Assessment of Kivunjo as Second Language Learners’ Competence Z. Elisifa Department of Linguistics and Literary Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Open University of Tanzania [email protected] Abstract: The current study sought to assess the second language learners’ competence at lexical, syntactic, morphological, comprehension and pragmatic levels. The language under study was Kivunjo dialect of Chagga, spoken in Kilimanjaro. The study involved 68 subjects who included 28 subjects who were dubbed ‘the diaspora”, 20 immigrants into Kivunjo speaking area by virtue of their marriage, and 20 who were residing in Kivunjo speaking area because they are working or doing business in the area. Two instruments were used to collect data. The first was a cloze test to measure the respondents’ level of competence and the second was questionnaire which was aimed at capturing the respondents’ biodata focusing on their age, sex, place of birth and growth, and their domicile. The findings showed that the respondents’ level of competence was such that the majority from all three clusters performed between ‘fair’ and ‘very good’, which gives the impression that most of them were able to communicate accurately and appropriately. However, there was variability across the three groups which point to the fact that the Kivunjo as L2 speakers are no a homogenous group with regard to their varying levels of competence. Key Words: Kivunjo, second language, competence INTRODUCTION Possessing a language is the quintessentially human trait, all normal humans speak, no nonhuman animal does. Language is the main vehicle by which we know about other people's thoughts, and the two must be intimately related (Pinker, 1987). Learning a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. This first language is close to the core of what it means to be human; it is not surprising that children’s acquisition of language has received so much attention. However, second language acquisition, which Krashen (1981) defines as a process that requires meaningful interaction in the target language (i.e. natural communication) in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding, is not as ease and subconscious as is the case for first language acquisition. The latter has been a quest for researchers mainly focusing on how communicative competence, i.e. the ability to interpret the underlying meaning of a message, understand cultural references, use strategies to keep communication from breaking down, and apply the rules of grammar- develops in a second language (Savignon, 1997). Other researchers (e.g. Krashen, 1981) focus on such learner individual factors as aptitude and attitude. Most acquisitionists argue for the prime role of natural, informal, input-rich environments for successful second language acquisition. Examples are Mason’s (1971) study in which certain foreign students at the University of Hawaii were allowed to follow regular academic programmes without extra ESL, despite the fact that their English placement scores indicated that they should be enrolled in English for foreign student classes. Post-tests given at the end of the semester showed no significant difference in increase in English proficiency between those excused from ESL and controls who took the required ESL classes. Another was a study by Carroll (1967) of the second language proficiency of American college seniors majoring in foreign languages (French, German, Russian, Spanish). A strong relationship was found between time spent abroad (in the country where the target language was spoken) and test performance, with those who reported a year’s study abroad doing best, followed by those who reported a summer abroad or a tour. Both of these groups outperformed those who had never been in the country where the target language was spoken. Thirdly, Meisel, Clahsen, and Pienemann (1981) studied the untutored, non- instructed acquisition of German L2 by Gasterbeiter or guest workers, who had migrated to Germany from Eastern and Central Europe for short term employment. They were native speakers predominantly of Romance languages and Turkish. Another related area of research has focused on how interaction contributes to second language acquisition. Interaction refers to communication between individuals, particularly when they are negotiating meaning in order to prevent a breakdown in communication (Ellis, 1999). Research on interaction is conducted within the framework of the Interactive Hypothesis, which states that conversational interaction “facilitates (language) acquisition because it connects input, i.e. what learners hear and read; internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention; and output, i.e. what learners produce, in productive ways” (Long, 1996:451-452). Interaction also provides learners with opportunities to receive comprehensible input and feedback (Gass, 1997; Long, 1996; Pica, 1994) as well as to make changes in their own linguistic output (Swain, 1995). Empirical research with second language learners supports the contention that engaging in language interactions facilitates second language development. Findings from a study to determine how conversational interaction affects the acquisition of question formation indicate that interaction can increase the pace of acquisition (Mackey, 1999). Research on interaction includes studies of task-based language learning and teaching and focus on form. In Africa, Mangugu (2010) investigated common English language errors made by Oshiwambo, Afrikaans and Silozi first language speakers. The study examined errors in a corpus of 360 essays written by 180 participants. Errors were identified and classified into various categories. The four most common errors committed by the participants were tenses, prepositions, articles and spelling. Another study is by Siambo (2013) who investigated the challenges which second grade learners face during the transition from the language of initial literacy (Nyanja) and second language of literacy (English). A sample of 80 participants drawn from five schools in Chongwe District took part in the study out of which 30 were teachers while 50 were pupils. The research findings showed that some grade two learners experienced challenges during the transition between language of initial literacy (Nyanja) and the second language of literacy (English). These were in terms of getting used to learning in a local language; pronouncing English words in Chinyanja; inability to read some of the English words in the SITE course because of failure by teachers to complete teaching the Chinyanja phonic sounds stipulated in the Teachers’ Guide. However, most of the studies in this untutored, naturalist and interactive situations have mainly focused on languages that are of international status such as English and if other languages are studied it is only as their role in either facilitating or inhibiting the acquisition of English as second or foreign language. Only a few studies in the area of second language acquisition have been on African languages. In fact, Spinner (2013) refers to second language acquisition of Bantu languages as a mostly untapped research opportunity in his summary of research on the second language acquisition of Bantu languages, including Swahili, Zulu, Xhosa and Lingala. The few examples include, first, Mali’s (2007) investigation of the strategies that second language learners of isiZulu used to understand and make themselves understood when they communicate in computer chat rooms. The results of this study showed no difference in the number, category and type of strategies used when chatting with peers versus native speakers about personal or cultural topics. The second is the study by Ramnarain (2004) who investigated factors that affected the poor performance of students in Afrikaans as second language at grade twelve level in three schools in the Pietermaritzburg region. The critical questions addressed relate to the attitudes of learners and educators towards Afrikaans as a subject. The findings showed that the use of a mother tongue and its impact on the acquisition of an additional language plays a major role in performance. In addition to this, the negative attitudes of African learners towards Afrikaans also had a disastrous impact on the results in grade twelve. Thirdly, Joy (2013) studied the effect of environment on the Kiidakho first language speakers’ acquisition and use of Kiswahili second language. From the learners’ responses, it was deduced that the home environment exposes the learner to more Kiidakho than Kiswahili. Fourth, Ombui (2012) investigated institution based factors influencing Kiswahili as second language students’ performance at KCSE examinations in public secondary schools in Sameta Division, Kisii County in Kenya. The study found that majority of the schools had inadequate teaching/learning resources to a level that learners lacked language course books. A good number of the schools lacked enough physical facilities like libraries and classrooms. Further, most day schools had inadequate trained teachers consequently engaging untrained form four school leavers who not only could not deliver content, but also lacked language pedagogy. The fifth and last study is by Ibiwotisi (2010) who soughtto determine the major areas of difficulty experienced by the Igbo speaking students of Youruba