DigitalResources SIL eBook 43 ® Ikoma Vowel Harmony: Phonetics and Phonology Holly Ann Higgins Ikoma Vowel Harmony: Phonetics and Phonology Holly Ann Higgins SIL International® 2012 SIL e-Books 43 ©2012 SIL International® ISBN: 978-1-55671-338-5 ISSN: 1934-2470 Fair-Use Policy: Books published in the SIL e-Books (SILEB) series are intended for scholarly research and educational use. You may make copies of these publications for research or instructional purposes free of charge (within fair-use guidelines) and without further permission. Republication or commercial use of SILEB or the documents contained therein is expressly prohibited without the written consent of the copyright holder(s). Editor-in-Chief Mike Cahill Managing Editor Bonnie Brown IKOMA VOWEL HARMONY: PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY by HOLLY ANN HIGGINS A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES LINGUISTICS We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard ................................................................................ Roderic F. Casali, PhD; Thesis Supervisor ................................................................................ Keith L. Snider, PhD; Second Reader ................................................................................ Myles Leitch, PhD; Third Reader TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY December 23, 2011 © Holly Higgins ii Abstract This thesis is a description of the vowel harmony system of Ikoma (Bantu JE45; [ntk]), a previously undescribed Bantu language of Tanzania. Ikoma has the seven-vowel inventory /ie ɛaɔou/ and both contrastive and conditioned vowel length. Vowel harmony operates in prefixes, stems and suffixes, but the harmony patterns in each domain are quite different. Ikoma’s harmony patterns are unusual and complex in a number of ways. In many other 7V Bantu languages with the same inventory (e.g. Bantu C; Leitch 1997), [-ATR] is clearly the marked, dominant value. Though Ikoma shows some similarities with the Bantu C languages, determining Ikoma’s marked [ATR] value is less clear, since there are superficial patterns which seem to suggest dominance of both [-ATR] and [+ATR]. For example, prefix alternations appear to treat [-ATR] as the marked value. Mid [-ATR] vowels are prohibited in prefix position, where only the mid [+ATR] vowels /e o/ are found. Curiously, however, even though [-ATR] vowels are the clear trigger of prefix alternations, [-ATR] does not actually spread. Instead, mid prefix vowels alternate to high vowels before [-ATR] stem vowels, which I analyze as a case of dissimilation. [-ATR] dominance is also found in stem and suffix harmony, but there are some patterns in these domains in which [+ATR] superficially spreads as well. Specifically, in verbs [-ATR] generally spreads rightward to mid-vowel suffixes, but there are several [+ATR] suffixes which trigger a change from / ɛ/ to [e] in the preceding stem vowel. A formal analysis of these complex patterns must be built upon a solid descriptive foundation. For this reason, this thesis focuses primarily on establishing a thorough description of the facts, leaving a formal account for later investigation. The descriptive goal is highlighted by the inclusion of acoustic evidence, especially vowel formant analysis, which is presented throughout the thesis to support not only the vowel inventory but also the prefix, stem and suffix alternations. Though I make few attempts to formalize these patterns, I do summarize the necessary generalizations which a formalization of these patterns must take into account. The fact that the patterns show superficial dominance of both [-ATR] and [+ATR] sparks a discussion of theories of [ATR] markedness. In particular, I evaluate Ikoma’s vowel system in terms of Casali’s (2003) System-Dependent [ATR] Dominance hypothesis, which predicts that languages with Ikoma’s inventory (i.e. 7V system with a tongue root contrast only in the mid vowels) nearly always exhibit [-ATR] dominance. Casali (2002; 2003) also notes that not all forms of apparent [ATR] dominance must be treated equally. Instead, languages which superficially appear to have both types of dominance can usually be analyzed with one value functioning as systematically dominant, while the other value is much more limited, exhibiting indirect dominance (or, in the terminology of Bakovic 2000, “dominance reversal”). I summarize the evidence in favor of both possibilities. I also suggest some possible historical factors which could be the cause of Ikoma’s unusual markedness patterns. iii Acknowledgements Many people have shaped this thesis and have shaped me during the process of writing it. First, I thank my Ikoma friends, who became like family during my years in Tanzania. Mchungaji Muya, and my dear friends Mzee Thobias and Mussa Karume and their families have not only patiently taught me about their language but have also welcomed me into their lives and homes. And for the many other Ikoma speakers who have shared with me their enthusiasm for their language, I am truly grateful. Ogach ɔmi chw ɛɛǃ My hope is that the discoveries made during this research will make reading and writing your language even easier. I am indebted to many great teachers, beginning with Steve Clark, who first taught me about linguistics. Dr. Rod Casali and Dr. Keith Snider have also both greatly shaped my understanding of linguistics and have encouraged me in my endeavors. I am especially thankful to Dr. Casali for his guidance, patience and support throughout the process of researching and writing this thesis. I also thank Dr. Myles Leitch for the many ways in which he has helped me to look at Ikoma from new and different perspectives. I thank my SIL colleagues in Tanzania, especially Oliver Stegen, Tim Roth, Michelle Sandeen, Danny Foster, Johnny Walker and many others, for working alongside me, for sharpening me, for teaching me, and for your friendship. My friends during my time at Trinity Western have also been a wonderful support, always encouraging me to press on. Thank you, Tim and Jeana (and Micaiah) Roth, Johnny Walker, Sandra Topelko, Andrea Dueck and the Souzas! I thank the large group of family, friends and churches back home who have supported me not only with encouragement and prayer but even financial gifts which made this work possible. You have cared for me well during these years. I especially thank my mom and dad, who never miss an opportunity to express your love and to tell me how proud you are. Thank you all for putting up with me choosing jobs and schools which are so far from home. I thank my good friends Alex and Bethany Howarth. Spending time with you is always a burst of fun and refreshment. And your introducing me to Jeff, well, that was an exceptionally life-changing move! Jeff, your patience, encouragement, prayers and listening ear have brought me much joy, laughter, hope and perspective during these final challenging months of writing. I am so thankful for you! More than anything, I am grateful for Jesus, the giver of grace and the one who makes all things new, for sustaining me and being more than sufficient for all of my needs. May you transform these meager efforts into something which will bring you glory. This work belongs to each of you as much as it does to me. Holly Higgins iv Abbreviations * tonal data unavailable SD standard deviation 1 first person; Class 1 TA tense/aspect 2 second person; Class 2 V vowel 3 third person; Class 3 V1 first stem vowel 4 Class 4, etc V2 second stem vowel 5V 5 vowel (system) VH vowel harmony 7V 7 vowel (system) 7V (H) 7 vowel inventory /i ɪɛaɔʊu/ 7V (M) 7 vowel inventory /ieɛaɔou/ 9V 9 vowel inventory /i ɪeɛaɔoʊu/ APPL applicative ATR advanced tongue root B1 first formant bandwidth C consonant CAUS causative COND conditional CONT continuous dem. demonstrative DL Dahl’s Law FM focus marker F1 First formant F2 Second formant FV final vowel H high tone IMPF imperfective INCP incipient INF infinitive L low tone NAR narrative NC noun class NS not significant num. numeral OB object PFV perfective pfx prefix PL plural PS passive PB Proto-Bantu RTR retracted tongue root S singular SBJV subjunctive SBJ subject v Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ...............................................................................................................v Chapter 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................1 1.1 The Ikoma people and their language ........................................................4 1.2 Previous descriptions of Ikoma (and Nata) ................................................7 1.3 Ikoma’s Neighbors .....................................................................................8 1.4 Theoretical and typological background ..................................................11 1.4.1 Markedness and dominance .........................................................11 1.4.2 Types of African vowel systems ..................................................14 1.4.3 Vowel height and tongue root features ........................................16 1.5