Background to the Transvaal Iron Age-new discoveries at Olifantspoort and Broederstroom R. J. MASON*, Ph.D. (Visitor) SYNOPSIS The work being done on Iron Age sites in the Transvaal is described, with particular reference to the finds at Olifantspoort and Broederstroom. The material so far found provides evidence for the production of iron and copper, the farming of cattle and sheep, and the construction of large villages by people who were probably ancestral to the present Bantu population. The material dates from as early as A.D. 270, but clear indications occur from AD. 460 onwards.

SAMEVATTING Die werk wat op die terreine uit die Ystertydperk in die Transvaal gedoen word, word beskryf, met spesiale verwysing na die vondse by Olifantspoort en Broederstroom. Die materiaal wat tot dusver gevind is, dui op die produksie van yster en koper, bees- en skaapboerdery, en die bou van groot dorpe deur mense wat waarskynlik die voorvaders van die huidige Bantoebevolking was. Die materiaal gaan so ver terug as 270 n.C., maar daar is duidelike aanduidings vanaf 460 n.C. en later.

INTRODUCTION site 24/73 and here discovered the evidence means that we now have The phrase 'Iron Age' in the South remains of the only relatively intact evidence for the production of iron African context refers to a tech- village dating to the Early Iron Age and copper, the farming of cattle and nology that led to the earliest yet found south of the Sahara. We sheep, and the construction of large major transformation of human so- have to date exposed the well-pre- villages by people who were most ciety in . Iron Age served remains of twelve huts distri- probably ancestral to the present technology was based on farming buted over an area of approximately Bantu-speaking population of South and metal production, which led to 5 acres, together with many thou- Africa, for at least as early as fundamental changes in the South sands of potsherds, two large ac- A.D. 270 but clearly indicated from African economy, South African cumulations of iron slag and furnace A.D. 460 onwards. This would mean politics, and South African social debris (Plate I), teeth of cattle and that the Iron Age of the Transvaal is relationships. Before the Iron Age, sheep, and, most important of all, partly contemporary with the later everything was on a small scale in a pot burial containing the mandible stages of the Roman Empire. An South Africa so far as human of a six to twelve year old child and elderly person living at the Broeder- beings were concerned. After the the maxilla of a young adult, stroom Iron Age site could even Iron Age, the way was open for the identified by Professor J. F. van have witnessed the sack of Imperial emergence of our present large- Reenen, of the Uni- Rome by the Visigoth King Alaric scale South African society. versity Dental School, as repre- the Bold in A.D. 410. senting persons with teeth 'con- One of the Broederstroom iron WHEN DID THE SOUTH siderably larger than the mean slag floors, 24/73K, preserves a pile AFRICAN IRON AGE values for Bushmen and South of yellowish iron ore approximately BEGIN? African Bantu Negroids. They fall, 50 kg in weight. The precise geo- however, within the range of mea- logical nature and source of the During the last few years, im- surements recorded for Bantu portant discoveries of evidence for 24/73K iron ore have not yet been Negroids'. identified, but its fresh surfaces the earliest Iron Age penetration of The Broederstroom and other suggest that the 24/73K iron smelt- South Mrica have been made by TABLE I . Mr Menno Klapwijkl in the Tzaneen CARBON-14 DATES TO IRON AGE FINDS IN THE TRANSVAAL area at the site 'Silverleaves', dated by Dr J. C. Vogel in Pretoria at Author Site Date Lab. No. A.D. 270; by Mr L. van Bezing at Klapwijk, M. Silver Leaves A.D. 270 :J: 55 Pta-901 Sterkspruit outside Lydenburg, pro- 1nskeep, R. R. Sterkspruit A.D. 490 :J: 50 Pta-328 visionally dated to A.D. 490 by (Lydenburg Heads) Dr Vogel; by Dr A. van Genderen at Protsch, R. Broederstroom 24/73K A.D.460:J: 50 UCLA-179lB Fagg, B. Taruga 440 :J: 140 B.C. 1-2960 Broederstroom 24/73 on the south Mason, R. J. Olifantspoort 29/72A A.D. 1240 :J: 120 RL.-199 bank of Dam, dated Mason, R. J. Olifantspoort 27/71G A.D. 1580 :J: 90 RL.-197 Mason, R. J. Melville Koppies A.D. 1060 :J: 50 Y-1338 by Dr R. Protsch at A.D. 460. The Upper Furnace carbon-14 dates allotted to various Mason, R. J. Olifantspoort 20/71 A.D. 1550 :J: HO RL.-186 finds are listed in Table I. Base of ash heap 6 Vogel, J. Olifantspoort 20/71 A.D. 1850 :J: 20 Se-I In May 1973 we commenced the Ash heap I (converted) excavation of Dr van Genderen's Mason, R. J. Uitkomst Cave A.D. 1650 :J: 80 Y-1323B Bed 2 Furnace .Head, Department 'of Archaeology, Uni- Mason, R. J. Klipriviersberg 18/69 A.D.1723:J: 46 Pta-136 versity of the Witwatersrand, Johan- South Ash Heap nesburg.

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1974 211 I

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Plate I-Earliest trace of iron smelting in the Transvaal. Tuyeres, iron slag, and Iron ore at 24J73K, Broederstroom (south bank of ), dated Nok sites as a whole as representing A.D. 460. Depth 25 cm below present surface level. one of the centres of origin of the African Iron Age. The pottery from ers actually mined the ore, in con- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE Nok represents a type of pottery trast to mere surface collection of SOUTH AFRICAN IRON very similar indeed to generalized naturally weathered ore fragments. AGE South African Iron Age pottery. The 24J73K ore pile therefore repre- The most spectacular discoveries in sents the earliest mining of iron ore In the South African context, the the Nok area are the remains of yet found in the Transvaal. Of Iron Age prepared South African beautifully sculpted clay heads, society for rapid adjustment and course, Transvaal Middle Stone Age representing the earliest appearance interlocking with complex Western hunters had been using iron ores as a of the great West African art style. technology, leading to the present colouring material since at least In 1962, Mr L. van Bezing found the explosively productive South 33 000 B.C. as I was able to demon- remains of a quantity of remarkable strate2 in my excavation of Olie- African economy. South Africa today clay heads on the surface of a donga could not have been built without boompoort Cave in the Western at Sterkspruit near Lydenburg de. the foundation of human aptitudes Transvaal in 1954. scribed by him and Mr. R. Inskeep4. for complex industrial labour created Contacts between the A.D. 460 A charcoal line in the donga gave a by the Iron Age. iron smelters of Broederstroom and date of A.D. 490, which may relate to Stone Age hunters are suggested by I;' the heads5. The heads are similar in hundreds of Stone-Age-style grooved ORIGIN OF THE SOUTH style to Central and West African sandstone pieces on the Broeder- representations of the human face, :1 AFRICAN IRON AGE stroom floors, used for the making of and the ear on one of the heads carries ;1 ! Stone-Age-style shell beads. Dr A. Several years ago, Mr Bernard broad line incision very similar to van Genderen found at least one Fagg excavated an Iron Age smelting the broad line incision motifs on Early

1 cowrie shell and one Conus hebraicu8 site at Taruga, near Nok on the edge Iron Age pottery in South Africa in shell eroding from the Broederstroom of the central plateau system of general, and Broederstroom in par- soils, indicating contact with the Nigeria, dated 440 :!: 140 B.C.3 ticular. East Coast. Archaeologists generally accept the A large number of Iron Age sites

212 JANUARY 1974 JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY dating from early in the first mil- Iron Age sites in the Transvaal floors, we found teeth of sheep or lenium A.D. are now known north earlier than the Broederstroom A.D. goats and cattle, identified by Mr R. of the Transvaal. Mr Tom Huffman 460 site is now on. Welbourne as the earliest cattle interprets the sites as due to the The Guthrie-Greenberg linguistic south of the Zambesi. The huts were dispersal of Iron Age settlers from history hypothesis explaining Bantu substantial pole-and-daga construct- an East Congo centre 6. Certainly, expansion in sub-Saharan Africa is ions, approximately 2 metres in the Sterkspruit clay heads and the outlined by Clarkll. diameter. There are remains of two general data from Broederstroom slab-supported beds on a raised floor suggest a derivation from Central IRON AGE SETTLEMENT- in one hut. The iron slag floors are and West Africa. The Broeder- WITW ATERSRAND AND larger than other slag accumulations stroom pottery closely resembles VALLEY excavated in the southern Transvaal, pottery excavated by Mr K. Robin- The main focus of modern mining but in size resemble some of the son at Nkopi in Malawi7, 8, and the and metallurgy in Africa is in the Palabora slag lenses. The size of the Broederstroom pot burials are very southern Transvaal. Historians may Broederstroom slag lenses suggests similar to burial ritual recorded by wish to relate present-day and pre- that the furnace operators were pro- Knut Odner at Usangi in the North historic mining developments in this ducing iron for trade with other Pare Mountains (north-eastern Tan- region to one another. communities whose remains may zania), both in Iron Age sites and Since 1971 we have discovered await discovery in or near the among the Pare people today9. For that the Magaliesberg Valley pre- Magaliesberg Valley. the moment, we can associate the serves one of the best records of The pottery decoration suggests Early Iron Age penetration of the Iron Age activity in Africa, dating influences from, or associations with, Transvaal with the ancestors of the from Early Iron Age times right up first-millenium Iron Age communi- present Bantu-speaking peoples of to the nineteenth century. The wide, ties in Malawi and Zambia, and the Transvaal and elsewhere, who gently sloping landscapes of the with as yet undated communities established themselves here in the Magaliesberg Valley appear to have on the Natal Coast as far south as Transvaal at the time of the Later been ideal territories for Iron Age Pondoland, where, in the 1930s, Roman Empire as farmers, metal settlers, offering a wide range of J. F. Schofield13 located pottery producers, and village builders. environmental opportunities to these similar in some respects to the The Nok dates for presumably people, and offering the archaeologist Broederstroom pottery. Tbe link ancestral South African Iron Age good conditions for preservation by between the Malawi and Natal cultures of circa 440 B.C. show that gentle deposition covering the settle- Coastal Iron Age pottery was first pressures for population expansion ments after their abandonment. The observed by Mr K. Robinson7, and several thousand miles north-west soils of the Magaliesberg Valley I have pleasure in corroborating of the Transvaal were building up in . made very durable plasters on the Mr Robinson's observations. There the thousand years before the birth walls or floors of Iron Age huts, as is every prospect that the South of Christ. We can spcculate that the well as pottery. Indeed, we have African Iron Age was well estab- stimulus of adverse environmental probably learned more about Iron lished from the Transvaal to the controls such as drought may have Age hut building from Early to eastern Cape by early in the first forced Iron Age communities to Late Iron Age times in the Magalies- millenium A.D., if not before the move south through the more open berg Valley than anywhere else in birth of Christ. territories east of the equatorial Africa. In schematic fashion we MIDDLE IRON AGE forest regions of Central Africa, and suggest that our local Witwaters- that, once they decided to move, rand-Magaliesberg Iron Age sequence In the last few years, we have they moved fast. We have well- can be presented in three stages: excavated no fewer than four vil- recorded historical models for draw- Early, Middle, and Late Iron Ages. lages representing Middle Iron Age ing analogies with prehistoric popu- activity. The dating for the local lation movement in Africa. For EARLY IRON AGE Middle Iron age extends from Mel- example, when the explorf]r Stanley The Early Iron Age of the southern ville Koppies Upper Furnace date of persuaded Emin Pasha to leave his and south-western Transvaal (circa A.D. 1060 until approximately A.D. home base near Lake Albert on the A.D. 460) was recorded at Kruger 1580-1610 :t 90, these being the two Uganda/Sudanese border, 'On April Cave, Olifantsnek Dam, latest dates for Iron Age materials 10, 1889, a crowd of over 1500 men, District, where I found two potsherds including the characteristic Middle women, and children, with their of Early Iron Age type in 195612, at Iron Age pottery at sites 27/71 and household goods including bedsteads near Thabazimbi (dis- 64/71. The Middle Iron Age therefore and grindstones, set out to walk the covered with Professor Plewman, presumably began some time around 1300 miles to the coast at Baga- I. Watt, and W. D. Maxwell in A.D. 1000 and lasted until approxi- moyo. They reached there on Dec- December 1973), and at Broeder- mately A.D. 1500-1600. / ember 4'1°. stroom, where we have recently We have traces of Middle Iron A rapid movement of this kind exposed hut floors, slag floors, and Age activity at no fewer than three may have carried Iron Age people furnace debris, fragmentary human fully excavated Iron Age villages, into the Transvaal as early as the burials, and large quantities of two partially excavated Iron Age first millenium B.C. The search for decorated pottery. Near the hut villages, and one unexcavated Iron

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1974 213 Age village. The villages are all dimpled depressions for holding pots; the archaeologist. Some of the Late located in the Olifantspoort area or and a cylindrical depression, about Iron Age settlements, such as Mow- farms adjacent to Olifantspoort. In 25 cm in depth and 10 cm in dia- wil and Kaditshwene in the western addition to the Olifantspoort sites, meter, for securing a small wooden Transvaal, cover as many as a we have four further sites where mortar. Traces of a small wooden thousand acres, and there are many pottery similar to the Middle Iron mortar were found in at least one hundreds that extend over an area Age pottery at Olifantspoort has of these depressions. Scattered about of fifty or a hundred acres. We been found. One of these is the well- on the floors themselves, we found selected a rather small Late Iron known Melville Koppies Furnace, the bowls and pots characteristic of Age settlement on the farm Olifants- dated A.D. 1060, which produced Middle Iron Age pottery assemb- poort (Site 20(71), which extends pottery similar to the Olifantspoort lages, together with teeth of cattle over an area of about 6 acres, this Middle Iron Age pottery; the second and sheep or goats, iron tools, and, being the maximum area we could is a stone-walled settlement on the at a number of sites, well-preserved expose in six months of continuous lower slopes of the Melville Koppies, carbonized seeds of millet. From work in 1971. and the third and fourth are sepa- these data we are able to say that Within this area we exposed the rate sites on the slopes of Platberg, the Middle Iron Age people in the remains of no fewer than 88 well-pre- near Klerksdorp. From these scat- Magaliesberg(Witwatersrand region served huts out of a total of 125 huts tered finds, it is clear that the Middle were fully capable of building sub- whose debris we could observe pro- Iron Age, so well represented at stantial huts, presumably of the jecting above the surface of the soil. Olifantspoort, was widely distributed cone-cylinder type of huts still The hut floors at this site proved to in the southern Transvaal. constructed by Sotho- Tswana people be more complex than those regis- Our three excavated Middle Iron today, although they had not yet tered in the Early and Middle Iron Age villages on Olifantspoort Farm apparently discovered, or were not Ages. The hut floors of the Late Iron yet using, stone as a building ma- show that Middle Iron Age villages Age very frequently included two varied in size from 10 to 20 huts terial. In the Magaliesberg-Wit- separate compartments, and we were distributed in a roughly circular or watersrand region at Middle Iron astonished to find remains of sliding elliptical pattern, with fairly even Age sites, there is no trace of the doors at the doorways leading from spacing between the separate huts, stone walls so characteristic of the the outer compartment to the inner over an area of approximately 1 to Later Iron Age, with the single compartment. 2 acres. The perimeter of this area exception of Melville Koppies. On was occupied by huts, and pre- the lower slopes of Melville Koppies, There is a very clear relationship sumably the cattle, whose remains in there is a rather curious stone- between the settlement pattern and the form of teeth have been found walled Iron Age settlement, about hut construction on at least one on the hut floors themselves, were an acre in area, that may date to the prehistoric site-the Late Iron Age kraaled at night in enclosures in the Middle Iron Age. site 32(71 at the summit of Platberg space enclosed by the perimeter of near Klerksdorp-and living Bantu- huts. There may well have been a LA TE IRON AGE speaking peoples. We were very zareba, or thornbush stockade, on a The Late Iron Age in the Magalies- surprised to see that the site we perimeter enclosing the huts them- berg-Witwatersrand area is regis- had excavated on the summit of the selves, so that, on approaching a tered at literally thousands of stone- Platberg in 1971 was virtually Middle Iron Age village, the travel- walled settlements in the region. identical in its hut types and their ler would first observe a thorn bush The earliest dates that we have for spatial distribution to parts of screen or stockade enclosing an these stone-walled settlements are Molepolole in today, which area of about 2 acres, then would mid-sixteenth century (approximate- we investigated during 1972 with pass through an outer gateway to ly A.D. 1550), and at least one of the the kind help of Professor D. Ham- find himself confronted by a ring of settlements (Site 20(71 at Olifants- mond-Tooke. The Ntloedibe div- well-built huts, with even spacing poort) has very recent carbon dates ision .of Molepolole has huts and a between the huts, and beyond the for the later parts of the settlement, general layout that is a virtual huts in the centre of the settlement which enable us to guess that the duplicate of parts of the Platberg would have been the cattle and goat building of stone-walled structures, Iron Age settlements. or sheep enclosures, protected by the or the occupation of stone-walled The huts at Site 20(71 Late Iron outer part of the settlement. Iron Age structures, persisted into Age settlement at Olifantspoort car- I~ The hut floors themselves consist the nineteenth century. It is very ried traces of thatched roofs that of well-preserved very hard plaster clear that the Late Iron Age regis- had been destroyed by fire. We are surfaces about 2 metres in diameter. ters substantially larger human reasonably certain that all the huts Most hut floors of the Middle Iron populations than at Middle Iron of site 20(71 must have been burnt Age have similar features: a raised Age sites. This is a guess, but it is a at the same time, either by natural platform on one side or on one guess based on the relative numbers agency or in war. Since the latest segment of the roughly circular hut of known Early, Middle, and Late radiocarbon date is approximately floor; a large dimple-shaped de- Iron Age settlements in the Magalies- 1820 from the ash heaps at the pression on the lower part of the berg- Witwatersrand region. The site14, we are able to guess that floor adjacent to the raised platform, large size of Late Iron Age settle- the destruction of this settlement presumably as a fireplace; smaller ments poses an awkward problem for probably took place during the

214 JANUARY 1974 "JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY Lifaquane upheavals of the 1820s. Mr Robbie Steel. There is no trace of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The 20/71 hut floors were littered actual copper smelting at any of the My special thanks are due to the with beautifully made pottery, a known sites in the Olifantspoort Human Sciences Research Council small number of iron tools, and two region, and it is evident that the (which has subvented most of our copper ornaments. We found millet copper miners who exposed the work), the African Studies Pro- seeds and a few teeth of cattle, trench discovered by Mr Steel carried gramme, and the University Senate sheep or goats, and wild animals on the ore away to sites elsewhere for Research Council (which has made some of the hut floors, but the bulk smelting. In 1950-1952 I excavated major financial contributions), Mr of the data on the economic life of a cave on Mr Jack Scott's farm 'Uit- Les Wells of J.C.I. and his excellent Site 20/71 people came from the komst' near Hekpoort, about 25 colleagues of Spectral Africa (who enormous ash heaps that litter the miles to the south-east of Mr Steel's provided beautiful aerial photo- internal part of the site. These copper mine, and here discovered a graphs of our sites), Dr J. Vogel of ash heaps produced many thousands beautifully preserved smelting fur- the C.S.I.R. Radio-carbon Labora- of bones and teeth of a wide variety nace dated to mid-seventeenth tory (who did some of the dating), of animals ranging from cattle, century (approximately A.D. 1640), and Dr R. Protsch (who dated sheep, and goats to wild animals together with quantities of both Broederstroom). Above all, I am such as buffalo and jackals. These hematite and copper ore. Dr R. indebted to Mr Robbie Steel, whose have been identified by Mr Robbie Robinson of the National Institute tireless work has enabled us to Welbourne of the Department of for Metallurgy has kindly analysed expose all the sites excavated be- Archaeology. We discovered no fewer the ore for us and has demonstrated tween 1971 and 1973. than five human burials at various that the Uitkomst ore excavated in sites within the perimeter of Site 1950 has properties very similar in- We are only at the beginning of our investigations of the Iron Age 20/71-all in ash heaps. The burials, deed to the copper ore mined at Mr in the Transvaal. Space has not identified by Professor H. de Villiers, Robbie Steel's mine discovered in permitted me to refer to Iron Age all represent a racial type character- 1973. There is every prospect, then, istic of Bantu-speaking peoples in the that, for a few years, the Olifants- studies by other workers in this province. Mr T. M. Evers is at work Transvaal today. poort copper mine was the centre of copper mining, which was dispersed in the eastern Transvaal, Professor There is some evidence of iron H. Eloff and Mr A. Meyer at Mapun- over a wide area to sites as far as working at Site 20/71. Enclosure 1 at gubwe, Mr E. Hanisch at Messina, 25 miles distant from the mine, the site preserved the remains of a and Mr M. Klapwijk at Tzaneen. such as Uitkomst Cave. furnace and the debris of metal Mr R. Welbourne is completing re. production. Dr H. Friede examined search on Iron Age meat-eating the slag found in this enclosure, and practices, and Dr H. Friede is at considers that the enclosure repre- EARLY EUROPEAN EXPLORERS AND IRON AGE work on metal-smelting techniques. sents iron forging rather than iron Mr U. Ktisel is recording ethno- smelting, and the same explanation PEOPLE IN THE TRANSVAAL graphic data, especially on metal would apply to an interesting fur- production, and Mr J. Stanko and nace found in the rear part of hut Mr M. Dingle are experimenting Aq, several hundred metres to the The earliest European explorers with methods of metal production. north-west of enclosure 1 on the of the Transvaal left behind a wealth opposite side of the village. of data on Iron Age peoples. I have We wish to thank the many time to refer only to John Camp- students and members of the public MINING AND METAL PRO- be1l15, that remarkable Scottish mis- who have assisted us in our investi. DUCTION IN THE LATE sionary who visited Kaditshwene, gations, and whose interest and IRON AGE-MAGALIESBERG- near Zeerust, in 1820 and recorded hospitality have proved essential for WITWATERSRAND REGION a great deal of the living Iron Age the development of our investi- The exposure of Site 20/71 sug- pattern to such perfection that we gations of the Transvaal Iron Age: gested very strongly that the stone- are able to use Campbell's account particularly the late Mr and Mrs walled villages of the Late Iron to help explain things such as tribal A. Retief, Mr' and Mrs Pierre Retief Age were not metal-smelting centres, identifications of some of the last of Olifantspoort, Mr J. Meyer of although some small-scale smelting Iron Age peoples in the southern 'Liefde & Vrede', Dr and Mrs A. van was done in them. The bulk of metal Transvaal. Thus, we know that the Genderen of Broederstroom, Mr Wes- smelting may have been carried out Olifantspoort village (20/71), dated sels Jooste of Klerksdorp, and the at localities outside the main stone- A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1820, was prob- Department of National Education walled villages, but the only trace ably a Kwena settlement, while (which authorized our investigation of such large-scale production yet Kaditshwene, a Hurutse settle- at Broederstroom). discovered is Mr P. Venter's 13- ment, probably represents one of the Mr P. Wallace, Technician in furnace site at Panorama, which we tribal origins of the technology the Department of Archaeology, has excavated in 1972. A mile or so represented at places like the Klip- made an immense contribution to north of 20/71 is a large copper- riviersberg settlements we excavated our work. Mrs J. Kohary, Mr J. mining trench (47/73), discovered on Mr J. Meyer's farm, near Alber- Swan, Mrs E. Kuhner, and Miss K. and excavated during 1973 by ton, dating from A.D. 1640 onwards. Fredman have helped with re-

JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY JANUARY 1974 215 cording and fieldwork, and Pro- 3. FAGG, B. Reoent work in West Afrioa: Malawi Govt. Dept. Antiquities, 13. fessors H. de Villiers and F. van new light on the Nok Culture. Wld. 1971. A rchaeol. , vo1. 1, no. 1. 1969. pp. 41- 9. ODNER, K. Usangi Hospital and other Reenen are in charge of the human 50. archaeological sites in the North bones from our Transvaal sites. The 4. INsKEEr, R. H., and VAN BEZING, Pare Mountains, North Eastern Tan- work was supervised by the African K. L. Modelled terraootta heads from zania. Azania, no. 6. '1971. pp. Lydenburg, South Africa. Man,'vo1. 1, 89- Studies Programme Iron Age Com- 130. no. 1. 1966. 10. HuXLEY, E. The challenge of Africa. mittee of the University of the 5. INS KEEP, R. R. Terracotta heads. London, 1971. Witwatersrand. S. Afr. J. Sci., vol. 67, no. 10. 1971. 11. CLARK, J. D. The prehistory of Africa. pp. 492.493. Southampton, 1970. REFERENCES 6. HUFFMAN, T. N. The Early Iron Age 12. MAsoN, R. J. Gp. cit., p. 402. and the spread of the Bantu. S. Afr. 13. SCHOFIELD, J. F. Primitive pottery. 1. KLAPWIJK, M. Notes on a new Iron Archaeol. Bull., vol. 25, no. 97. 1970. Cape Town, 1948. Age pottery tradition found at Silver 7. ROBlNSON, K. H. Tho Iron Age of the 14. VOGEL, J. Radiocarbon in Nature. Leaves Farm, Tzaneen, Transvaal. southern lake area of Malawi. Malawi S. Afr. J. Sci., in press. S. Afr. J. Sci., vol. 67, no. 2. 1971. Govt. Dept. Antiquities, 8. 1970. pp. 2. MAsoN, R. J. Prehistory of the Trans- 32-42. 8. RoBINsoN, K. I{. The Iron Age of the 15. CAMPBELL, J. Travels in South Africa. vaal. Johannesburg, 1962. Upper and Lower Shire Malawi. London, 1822.

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