THE MONTANE PACIFIC procurement and storage; to late Holocene NORTHWEST collectors obliged to reside, at least seasonally, in sedentary villages reliant on To this point, discussion has focused on winter storage and relatively complex resource theoretical background linking human and procurement and distribution strategies environmental systems with particular tethered to the village centers. The model is emphasis on basic causes of organizational organized into six temporal stages; each of change in subsistence and settlement systems which summarizes basic subsistence and through time. I have given particular attention settlement characteristics expected to to implications of human population density dominate Mount Rainer, the Cascades, relative to the distribution, density and Olympics, and much of the Pacific Northwest seasonality of critical resources –particularly more widely; and offers several implications ungulates and anadromous fish. I suggest that for the archaeological record. chronic shortfalls in availability of key resources induced primarily by increasing The model simplifies a more complex reality regional population density and/or resource in order to draw attention to basic causes and degradation have, over the long-term, been consequences of changing land-use systems met by increasingly intensive use of the through time. Links to objectively observable landscape. That is, as the Holocene phenomena allow us to more effectively use progressed, population and resource variables the archaeological record to test and refine

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gure 4. iF gure 4. NolectedeS lawhrt insnd-uest tensificae ntio (Agemod expels. essedrs sa 14C yr BP.) Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007.

proposed land-use patterns. Please note that pressure (Mack and Thompson 1982), it is because of the variety of sources that make up reasonable to assume that density of these age estimates in archaeological, megafaunal grazers was more limited here paleontological, and geological literature, I than on the Great Plains further east. Even so, use radiocarbon years before present (14C yr scattered distribution of large fluted Clovis- BP) as a standard measure. Paleoclimatic style lance points typically associated with inferences are based on plant macrofossil and exploitation of these animals suggests human pollen data, and interpretive summaries from presence in the Columbia Plateau and eastern Mount Rainier, the Cascades, and the Pacific Cascades foothills (Waters and Stafford Northwest region (e.g., Dunwiddie 1986; 2007), probably focused on exploitation of Heusser 1977; Sea and Whitlock 1995; early post-Pleistocene megafauna and other Tweiten 2007; Whitlock 1992); and on habitat-sharing species. synchronous North Cascade and Mount Rainier glacial advance-retreat patterns West of the Cascades, plant and animal (Crandell and Miller 1974; Heine 1998; communities appear to have dispersed into Hekkers and Fountain 2008; Porter 1976). previously ice mantled areas of the Puget Trough and Olympic Peninsula during the Post-Pleistocene Foraging: Environment Everson Interstadial circa 13,500 to 11,000 14C yr BP (Heine 1998; Whitlock 1992:15). Post-Pleistocene foraging extends from more This period may also have witnessed than 11,000 to ca. 8000 14C yr BP. Terminal colonization by some Pleistocene megafauna. Pleistocene floral and faunal patterns across It is plausible that the mastodon excavated at much of northern North America were the Manis Site near Sequim on the drier east regionally variable and dynamic. On the flank of the Olympics (Gustafson et al. 1979) Columbia Plateau east of the Cascades, the is part of a population established during this climate was cooler and drier than present. The time period. Glacial ice advanced again region supported a variety of large bodied during the Sumas Stade about 10,500 to 9500 fauna including mastodon, bison and caribou 14C yr BP (Crandell and Miller 1974; Porter which, along with a variety of smaller species 1976), pushing megafauna habitat further sharing similar habitat requirements, declined south into the southern Puget Trough. The to extinction as the climate warmed and ice retreated rapidly after about 9,500 14C yr human predation began (see Schalk and BP, allowing rapid development of dense Atwell 1994 and Gustafson et al. 1979). lodgepole pine forest succeeded by more Initial extinctions appear to have begun about nearly modern floral associations. 11,000 14C yr BP with full transition from Rancholabrean to modern fauna taking place In the Cascades, Cordilleran ice retreated between 8,000 and 7,000 14C yr BP with the dramatically during the Everson interglacial; passing of now extinct forms of bison — the opening lower elevation passes such as last vestige of Pleistocene megafauna (Taylor Snoqualmie north of Mount Rainier. On et al. 1996:516). Mount Rainier, McNeely drift (Sumas Stade in the Puget Trough) ice advanced down the Abundance of these animals in the Pacific major river valleys, lowering the snowline to Northwest and their capacity to sustain human about 5,900 ft (Crandell and Miller 1974:36- predation, are difficult to establish. However, 38). At this elevation, most of Mount given the tendency of the region’s bunch grass Rainier’s larger mid-elevation landforms prairies to degrade under heavy grazing would have lain under perpetual snowpack or

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been subject to vegetation depleting impact of Clovis point near Cle Elum, Northeast of extended snowpack and frost heaving. It is Mount Rainier, suggests human presence in likely that near-modern floral associations the general Snoqualmie Pass area some time became established briefly during the Everson in the early Holocene (Hollenbeck and Carter Interglacial, retreated during the Sumas 1986:26, Zweifel and Reed 1991:11-13). (McNeely) advance, and returned again following Sumas retreat about 8500 14C yr BP. The suite of large Clovis points recovered from subsurface context from the well- Post-Pleistocene Foraging: Land Use publicized East Wenatchee Clovis Site (45DO482) also suggests early Holocene The first colonizing populations in North activity just east the Cascades. Waters and America probably penetrated the continent Stafford (2007:1124) attribute a somewhat south of Alaska during the Everson ambiguous age of <11,125 ±130 14C yr BP to Interstadial circa 13,500 to 11,500 14C yr BP this site based on traces of Glacier Peak, Layer following movement of Pleistocene G, tephra on the underside of some of the megafauna south through an ice-free seam artifacts (cf., Mehringer and Foit 1990). between Cordilleran and continental ice Unfortunately, Gramly’s (1991, 1993, 1996) masses east of the Canadian Rockies. While contention that the artifacts were cached in pit some controversy remains as to timing of features emanating from an unspecified initial colonization, a selected suite of 20 surface of unknown age, and associated with firmly dated and calibrated Clovis and artifactual bone dated to only 5215 ± 90 14C yr Folsom assemblages scattered across the BP, cast doubt on the site’s stratigraphic continental United States (Taylor et al. 1996) integrity and on the value of the chronometric is consistent with this time frame. Waters ages (see arguments by Gramly (1996, 1998), and Stafford’s (2007) more recent study of and Mierendorf (1997)). As with the Cle 87 radiocarbon dates from 30 Clovis and Elum find, however, the clearly Clovis style of Clovis-age sites in North and South America the collected artifacts suggests an early also supports this range. There is little doubt Holocene time-frame. that some of these colonizing populations spread into the Pacific Northwest during On Mount Rainier itself, open forest-tundra terminal Pleistocene and very early habitats probably became established as early Holocene times. Human activity, however, as 12,000 14C yr BP on its lower to mid- was most likely focused on large-bodied, elevation slopes. These habitats would have Rancholabrean faunal habitats on either side retreated downslope during McNeely Drift of the mountain–particularly the Columbia times, and moved upslope again as ice Plateau. retreated circa 9000 to 8000 14C yr BP (Heine 1998:1146). Most economically important Schalk and Atwell (1994:[5]88) argue that no post-Rancholabrean Holocene fauna probably securely dated cultural remains in the became established on the mountain during Northwest predate 11,000 14C yr BP (cf., this time frame. Indeed, radiocarbon dated Waters and Stafford 2007). Presence of woody charcoal recovered from a deep Rancholabrean fauna and early fluted points, sediment profile at 6,200 feet on Sunrise however, provide some evidence of an early Ridge indicates that trees were growing (with, post-Pleistocene human presence in the I assume, associated fauna) at this elevation at vicinity of the Cascades. While lacking least by 7800 ± 80 14C yr BP [Beta 151857]. stratigraphic context, a privately collected It is possible that earliest human use of

16 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. comparable habitats on Mount Rainier date Mierendorf and Foit (2008) report an about this time as well. Use of lower Cascade essentially identical age from stratified passes and habitats probably began somewhat cultural deposit in the North Cascades. It is earlier in the post-Pleistocene period. likely that continuing work at this site will push the earliest known date in the Cascades The possibility of human use of upper to the 9000s 14C yrs BP (Robert Mierendorf, elevation Cascade landscapes by end of the personal communication, 2008). Cultural early post-Pleistocene period notwithstanding, deposits radiocarbon dated to the mid 6000s most foragers probably focused on more 14C yr BP are more common, firmly productive and easily accessed habitats east, establishing human presence in the and to a lesser extent west, of the Cascades. Washington Cascades by this time (see Montane game density would have been too McClure 1998:72-75). Currently, the oldest low and exploitation costs too high relative to known site on Mount Rainier proper is the the lowlands to have attracted significant use Buck Lake site (45PI438), containing lithic by the few human groups entering the region artifacts in pre-Mazama stratigraphic context during early post-Pleistocene times. The dated to 7173 ± 49 14C yr BP [Waikato probability of human forays into the midst of 15981]. Because of glacial ice, cultural the Cascades and onto the mid to upper remains on Mount Rainier are not expected to elevation flanks of Mount Rainier increases date to terminal Pleistocene or very early with glacial retreat and establishment of Holocene times prior to about 9000 14C yr BP. modern plant and animal communities at the close of the period. Rest-Rotation Foraging: Environment

Post-Pleistocene Foraging: Archaeological Rest-Rotation Foraging extends from about Record 9000 to 6000 14C yr BP. Environmental parameters for the period have been For the Washington Cascades, archaeological anticipated above. During these three evidence of human occupation should be millennia, the earth rebounded from its long minimal and restricted to lower elevation Pleistocene glacial episode (albeit with passes. To date, the Cle Elum Clovis find is interglacial breaks) and entered a protracted the only very early fluted point form plausibly period in which general climatic conditions linked to montane landforms in this region. were warmer and drier than present –generally Because of its surface context, the age and referred to as the Altitheral or Hypsithermal even location of original use cannot be Interval. In lowlands like the Puget Trough, determined unambiguously. Even so, its forest succession was arrested or reversed as location near Snoqualmie Pass is consistent an increasingly xeric climate selected for with post-Pleistocene foraging in the eastern brushier, more open forest stands. In the Cascades foothills and/or with cross-Cascades Cascades, tree-line crept further upslope, travel at an early date. plausibly reducing the size of subalpine habitats as permanent snowline moved upslope and growing season lengthened. Extant radiocarbon data are consistent with Assuming fire frequency remained stable, these expectations. The earliest, plausibly ungulate habitat would have improved in the culturally related, radiocarbon age presently lowlands and Cascade foothills, while it known in the Washington Cascades is a circa became more restricted at higher elevations. 14 8500 C yr BP date recorded near the Cedar River north of the park (Samuels 1993).

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The onset of the period is keyed to extinction toward Cascade foothills and surrounding of the last of the Pleistocene megafauna and lowland landscapes, it is reasonable to expect full development of characteristic Holocene their human predators to have increased their plant and animal communities in the Pacific presence in these areas as well. Because of Northwest. In the high Cascades, Cascade the loss of Ranchlabrean fauna and presence foothills and surrounding lowlands, near of somewhat smaller body-size alternatives in modern floral and faunal patterns became well foothill and valley settings on both sides of the established except as affected by Cascades, we should expect Pleistocene Hypsithermal warming. Included are resources extinctions to have been associated with an believed to be of particular economic increase in hunter-gatherer activity in these importance for hunters and gatherers now settings with at least limited use of higher deprived of larger megafaunal alternatives; elevation landscapes, both as cross-mountain including elk, deer, mountain goat, bear, travel routes and resource acquisition marmot, game birds, camas, huckleberries, destinations. and so on. Anadromous fish populations are expected to have become reestablished in I emphasize lowlands and Cascades foothills most Northwest watersheds. to a greater extent than higher mountain landscapes because of the presumed impact of On Mount Rainier, recent evidence from the Hypsithermal climate on forest structure. stratified deposits at 6,200 feet on Sunrise If ungulate habitat became more productive in Ridge, indicate that near modern floral, and the western lowlands and eastern foothills due probably faunal, associations were established to forest recession, and simultaneously less to at least this elevation by about 8000 14C yr productive in the uplands due to forest BP (Burtchard 2001). Assuming these plant encroachment, then it is reasonable to expect and animal associations were of value to human populations to focus attention on low foraging populations, it is reasonable to expect to moderate elevation landscapes, perhaps some level of human use of comparable mid with less resource-related attention to high to upper elevation habitats as well. elevation places. Given the combination of relatively low human predation pressure (due Rest-Rotation Foraging: Land Use to continuing low population density), productive lowland habitats, and tendency of I expect human population density to have game to aggregate in mountain foothills increased across the Pacific Northwest, but to (Schalk 1988:90-91), hunter-gatherers may have remained at relatively low levels during have emphasized use of valley and foothill the early Holocene. With extinction of environments throughout the period (also see Rancholabrean (late Pleistocene) fauna, Daugherty 1993:3-4). resource productivity on the Columbia Plateau may have declined substantially. Even at low Between 9000 to 6000 14C yr BP, continuing population density, extinction of these large high game density relative to demand and animals should have induced increased use of tendency for ungulates to aggregate in open a broader resource spectrum focused lowland and foothill habitats, should have particularly on the habitats of the most made it possible to sustain a foraging strategy productive surviving ungulates –ostensibly elk with relatively short distance residential and deer– and other habitat sharing plant and moves and minimal dependence on bulk animal species. Assuming that the densest processing and storage. Foraging may have distributions of these ungulates were biased focused on a broader spectrum of resources

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relative to the immediate post-Pleistocene obsidian quarry (45LE285) in alpine context period, but plants and animals selected are at Elk Pass; and Mierendorf’s recent work at expected to be dictated by seasonal Cascade Pass (45CH221) in the North availability and proximity to ungulate hunting Cascades has produced micro-blades and areas. Rest rotation (after Schalk and Atwell micro-blade cores in stratigraphic context 1994) refers to the capacity of groups to move dating to approximately 8000 14C yr BP to new foraging areas as hunting productivity (Mierendorf and Foit 2008). Given the declines, thereby allowing predation-free time resources to search and test, others almost for game density to regenerate naturally. certainly will be located. Strict application of Ability to do so depends on abundant open the present model, however, suggests that space with minimal inter-group resource such sites may be relatively rare compared to competition. The pattern is of key importance the later Holocene. Without intentional to maintaining a forager strategy, because it burning to enhance upland forage (considered insures resource stability without sophisticated unnecessary in the low population-abundant logistic strategies or inter-group coordination. resource context of the early Holocene), In an environment like that of the Pacific foraging activity should have emphasized Northwest, I believe that it is only practical in lower elevation foothill and valley landforms. a context of very low population density and These sites should be limited in size but high resource abundance. contain a functionally varied array of artifact classes consistent with residential use. Rest-Rotation Foraging: Archaeological Additional research geared toward developing Record a larger set of dated upland sites in firm stratigraphic context will be useful for Currently at Mount Rainier, only one site has determining the extent to which land-use been documented that dates to the 9000 to emphasized lower elevation landscapes as 6000 14C yr BP period. Site 45PI438, situated predicted here or routinely incorporated at 5,400 feet in the park’s northeastern subalpine habitats. quadrant, produced a micro-blade core in situ atop a paleosol predating the 6800 14C yr BP Semisedentary Rest-Rotation Foraging: Mt. Mazama eruption. Stratified deposits Environment indicate continued use of the site at 5500 14C yr BP, and an apparent sharp increase in use Semisedentary Rest-Rotation Foraging intensity closely following the Mt. Saint extends from about 7000 to 4000 14C yr BP. Helens Yn eruption about 3500 14C yr BP Present data suggest that the Hypsithermal (Crandell 1987; Mullineaux 1974; Vallance Interval gave way to a period of generally 2001). Continuing research will clarify use of cooler and moister conditions about 5000 to this landscape further in the next few years. 4500 14C yr BP — conditions that persist with shorter-term perturbations to the present It is unreasonable to believe that 45PI438 is (Crandell and Miller 1974:44-50; Heusser the only early to early-mid Holocene site 1977:298-302). Termination of the preserved at comparable elevation on the Hypsithermal had significant, but opposite, mountain. Indeed, a few other sites of effects on lowland versus upper montane comparable age and elevation have been forest structure. In lowland valleys and documented elsewhere in the Washington foothills, forest cover became more uniform Cascades. Rick McClure (1989, 1998) reports and began to approach more nearly closed a ca. 6250 14C yr BP radiocarbon date from an canopy cover. That is, forest cover advanced

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toward the mid to late seral-stage maritime 2,000 feet of summit height, than to direct forest pattern that now dominates the region. impact of the lahar per se. At low to moderate elevation, ungulate forage should have been restricted by the shrinking Volcanic tephra deposits from several less size and number of productive early seral- destructive Mount Rainier eruptions during stage grassland and brushy habitats. the period likewise were of little environmental consequence. Early succession In the mountains, where upper elevation forest processes involving growth of rapidly cover is controlled more by persistent snow reproducing grasses and brushy plants most burden, saturated ground and growing season valuable as ungulate forage generally would than by moisture (Franklin et al., 1988:127; have begun immediately following these Moir 1989:5), forest cover should have events. It is likely that habitat destruction was retreated downslope to approximately present short-lived and followed quickly a slightly elevations (Burtchard & Swinney 2004). longer period of ungulate habitat improvement Increasing expanses of alpine tundra, and due to forest smothering (see Tweiten 2007). subalpine parklands should have attracted Accordingly, I assume that these events, while correspondingly increased numbers of elk, dramatic, did not significantly affect (and deer and associated species during the late certainly did not reduce) forager use of the summer months when forage was at its peak. uplands or major lowland river valley in the Coincident degradation of forage in the long-term scale with which we are dealing. lowlands with seasonal improvement in the uplands, overlain by increasing regional Semisedentary Rest-Rotation Foraging: population density, should have contributed to Land Use punctuated increase in human use of places like Mount Rainier during this time frame. To accommodate low but gradually increasing population density and loss of lowland and Mid-Holocene volcanic events may also have foothills ungulate habitat at the end of the affected land-use patterns in the Cascades. Hypsithemal Interval, human groups should Clearly, Mount Rainier’s summit collapse have increased exploitation of a wider range about 5500 14C yr BP, the Osceola Lahar of variably productive habitats, including (Harris 1988:242-245; Pringle 2008:36-37; higher elevation montane landscapes. Vallance 2001), and subsequent smaller debris Consequent changes in foraging strategies are flows were catastrophic events that destroyed expected include limited sedentism and plants, animals and people unfortunate enough storage to bridge winter food shortages. It is to be caught in their path. Except for the reasonable to expect, however, that Osceola Lahar, however, effects of debris competitive resource pressure was not yet flows on Mount Rainier were spatially limited, high enough to cause loss of at least two and probably of little enduring consequence. options central to forager production: 1) While the massive Osceola lahar undoubtedly continued existence of enough uncontested had serious consequence for resource territory to maintain rest rotation movement; distribution and population density northeast and 2) ability to move to most resource of the mountain, I suggest that these effects patches as full residential units rather than as gradually subsided as forest cover returned. task-limited groups tethered to larger central Indeed the primary long-term effect of even villages. In essence, the model assumes that the Osceola event probably relates more to mobility became restricted somewhat by climatic implications of the loss of 1,000 to incorporation of limited bulk harvest and

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storage activities, but not enough to lose rest- An increased number of radiocarbon aged rotation and full residential movement sites in the southern Washington Cascades options. dating between about 5500 and 6500 BP is consistent with these expectations (McClure As noted above, forage should have become 1998; McCutcheon et al. 2008), as are data more productive in the uplands as forests from the Buck Lake site (45PI438) which retreated downslope to near modern suggest heightened use of Mount Rainier’s elevations. Accordingly, use of subalpine and subalpine zone relative to the pre-Mazama alpine zones on Mount Rainier and the component. Unfortunately, too few sites have Washington Cascades is expected to increase been documented in subalpine context to between 7000 and 4000 14C yr BP as a direct address the expectation of punctuated increase consequence of their increased foraging value. in use of high elevation settings in a meaningful fashion. Because of its growing In short, the most salient aspects of the forager number of documented sites and substantial strategy (e.g., small group size, relatively subalpine and alpine habitat, however, Mount frequent residential moves, minimal bulk Rainier offers an unusual opportunity to processing and storage, limited inter-site investigate environmental and land-use variability) should have continued throughout changes. Environmental patterns could be the period. However, combined population addressed through pollen core extraction and and environmental circumstances are expected paleo-environmental reconstruction such as at to have operated to cause 1) settlement in less Buck Lake (Tweiten 2007). Land-use changes optimal habitats, 2) increased variability in can be examined through test or data recovery foraging strategies, 3) short-term bulk excavation at a set of upper elevation site processing and storage, and 4) punctuated locations.4 increase in use of upland habitats coincident with environmental cooling at the end of the Semisedentary Collecting: Environment Hypsithermal Interval. Semisedentary Collecting extends from about Semisedentary Rest-Rotation Foraging: 5000 to 1500 14C yr BP. The second half of Archaeological Record the Holocene epoch saw full termination of Hypsithermal warming followed by Site types should remain roughly comparable oscillating, but generally cooler and moister to those from the early Holocene, but with 1) a climatic conditions. Forest density in the higher site density consistent with increased lowlands and western foothills, if not modified regional population density, 2) dispersal into a by fire, should have advanced to higher seral wider range of habitats on both sides of the stages with concomitant reduction of ungulate mountains, 3) increased representation in forage. Subalpine to alpine plant and animal montane uplands, and 4) a fraction of larger, communities should have remained at more complex sites in lowland settings with approximately modern levels. Indeed, both evidence of storage facilities or use of uplands and lowlands probably appeared resources such as anadromous fish, camas essentially as they do at present, except as and/or other storable plants and animals. Site modified by fire, volcanic deposits, and short- density in Mount Rainier subalpine and alpine term climate oscillations. zones should increase abruptly, particularly as the Hypsithermal climate weakened in the The Osceola Lahar and summit collapse second half of the period. lowered Mount Rainier’s peak and altered

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upper elevation landscapes and major river ungulate habitat created an environmental valleys about 5500 14C yr BP. About 2500 context favoring 1) increased use of fire to 14C yr BP, a second volcanic cycle rebuilt the expand ungulate habitat, particularly in summit to its present height (Harris 1988:245- lowland and foothill settings; 2) loss of rest- 247). The second event also deposited from rotation options; 3) more intensive reliance on one to eight inches of Mount Rainier series C mass harvested and stored anadromous fish tephra (MR-C) over much of the mountain’s and other storable commodities; 4) loss of northern and eastern flanks (Crandell 1987:14- residential mobility; and 5) logistic 15). About a thousand years prior to this reorganization consistent with intensive land- summit rebuilding eruption, at 3500 14C yr use requirements. BP, Mt. Saint Helens series Yn (MSH-Yn) eruptions deposited a dense layer of sand- Semisedentary Collecting: Forager to sized tephra across much of the mountain’s Collector Land Use Changes mid to upper elevation landscapes (Pringle 2008:34-39). This event appears to have A shift to winter reliance on mass harvested smothered fir and hemlock forests, and and stored anadromous fish underlies a shift contributed to more open pine-dominated from the high mobility foraging pattern to the associations for several hundred years limited mobility collector pattern that (Tweiten 2007). Long-term vegetation dominated northwest hunter-gatherer alteration and land-use implications of these economies in the latter part of the Holocene. events appear to have been insignificant (cf., The model assumes that between about 4500 Dunwiddie 1986), or in the case of MSH-Yn, and 3500 14C yr BP, elevated population improved ungulate habitat temporarily. density and declining ungulate habitat reached a point at which competition for available In general, there is no indication that mid- resources was too high to reliably sustain rest- Holocene environmental circumstances rotation foraging practices. Loss of rest- improved the regional resource-population rotation recovery options set up a positive equation in the long-term. Subalpine habitats, feedback response, quickly leading to over- because they are limited in total area, are not predation and precipitous decline in game likely to have compensated for lost winter abundance. In this context, foraging land-use forage in the lowlands and foothills. In a systems, critically dependent on closely natural state, ungulate population density, spaced resource patches and high game particularly on the wetter westerns slope, abundance became untenable, causing a rapid should have decreased overall. shift toward logistically organized subsistence and settlement strategies centered on major From a human standpoint, lost ungulate salmon bearing rivers and streams (cf., Schalk habitat in the lowlands probably was not 1988:99-104). critical so long as population density remained low relative to abundance. By about 4000 14C There are only a few Pacific Northwest yr BP, however, it is likely that demands on subsistence staples that can meet bulk available resources reached a point beyond acquisition and storage requirements required which they could be reliably met with to bridge winter shortfalls, and are capable of previous hunting and gathering strategies withstanding continuous intensive use without carried out by small autonomous forager collapse. Foremost among these are groups. I suggest that combined impact of anadromous fishes because they offer the rising human population density and restricted highest return for effort of the available

22 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. options. Salmon bearing streams are widely There are also risks involved in distributed across the region, the oceanic dependence upon stored foods to growth cycle supports very large populations, survive productive lows. Poor runs or runs are predictable in place and time, and even run failures occur naturally and, food return per harvest event can be high if even if very infrequent, would have labor is sufficient. Other subsistence necessitated fall-back strategies. resources potentially meeting mass harvest Perhaps a greater risk though is the requirements include winter collected marine potential that fish successfully stored resources, camas in very productive habitats, may not be successfully consumed. and perhaps wapato and biscuit root in places Spoilage, loss to predators and where they grow best. scavengers and even loss to other human groups are some of the more Despite its desirable qualities, there is obvious sources for this kind of risk. compelling reason not to expect mass harvest and storage of anadromous fish before being Costs and risks such as these made reliance on forced to do so. Large-scale procurement and mass harvest and storage of anadromous fish storage is a labor intensive undertaking undesirable prior to onset of chronic resource entailing loss of residential mobility through related needs to do so. Intensive use of an extended harvest and storage period. As a marine resources entails even greater central feature of a collector economy, it also liabilities. According to Schalk (1988:109): involves a host of subsistence and social adjustments. Schalk (1988:98-99) describes ...the more productive marine costs and risks of dependence on mass resources are only seasonally available harvested salmon as follows: and tend to be restricted in abundance or entirely unavailable during the The costs of food storage in this winter months. Added to this are environment are quite high... Due to ...accessibility problems... The weather the high precipitation and humidity as can be stormy for days on end making well as the mild winter season travel by watercraft difficult or temperatures, effective storage of fish impossible. Many shellfish are only through desiccation or through available at low tide and ...during the freezing is impractical. Saturation of winter months [the tides] are not as fish flesh and oils with the phenols in low as during the spring and early wood smoke (Schalk 1984) was summer and they occur at night time. essential to effective storage of oily fish like salmon. To effectively store Plants do not fare any better than marine life salmon in this environment for winter as over-winter stored staples. Suitably consumption requires technology for productive habitats, while locally important in mass harvest, appropriate structures for the absence of anadromous fish, are too few smoking the fish, containers and and far between to sustain a region-wide sheltered space for storing it, and large forager to collector shift. Camas, arguably the inputs of human labor spanning the most valuable of the plant staples, entails high entire interval from the time the fish harvest and preparation costs and requires a are caught until eaten months later. long storage period (see Thoms 1989, 2008:121-127). I suggest that bulk storage of plant products generally entails greater labor

23 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. and storage costs due to the need to collect, capacity to move freely across the landscape process and store larger quantities than their as a residential unit at times optimal for salmonid equivalents. Furthermore, because procurement of non-salmonid resources. Late of intensive harvest needs, other than in summer to fall use of subalpine habitats, for exceptionally productive areas, non- example, conflicts directly with salmon horticultural plants cannot sustain intensive harvest and storage in the lowlands. In short, long-term use in the absence of alternative sedentism, bulk storage, group size, resource supplements. scheduling requirements and degraded game habitat combine to force a shift to a full Largely due to widespread availability and collector system in which relatively few sustainable productivity, anadromous fish resources become the central focus of were therefore most plausibly the earliest attention and supplemental resources are resources relied upon for over-winter mass either sought by limited-task groups tethered storage in the Pacific Northwest. Schalk to the residential hub or are supplied by trade. (1988:110) suggests that initial settlement There is no middle ground. Even social should have been geared toward larger rivers complexity must increase to regulate the more providing stable fisheries in areas that also involved tasks required to sustain larger maximized continued access to ungulate groups in limited territory. procurement places. Through time, we should see progressive expansion onto less productive Semisedentary Collecting: Land Use streams, followed by adoption of lower return resources as intensification pressure continued Widespread adoption of riverine collector to increase. strategies implies primary settlement and subsistence focus on lowland and foothill Once required to change to primary settings through most of the year. Due to subsistence reliance on mass processed and presence of upstream barriers, productive stored fish, remaining characteristics that salmon runs seldom penetrate deeply into high define collector systems fall into place. elevation landforms, and almost never in close Perhaps the most important change is to nearly proximity to subalpine habitats. Due to sedentary residence in relatively large downstream barriers, anadromous fish were aggregated villages. With a fishing dominated probably never an important mass-harvested economy, residence is restricted to riverine resource within the boundaries of Mount settings from autumn through winter by the Rainier National Park. Subsistence-related extended procurement and storage needs that use of upper elevation subalpine to alpine anadromous fish entail. Group size increases habitats should have become logistically to accommodate higher regional density challenging to people whose effective overall and meet elevated labor requirements. resource gathering territories were Indeed, increased population density may be increasingly tethered to lowland villages. expected to closely follow a shift to collector Transportation difficulties always inherent in (or agricultural) strategies, in part, to meet using upland habitats may have increased, or these new labor demands (cf., Schalk at least have become more logistically 1988:111). complex in a context of depleted game by collectors charged with transporting resources Because of large group size and scheduling back to residential bases. requirements related to reliance on anadromous fish, collectors forfeited the

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In his Olympic Peninsula study, Schalk argues In line with Schalk’s argument, it is possible for declining use of the uplands during the late that, relative to now-elevated regional Holocene (Schalk 1988:150; zone titles population density, use of high elevation added): places decreased on a per capita basis in the late Holocene. However, continuing use of Early in the ...project it was postulated subalpine and alpine landscapes must be that subalpine areas were likely to expected for one or all of at least three have been used more intensively reasons: 1) uplands could not be left as during the early and mid-Holocene unregulated pasture-land in a population than after the emergence of semi- packed region without being further degraded sedentism in the region (Schalk 1985). by “cheaters”, and/or 2) marginal populations This expectation derives from the continued low intensity forager practices on fundamental differences between land the fringes of increasingly centralized lowland use systems that emphasize residential society, and/or 3) limited task groups tethered mobility versus those which emphasize to lowland villages acquired high return logistic mobility. The implication ...is commodities not available in the lowlands. that native usage of the Olympic mountains prior to the appearance of Garrett Hardin, who developed much of the the riverine and maritime collecting competition theory imbedded here, also systems involved systematic advanced explanations as to why unmanaged exploitation of resources in Zone IV resources tend to degrade to crisis levels when [Subalpine and Arctic]. After the used in common by people lacking clearly appearance of the collector systems, defined mutual obligations. In Tragedy of the however, the focus of exploitation Commons, Hardin (1968) uses the example of shifted downward in elevation onto the pasture land commons in Britain to argue, in ungulate winter ranges that are essence, that unregulated resources always generally below 2,000 ft in Zone II serve to the selective benefit of over-users. [River Valleys and Lowlands]. That is, “as long as a pasture [or any other resource] is considered to be unlimited and for As compelling as these arguments may be, common use by everybody without they are not consistent with archaeological constraints, then ...overuse is inevitable since data from Mount Rainier, or the Washington the individual gains a temporary advantage by Cascades generally. While excavations at overstocking [or overuse] and only at some 45PI438 (Buck Lake) indicate early to mid- later time ...begin[s] to suffer the collective Holocene human presence on Mount Rainier, consequences of overuse” (Odum 1971:245). data from this and other excavated locations In this light, all early Holocene resource on the mountain, widespread presence of foraging areas –highlands, lowlands, rivers cultural debris atop 3500 MSH-Yn and 2300 and more– may be considered commons; 14C yr BP MR-C tephra, and preponderance of unregulated use of which could continue only mid to late Holocene radiocarbon dated sites so long as the resource base reliably sustained in the southern Washington Cascades common use in the face of increasing (McCutcheon et al 2008) leave little doubt population density. Ultimately however, that upper elevation Cascade landscapes competition for limited resources necessarily continued to be used throughout the Holocene reached a point at which some form of use- coincident with full development of collector limiting, exclusionary, or cooperative strategies in the lowlands. regulatory mechanism(s) had to be developed

25 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. in order to protect the resource base from I suggest that a combined explanation is most collapse—earlier in bounded, smaller, or less- plausible for late Holocene land-use practices. productive resource patches; later in broader, It is likely that early in the Semisedentary or more productive places. Collecting period, mixed upland hunting and gathering continued to be carried out by a In the mountains, and specifically at Mount decreasing number of marginal forager Rainier, the expectation that subalpine groups. As resource pressure mounted, “pastures” would be left untouched by lowland groups extended territorial rights over linguistically and socially distinct groups on critical watersheds and upland summer game all sides of the mountain with, at best, habitats. Ultimately, the benefit of protecting marginal obligations to one another is upland resources became great enough to unreasonable. Despite its degrading state, it is warrant the cost of dispatching limited-task more reasonable to expect that a) marginal groups to protect territorial resource rights groups would continue to exploit remnant during the critical late summer months. To be resources at a low level; and/or b) groups effective, it would have been necessary to dependent on winter hunting would establish extend protection over a period of about two territorial rights over critical portions of the months. Accordingly, such groups would uplands and protect them from overuse. In the have been obliged to establish residential base latter case, limited task groups may have been camps (very likely much the same as dispatched to the mountains less to collect and foragers), carry out low-level maintenance return stores to lowland centers, than to insure hunting while in upland residence, and that ungulate resources return to the lowlands ultimately return to the lowland center in late with the onset of winter. autumn with the highest value for weight commodity(ies) available on the mountain – In addition to protecting montane resources perhaps goat wool and fur. from exploitation by marginal foragers on the fringes of collector-dominated society, it is In short, it is reasonable, indeed expectable, possible that late Holocene collecting in the for human use of the mountains to continue uplands focused less on ungulates and more throughout the Holocene, albeit on a restricted on alternative high value resources such as per capita basis and oriented to fill different mountain goats (wool), mountain beaver (fur), social-economic needs. Rather than use marmots (fat), or huckleberries (dried berries) dominated by mobile mixed sex and age not available in comparable abundance in the residential groups, the mountains became tied lowlands. Because they are durable, and their into more complex land-use practices ancillary value can be amortized over a number of to intensive use of riverine resources in the years, goat wool and fur may have been lowlands. Changing mountain land-use particularly important mountain commodities practices were part of a regional shift in compared to food resources which typically settlement and subsistence practices from are consumed within the year. Because of forager-dominated systems (fit to a context of transportation difficulties and scheduling low population density relative to terrestrial conflicts noted above, it may be impractical to game abundance) to collector systems better expect food resources to be taken in able to cope with increasing demand and abundance unless affiliated with other land- restricted availability of wild terrestrial use needs as outlined below or prior to resources. transportation enhancing introduction of the horse.

26 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007.

Semisedentary Collecting: Archaeological likely to consist of a subset of the larger Record population, the remainder of which would have been occupied by lowland tasks in the The archaeological record of Mount Rainier late summer. Unfortunately, because and the Cascades leaves little doubt that maintenance and food preparation tasks may human use of the uplands continued have been varied in both cases and because throughout the Holocene. What remains is not both may have selected similar base camp to debate the fact of continuing uplands use, settings (e.g., the upper forest-subalpine but rather to address how land-use practices ecotone), forager-collector archaeological may have changed and how those changes signatures may be quite similar. Indeed, it is affected the archaeological record. possible that mixed sex and age groups may Interestingly, it is possible, perhaps probable, have used the mountain through time, even if that site type and distribution patterns in the representing a social subset in later times. mountains may not appear to be substantially Archaeological variation, if any, must be the different if forager to collector land-use subject of empirical investigation. It is likely practices evolved as outlined above. Due to that most robust early to late Holocene the need to maintain upland residence during changes will lie in other archaeologically the subalpine to alpine summer, factors observable domains. affecting site selection and use may have been much the same throughout the Holocene. The greatest single source of variation Because of occupation length, both foragers between early and late sites may lie in the and collectors would have been obliged to relative proportions of game animals sought, establish residential base camps in settings fit and, in principle, preserved in the to unpredictable high elevation weather archeological record. All else being equal, patterns. Both foragers and collectors early Holocene deposits should contain a high probably operated out of these camps through fraction of large ungulate remains (principally a series of task-specific resource acquisition elk and deer) within a broad spectrum of locations or information stations. Differences exploitable species. Late Holocene collector between the two systems may lie largely in 1) components should show broad mix as well, the social composition of the groups, 2) the especially in residential locations, but we suite of upland resources sought, and 3) the should also see a higher fraction of smaller composition of tool kits and features animals, including particularly a higher employed in carrying out these tasks. fraction of remains linked to potentially high value transportable commodities —mountain Due largely to the need to maintain extended goat, mountain beaver, and perhaps marmot residence, archaeologically recognizable remains. differences between early and late Holocene sites may be subtle. Each of the three areas of Potential change in artifact and feature variation noted above may be detectable in the complexity associated with early versus late archeological record given directed research Holocene land-use practices reflects the need and a large enough sample size. For example, to maintain high residential mobility with the expectation of differences in social relatively low site reuse among foragers, composition assumes that earlier forager versus greater potential for redundant site use groups would have a gender and age range and exploitation of a somewhat broader range reflecting the full social unit in residence on of resources among collector groups. To the mountain. Collector residence is more accommodate high residential mobility,

27 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. forager tool kits should be small, portable and dating to the last 1200 14C yr BP at another suited to multi-functional applications rockshelter in Berkeley Park (45PI303) are centered on the need to kill and butcher large dominated by late-stage pressure bifacial body-sized animals. Such needs may reduction of arrow-sized performs of non- characterize later Holocene use as well, but local material types. Also present is limited modified by incorporation of a higher fraction amounts of debitage reflecting the bipolar of small body-sized game, greater functional reduction of locally available jasper. The variability among site types, and enhanced relatively uniform character of the Berkeley potential to reuse site locations and thereby assemblage is consistent with hunting and lessen transportation weight by caching tools. hunting-related maintenance activities With lessened weight restrictions and a (Bradford Andrews, personal communication potentially greater number of tasks to be 2008). Unfortunately, faunal remains were performed (at least at base camp settings), tool not preserved in Berkeley’s relatively open kits should be more complex and contain setting which is exposed to greater chemical implements such as arrows, darts and distinct weathering than the more sheltered Fryingpan butchering tools suited for extraction of wider setting. size ranges without as pressing a need for multi-functional portability. Overall feature The density and relatively high diversity of variability may increase in the later Holocene artifacts recovered from the 2300 to 3400 14C as well; particularly if goat hunting (high yr BP Sunrise Ridge Borrow Pit site elevation blinds) and huckleberry processing (45PI408) are consistent with residential base (fire drying features) become integrated into camp expectations; and include a ground stone the range of upland tasks. hammer and trade goods not expected in portable forager assemblages (Burtchard At Mount Rainier, most of the approximately 1998:112-113; Dampf 2002; McCutcheon 100 presently documented precontact sites are 1999:12). Horizontally stratified remains at found in subalpine context atop mid to late Buck Lake in the park’s northeast quadrant Holocene volcanic deposits. These survey span a range of at least 7000 14C yr BP to the data alone suggest widespread use of upper present. The site (45PI438) is the most clearly elevation habitats during late Holocene and deeply stratified site presently know on (collector) times. Excavation data sufficient the mountain, with cultural content that should to address temporal variation in forager versus address temporal variation in assemblage collector assemblages are more limited. Even composition once excavation and analyses are so, preliminary results from two tested complete. Preliminary results suggest a rockshelter sites and two large sites in open, marked increase in artifact diversity and ostensibly base camp, settings display density immediately atop 3500 14C yr BP qualities consistent with the general tenor of MSH-Yn tephra deposits compared with the land-use continuum. Goat, marmot, earlier deposits. Results also show substantial mountain beaver, and (less certainly) deer artifact diversity including both dart and arrow remains at Fryingpan Rockshelter (45PI043) sized projectile points (introduced in the late excavated from sediments circa 1000 14C yr Holocene), suggesting a mixed hunting BP (Lubinski and Burtchard 2005) are strategy continuing late in the Holocene, but consistent with small body-size game, and with increased reliance on smaller, faster transportable resource (goat wool, marmot fauna best taken with a bow. fur) expectations associated with village- linked collector populations. Lithic remains

28 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007.

Pending completion of analyses of recovered conditions would have further exacerbated assemblages, and in light of the low number of problems related to increased forest cover early to early middle Holocene components (and reduced ungulate habitat) operative since against which to compare later Holocene the close of the Hypsithermal interval. Such materials, Mount Rainier archaeological data resource limitations, probably further remain too limited to rigorously test of many heightened by elevated population density, of the expectations offered here. Ongoing should have selected for efforts to intensify research at 45PI438, 45PI408 and several resource acquisition through a variety of other localities such as Tipsoo Lake (45PI406) mechanisms, including 1) fire-based forest should begin to address these issues more suppression to promote more productive early thoroughly in the next few years. With seral-stage communities in both lowland and currently available information, however, it is upland settings, 2) greater use of anadromous clear that extensive use of Mount Rainier’s fish and intensively exploitable plant subalpine to alpine habitats can be dated to the resources such as camas and wapato, and 3) last 3500 14C yr BP. We also know that use increased reliance on marine resources. extended back at least to 7000 14C yr BP and probably further. Currently available test Intensive Collecting: Land Use results are consistent with general expectations for the Semisedentary Collecting Most implications for increasing land-use period. I expect refinement of these ideas in intensity have been addressed in the preceding light of concrete archaeological data to section. Considerable attention has been emerge soon as ongoing research is given to causes and effects of the forager to completed. collector transition because such land-use changes entail substantially different Intensive Collecting: Environment organization of resources, territory and labor. Intensive Collecting assumes mounting Intensive Collecting extends from about 2500 population pressure on available resources to 400 14C yr BP. On Mount Rainier, late countered by incorporation of additional social Holocene climatic conditions remained mechanisms to increase food output and relatively cool and included an acute glacial buffer resource shortfalls. Expected changes advance between about 600 and 150 years ago include an incremental shift toward 1) (the Little Ice Age Garda Stade; Crandell and incorporation of a higher fraction of lower Miller 1974:49-50). The extent to which this return mass harvestable resources, 2) advance influenced resource patterns is expansion into marginal habitats, 3) extension difficult to determine. All else being equal, of trade networks and development of high elevation ungulate forage should have alternative mechanisms to extend resource been improved by forest cover snow capture, 4) more tightly defined and defended suppression, while low elevation forests territorial boundaries, and 5) increased inter- expanded in response to increased moisture group competition and conflict. overall. On strictly environmental grounds, there is reason to expect seasonal hunter- Away from Mount Rainier, perhaps most gatherer use of high elevation landscapes to obvious of the regional changes is have continued throughout the period unless development of maritime economies in coastal upland hunting was restricted to maintain elk settings with productive off-shore waters. For and deer populations as proposed by Schalk the Olympic Peninsula, Schalk (1988:111- (1988). In the lowlands, cool and moist 116) discusses the energy requirements of a

29 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. shift to primary dependence on marine Intensive Collecting: Archaeological resources, providing compelling arguments for Record progressive incorporation of this resource base as population demands increase. Nearer Most dated prehistoric remains on Mount Mount Rainier, we may expect settlement on Rainier date to the latter part of the less productive salmon-bearing rivers and Semisedentary Collecting period or to the streams further inland. Collector settlements Intensive Collecting period as structured here. can also be expected to incorporate lower Because of the predominance of 2300 14C yr return bulk commodities such as camas, BP MR-C surface tephra on the eastern and wapato and biscuit root in moderately northeastern slopes of the mountain, and 3500 productive habitats, particularly where they 14C yr BP MSH-Yn on the northwestern side, occur near salmon streams. Huckleberries most of the currently documented surface sites may also be incorporated as a stored resource and isolates date to after 3500 14C yr BP. if procurement and processing costs are Only two firmly dated subsurface components minimized by proximity to other less labor have yet been documented from this period: intensive resources. In fact, I suggest that use Berkeley Rockshelter (45PI303) and of huckleberries as a storable resource Fryingpan Rockshelter (45PI043) as described increased in importance during the Intensive above. Collecting period after 2500 14C yr BP, particularly where productive berry grounds Mixed Strategy Hunting and Gathering: were situated in close proximity to winter Environment village locations. Because of high labor and transportation costs relative to return, use is Mixed Strategy Hunting and Gathering expected to be restricted by the limits of extends from about 400 14C yr BP to near pedestrian transport so long as alternative food present. All but about 150 years of this period options remained viable. falls within the “Little Ice Age” that lowered temperatures world-wide from between Use of montane uplands on Mount Rainier approximately 1350 to 1850 C.E. (Fagan itself is not expected to change perceptibly 2000). Circumstances initiating the period from Semisedentary Collecting to Intensive and its dramatic land-use changes, however, Collecting periods. It is plausible that had less to do with climatic events than with competitive pressures for extending territorial the impact of diseases, and interaction with boundaries to protect critical upland habitats expanding Russian, British and American became more acute. If so, human use of economies. Basic changes expected for subalpine and alpine zones should have Mount Rainier and the southern Washington involved increasingly regular dispatch of Cascades are outlined below. limited-task groups to protect summer ungulate herds, probably returning with high Mixed Strategy Hunting and Gathering: value alternative resources as described Land Use earlier. In any case, the period ended abruptly with precipitous population losses and social The time since America’s discovery and dislocation associated with introduced Old colonization by European states has been World diseases 400 years ago or less. marked by devastating change to Indian populations. While sources of change have been many, among the most dramatic are abrupt population losses and social dislocation

30 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. due to introduction of old-world epidemic general character of these events (Burtchard diseases, substantially expanded transportation 1990:24): and mobility made possible by introduction of the horse, and ultimately land-use and social Rapid population decline, while changes resulting from overwhelming superficially appearing to ease competition with the expanding American resource stress, would result in the agricultural-industrial system. inability to provide organizational or labor support needed to maintain The Pacific Northwest was not free of these systems as previously structured. processes. Epidemic losses, particularly Massive short-term stress should have among larger aggregated village populations, occurred as a function of inadequate were dramatic (see Boyd 1985, 1990). Lewis labor to continue previous intensive and Clark, for example, visited the nearly food acquisition practices, and short- deserted remnants of Nechacole—the location term lag in the regeneration of of a 226 ft long multi-compartment plank alternative hunted game to support the house and ruins of associated buildings on the remnant population. People could not south shore of the Columbia River east of simply return to a broad-spectrum Portland–in April of 1806 (Coues 1893:926- foraging pattern because game 927). Remaining inhabitants attributed the abundance would have been village demise to a smallpox epidemic circa suppressed by previously heavy 30 years earlier. It is plausible that exploitation. We should expect, rather population-reducing epidemics swept through that surviving populations would again the region earlier still. The period’s 400 year aggregate into composite groups initiation date was set to anticipate that attempting to maintain the status quo epidemic losses could date to as early as 1520 ante. Initially, at least, we should to 1600 C.E., related to overland transmission continue to see semisedentary of diseases from central Mexico. Boyd (1992) settlements and seasonal upland believes that disease introduction post-dates foraging sites, though in substantially direct Euroamerican contact in 1774 –a time reduced number. Surviving settlement that correlates closely with Clark’s locations should tend to be those observation at Nechacole. The precise date of situated at optimal access points for the actual onset is less important than the camas, wapato, salmon and/or big extent of the impact on indigenous people, game. In relatively short order, social organization and land-use practices. mesofaunal game densities should have begun to recover due to reduced Effects of rapid population loss on Northwest human predation pressure. As herds settlement and subsistence practices were increased, we may expect to see almost certainly catastrophic. A conservative defections from the cold season village estimate of 60% decline (Boyd [1992:135] centers, as sub-groups split off to believes that 80% losses are likely) would reform more mobile foraging have altered the population-resource equation adaptations. and brought on sudden and severe stress to the structure of social and land-use systems. My It is possible, perhaps probable, that the earlier Cascades land-use model developed for expected re-emergence of foraging land-use Mt. Hood National Forest, anticipates the practices may have been cut short by extension of the fur trade into the Pacific

31 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007.

Northwest, accelerating immigration, and Horses, however, may have played a more repeated epidemic outbreaks. This is important role in late prehistoric and early particularly likely if Boyd (1992) is correct historical use of the Cascades and Mount about the relatively late date for regional Rainier for huckleberry mass harvest and introduction of epidemic diseases. At least transport. Indeed such use may have been since the mid-1800s, it is more likely that particularly intense on eastern and Indian populations maintained themselves at southeastern slopes, where villages linked to the margins of Euroamerican society, equestrian based economies—like the responding in various ways—including Yakama—were relatively close to historically montane foraging and collecting—in an productive berry fields. Availability of attempt to maintain viable existence in the equestrian transportation may have been an face of severely disruptive pressures on their important element underlying the apparently indigenous lifestyle. intensive use of huckleberries reported in the ethnographic record (see Smith 2006:106- While hardly as debilitating as diseases, 122)—both for packing storage containers and introduction of horses at about the same time ancillary equipment in and dried huckleberries had a locally significant impact on indigenous out. Allan Smith’s (2006:107) allusion to land-use practices. Development of the plains huckleberries as “the primary attraction of the equestrian “bison cultures” are among the [Mount Rainier] mountain slope,” while most dramatic and best known examples. In probably true, was a relatively young the Northwest, impact of the horse was mixed. phenomenon resulting from the acquisition of Clearly, horses altered transportation options the horse, in marked contrast to earlier land- and became an important part of some use patterns dominating early to mid- Northwest land-use systems –particularly in Holocene times. basin and range environments east of the Cascades. Other groups appear to have been Ultimately, indigenous land-use systems were affected very little. Schalk and Atwell effectively overwhelmed by expansion of the (1994:[5]23) suggest that for groups situated American agricultural-industrial system into between major resource foci, equestrian the Pacific Northwest. Indeed, the Lewis and transportation may have been adopted in Clark expedition was the first overland support of a role as middlemen in long extension of this system. President Jefferson distance trade (e.g., The Dalles fisheries-trade funded the expedition, in part, to find the center on the Columbia and bison hunting “most direct and practical water grounds further inland). In the mountains, the communication across the continent, for the horse’s value is not as clear. So long as purpose of commerce” (Parsons and Shiach ungulates remained important to upland use, 1902:8). The inland water route was not and long distance transport was not critical to found, of course, but commerce did indeed maintaining newly formed composite collector follow. By the mid to late 1800s, the region or split off forager systems, the horse may was filling with settlers, miners, entrepreneurs have represented an undesirable competitor and others with little concern for the welfare for available forage. Availability of canoes in of indigenous populations –people already the west side and Columbia River lowlands suffering the consequences of epidemics, and further reduced the transportation value of the severe social and economic dislocation. horse in these areas (Burtchard 1990:24). Elsewhere (Burtchard 1990:24-25), I have summarized the general impact as follows:

32 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007.

Reforming indigenous economic Mixed Strategy Hunting and Gathering: systems could not long compete with Archaeological Record the intrusion of a complex state with very different, and generally Presently, there are no sites definitively dated conflicting land-use requirements. The to the terminal precontact period documented Euroamerican industrial system relies in Mount Rainier National Park. Combined on the extension and maintenance of effects of population loss and reorientation very long distance supply lines for around the newly emerging agricultural- critical resources. Even in the mid industrial land-use systems can be expected to 1800s, fossil fuel subsidized industry have reduced and redirected use of upper and transportation made possible the elevation landscapes. Clearly, however, use exploitation of regions that had of montane landscapes did not stop altogether. heretofore been too remote for Indian familiarity with various parts of Mount effective integration into the larger Rainier and the Cascades is indicated in system. Settlers established farms, accounts by early explorers and adventurers in logging, fishing and industrial the region. Early historic period use of Mount operations in areas that previously Rainier is discussed in passing by Schmoe supported the indigenous economy. (see 1925 and 1967), in detail by Allan Smith Eventually, surviving Indian (2006), and implied by Marian Smith (1940) populations were congregated [in most in her Puyallup-Nisqually ethnoghraphy. cases] into confederated reservations at These accounts indicate a continuing interest places that represented minimal in hunting and particularly huckleberry intrusion on the new land-use system. gathering directed to subalpine and alpine To partially ameliorate the effects of habitats on all sides of the mountain. Allan social disruption and relegation to Smith (2006:120-122) also describes marginal habitats, the new sub-systems characteristic fired berry drying features. For were, and continue to be, subsidized both theoretical and ethnographic reasons, by the new industrial state. The then, we should expect to see at least a limited continuing development of water, rail, number of residential base camp and task highway and air transport has tied the specific locations on Mount Rainier dating to regional economy into the larger very late prehistoric and early historic times. national and international system. The latest of these locations should contain Presently, the economy of the some European trade goods and utensils. Northwest is critically tied to events emanating far beyond the spatial limits In addition to residential base camp and operative in the past. hunting location remains, we should be sensitive to characteristic signatures of On Takhoma, human use shifted from the huckleberry processing features –which may berrying and limited hunting activities that or may not be directly associated with base lingered on through the 1800s, to primary use camps. Allan Smith’s informants allude to as the recreation and wilderness preserve two general procedures for drying berries: 1) known now as Mount Rainier National Park. on mats stretched between poles and suspended several feet above small fires; and 2) on a low linear mound opposite a burning log. A number of these latter type features have been found in the Gifford Pinchot

33 Table 1. Mount Rainier Environment, Land-Use and Archaeological Record Summary

Land-Use Period Environment Land-Use Expectations Archaeological Expectations Rainier & WA Cascades Data

Post-Pleistocene Mount Rainier glaciated Very low population density; No archaeological remains Extant: No remains dating to earliest Foraging early retreating rapidly near foragers east of Cascades focus expected for Rainier during the Holocene. 45PI438 dates to ca. 7300 14C yr period end; modern habitats on megafauna habitats. Limited period, except at the close ca BP. Clovis point near Cle Elum may indicate (ca. 11,000-8000 est-ablished near period end. use of Puget Trough and 8000 years 14C yr BP.. Earliest use of foothills or low elevation passes 14C yr BP) Megafauna present in Puget Cascade foothills. Increased use use of Washington Cascade earlier. Trough during Everson of Cascade foothills with foothills and lowlands during the Recommend: Additional samples from Interglacial; extinct by period megafauna extinctions at period period. deeply stratified cultural deposits. Mazama end. end. Earliest plausible use of tephra provides good 6800 14C yr BP Mount Rainier (not expected). temporal marker.

Rest-Rotation Full onset of Hypsithermal. Low population density; mobile Small residential and hunting Extant: Modest number of dated sites in Foraging Lowland forest density foraging strategies emphasizing camp sites in lowland and foot- foothill to moderate elevation settings. decreases –ungulate habitat ungulate habitat in lowlands hill settings. Low site density on 45PI438 documents earliest known use of (ca. 9000-6000 improves; upland forest and Cascade foothills. Limited Mount Rainier. Mount Rainier. 14C yr BP) density increases –ungulate use of Mount Rainier uplands Recommend: As above, concerted effort to habitat restricted. begins locate and sample deeply stratified cultural deposits.

Semisedentary Rest- Hypsithermal climate cools Slightly elevated population Site density in lowlands increases Extant: Modest number of dated sites in the Rotation Foraging near period end. Ungulate density. Short-term winter with similar site types. Limited Cascades. Distinct 45PI438 component habitat degrades in lowlands, sedentism and storage. Other evidence of storage features. Site establishes presence on Mount Rainier, (ca. 7000-4000 improves in uplands. aspects of mobile foraging density on Mount Rainier rises stratigraphy at 45PI408 suggests use 4500- 14 14C yr BP) Volcanic collapse of Mount strategies continue. Punctuated sharply. Patterned distribution of 2300 C yr BP. Rainier summit; Paradise- increase in use of upland early base camps at upper forest eco- Recommend: Near term data recovery at Greenwater-Osceola lahars. seral-stage habitats. tone, hunting locations in sub- 45PI408. Survey and test rock-shelter alpine to alpine settings. locations to gain assemblage, resource and temporal data. Survey and test subset of base camp and limited-task locations.

Semisedentary Climate cools to near modern Elevated population, degrading Increased site density in lowlands Extant: Village complexes in lowlands. Collecting conditions. Limited glacial ungulate habitat; unstable re- with sharp increase in aggregated Stratigraphic, artifact and 14C evidence for advance ca. 2400 14C yr BP. source balance with forager settlement on salmon streams. use of Mount Rainier upper forest to alpine (ca. 5000-1500 Closed lowland forests, open system. Shift to river oriented Site density increases on Mount habitats. 14C yr BP) uplands. Mount Rainier C logistic strategies. Use of fire to Rainier reflecting elevated Recommend: Site survey with subsurface eruptions rebuild summit to improve ungulate habitat. regional population density. Base tests to expand database and improve present height. Extension of territorial claims camps at upper forest ecotone; temporal representation. Test-data recovery to uplands; montane use increased site variety. Increased at subset of sites stratified by type to continues with focus on habitat use of small game and alternative improve view of temporal and site protection and use of alternative durable, easily transportable distribution issues. resources. resources.

Land-Use Period Environment Land-Use Expectations Archaeological Expectations Rainier & WA Cascades Data

Intensive Collecting Early mountain rebuilding Peak prehistoric regional Maximum lowland site density Extant: Highest regional site density with vulcanism. Variable climate. population density. Collector and dispersal into varied habitats. largest aggregated villages in lowland (ca. 2500-400 “Little Climatic Optimum” systems fully established. Largest aggregated settlements in settings. General Cascade site density 14C yr BP) followed by “Little Ice Age” Increasing use of fire. marine and riverine context. increases sharply. Upland Mount Rainier glacial advance near the end Territorial claims vigorously Storage features and elevated use evident by 14C, stratigraphic, and artifact of the period. Dense enforced. Extension of trade artifact complexity. Higher remains. maritime forests in lowlands, and other inter-group ties. fraction of ritual and status goods. Recommend: Survey and test procedures as open subalpine associations Increased social complexity. Higher fraction of tools for above. Efforts to identify and date in uplands. Elevated inter-group conflict. capture of smaller bodied huckleberry processing features. Obtain Exploitation of lower return animals. Montane site density and pollen profiles for paleoenvironmental storable resources, increasing type remains largely constant. reconstruction and examination of carbon use of inland valleys and Due to logistic difficulty, mass frequency-fire data. foothills; high elevation use huckleberry harvest for lowland continues, focusing on habitat storage not expected prior to protection and use of alternative introduction of the horse. durable, easily transportable resources.

Mixed Strategy Essentially modern climatic Rapid population loss to Punctuated drop in site density Extant: Decreased lowland site total. Some Hunting & conditions except as epidemic diseases. overall. Continuing but large maritime and riverine villages Gathering modified by Little Ice Age Abandonment of villages in decreasing number of large continue. The Dalles trade fairs. Mount global cooling circa 1350- marginal habitats with re- lowland villages. Possible short- Rainier huckleberry-hunting use (ca. 400 14C yr BP.- 1850 C.E. (Garda Stade on aggregation as composite term reemergence of small ethnographically documented. Early Present) Mount Rainier). Lowland groups in optimal habitats. forager residential camps. historical use suggested at several sites, but and upland forest patterns Increased inter-group Increased fraction of European data ambiguous. No huckleberry processing near modern levels. variability in land-use systems. trade goods and utensils. Use features currently documented. Equestrian transport and declines then increases with Recommend: Survey efforts geared to emergence of long distance primary focus on mass expand and categorize sample of early overland collecting and trade, huckleberry harvest and historical remains. Survey test procedures to particularly on east slope. supplemental hunting. Indigenous document huckleberry processing features. Increased mass huckleberry use for economic purposes Test procedures at most probable traditional harvest. Partial integration into declines in late 1800s- early prehistoric-historic sites Euroamerican economy 1900s. ultimately breaks predominance of forager-collector land-use strategies.

Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007.

National Forest and a few have been In this paper, I have given considerable excavated (Mack and McClure 1996; 2002). attention to origins and uses of the forager to On the modern surface, features tend to appear collector continuum first proposed by Binford as low linear mounds. Excavation reveals (1980), and subsequently applied to temporal elongated charcoal deposits opposite a sloping changes in subsistence and settlement patterns mound, often in association with fire cracked in the Pacific Northwest (e.g., Schalk and and unbroken rock (Mack and McClure Cleveland 1983). Despite its tendency to 2002:50-51). Deposits also should produce focus our attention on polar extremes, I Vaccinium remains in macro-botanical believe that the forager-collector model samples. Efforts to identify and document provides an effective means to contrast the such remains should be included as part of the economies of early Holocene colonizing larger continuing effort to develop a clearer populations with later Holocene populations understanding of the mountain’s broader forced to fit elevated population density into a cultural resource base and Mount Rainier’s context of heightened competition for finite place in long-term processes of human use of resources. montane environments in the Pacific Northwest. The paper also offers a six-part intensification model based on forager to collector principles SUMMARY (see Table 1). The model simplifies and draws attention to basic Holocene subsistence We now know that Mount Rainier, and other and settlement processes as they apply to Pacific Northwest mountains, have attracted Mount Rainier with implications for the humans to their high elevation landscapes for Pacific Northwest generally. Consistent with thousands of years. Current data suggest that forager-collector expectations, I (and many use began over 8,500 y14C yr BP, increased in others cited here) suggest that, in general, intensity about 3,500 14C yr BP, and continued land-use practices across the Pacific until effectively terminated by extensive Northwest have shifted from mobile foraging population loss and social dislocation about economies with minimal reliance on mass 200 years ago. On Mount Rainier, I have harvest and over winter storage, to more argued that differential resource productivity logistically oriented acquisition of food of low seral-stage subalpine and alpine resources by limited task groups tethered to habitats provides economic benefits sufficient village centers. Because these processes are to attract hunters and gatherers throughout played out by real people adjusting as best most of the Holocene epoch that the mountain they can to real-world circumstances, I have has been largely free of glacial ice. I believe given substantial attention to outlining that Mount Rainier has been particularly ecological processes that I believe play critical important as a resource destination in this roles in determining the manner subsistence regard because of the large expanse and linked and settlement systems develop and change character of these upper elevation over time. communities. Similar considerations apply to the moist Cascade and Olympic Mountains The full paper, of course, discusses generally, but with patterns fit to the unique environmental and land-use expectations at configuration of comparable low-seral stage substantially greater length than possible in habitats in these Pacific Northwest massifs. Table 1. I encourage readers to consider the concepts and arguments presented. Most importantly, I hope that the effort stimulates

36 Archaeology in Washington, Vol. 13, 2007. interest in, and debate regarding, long-term Museum Bulletin No. 27, University of subsistence and settlement processes; and Tokyo. helps to contribute to the development of more sophisticated concepts than those offered here. Ames, Kenneth M. 1985 Hierarchies, Stress, and Logistical NOTES Strategies among Hunter-Gatherers in Northwestern North America. In 1 Takhoma is employed here as a proxy for a Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers; The wide variety of similar names pronounced Emergence of Cultural Complexity, somewhat differently by the region’s Sahaptin edited by T. Douglas Price and James and Salishan speaking Indian groups (see A. Brown, pp. 155-180. Academic Smith 2006:24). Press, Orlando, Florida.

2 This is not meant to imply that all precontact Ames, Kenneth M., and Herbert D.G. use of Mount Rainier was economically Maschner driven; but rather, that most prehistoric use, 1999 Peoples of the Northwest Coast; most of the time was geared toward extraction Their Archaeology and Prehistory. of subsistence and maintenance resources Thames and Hudson, London. available in sufficient abundance to attract interest. Baxter, Paul W. 1986 Archaic Upland Adaptations in the 3 The closest ethnographically reported Central Oregon Cascades. villages to Mount Rainier were located in the Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Nisqually and Puyallup-Carbon River Department of Anthropology, drainages about 17 to 25 miles from present University of Oregon, Eugene. park boundaries (see Smith 1940:8; Smith 2006:80-81) Binford, Lewis R. 1978 Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology. 4 Ongoing palynological and archaeological Academic Press, New York. research at Buck Lake (45PI438) on Mount Rainier are intended to address these 1980 Willow Smoke and Dog’s Tails: questions. Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation. REFERENCES American Antiquity 45(1):4-20.

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