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Prehistoric Sites of Ballari District – an Overview

Prehistoric Sites of Ballari District – an Overview

Science, and Development ISSN : 0950-0707

Prehistoric Sites Of Ballari District – An Overview

*Dr.Thippeswamy.H. Associate Professor of History, Dept of History and Archaeology, Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari.

Abstract

This paper attempts to study Prehistoric Sites Of Ballari District that refers to the time where there was no writing and development. It consists of five period – Paleolithic, , , & Iron Age. Human colonization in India encompasses a span of at least half-a-million years and is divided into two broad periods, namely the prehistoric (before the emergence of writing) and the historic (after writing). The prehistoric period is divided into stone, bronze and iron ages. The is further divided into palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic periods. As the name suggests, the technology in these periods was primarily based on stone. Economically, the palaeolithic and mesolithic periods represented a nomadic, hunting-gathering way of life, while the neolithic period represented a settled, food-producing way of life. Subsequently copper was introduced as a new material and this period was designated as the chalcolithic period. The invention of agriculture, which took place about 8000 years ago, brought about dramatic changes in the economy, technology and demography of human societies. Human habitat in the hunting-gathering stage was essentially on hilly, rocky and forested regions, which had ample wild plant and animal food resources.

The introduction of agriculture saw it shifting to the alluvial plains which had fertile soil and perennial availability of water. Hills and forests, which had so far been areas of attraction, now turned into areas of isolation. Agriculture led to the emergence of villages and towns and brought with it the division of society into occupational groups. The first urbanization took place during the bronze age in the arid and semi-arid region of northwest India in the valleys of the Indus and the rivers, the latter represented by the now dry Ghaggar–Hakra bed. The South Deccan Project began with archaeobotanical research in 1997-1998, followed by intensive local survey undertaken in 2002 (Bellary District Archaeological Projection). Since then much research has focused on the Sanganakallu-Kupgal cluster of hills and sites. It also involved exploration and analysis of other sites in Bellary District, and beyond. The Sanganakallu-Kupgal cluster of archaeological sites has been known since at least the 19th century, and early reports refer to it as 'Peacock Hill'. We refer to the cluster of sites as the 'Sanganakallu-Kupgal archaeological

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heritage area', due to the remarkable concentration of archaeological sites found in the area of these two villages (Sanganakallu and Kupgal). The area appears to have been particularly important during the Neolithic period, when settlement was focused on the granitic hills themselves (see Intensive systematic survey). The archaeological importance of the Sanganakallu-Kupgal heritage area is significant, and these sites deserve government protection (see Protection of sites and monuments).

Key words Prehistoric Sites, Ballari District, Sanganakallu-Kupgal, archaeological site

Introduction

The earliest traces of human existence go back to the period between 3,00,000 and 2,00,000 BC. A large number of primitive stone tools found in the Soan valley and suggests this. The modern human being first appeared around 36000 BC. Primitive man in the Palaeolithic age which lasted till 8000 BC used tools and implements of rough stone. Initially man was a food gatherer and depended on nature for food. He learnt to control fire which helped him to improve his way of living. From 8000 BC the Mesolithic age began and continued up to 4000 BC in India. During this time sharp and pointed tools were used for killing fast-moving animals. Chota Nagpur plateau, Central India and south of the river Krishna are some of the sites. Neolithic settlements are not older than 4000 BC. Man began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants settling down in villages to form farming communities. The was an important discovery. Towards the end of the Neolithic period metals like copper and bronze were used. This was the Chalcolithic phase. Periodization of Indian Prehistory

Palaeolithic Age:

To begin with the Palaeolithic Age was also called the old stone age covered the long period from the time the first ancestors of modern human beings started living in the Indian subcontinent from roughly 3 lakh B.C to 8000 or eighth millennium B.C.Archeologists divide it into three phases -the Lower or Early, the middle and the upper Palaeolithic age-according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people.

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Mesolithic Age:

Then came the Mesolithic age also known as the late Stone Age which broadly covered the period from the eighth to fourth millennium BC.It is the intermediate or transitional stage between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age. The tools of this age are called . Neolithic Age: Third is the Neolithic age or the new Stone Age that covered the period roughly from 4000 to 1800 BC and was marked by the use of polished stone tools. Chalcolithic Age: Stone-copper age covered the period from 1800 to 1200 BC. This urbanization is known as the Indus or Harappan civilization which flourished during 3500–1500 B.C. The rest of India during this period was inhabited by neolithic and chalcolithic farmers and mesolithic hunter-gatherers.

Objective:

This paper intends to explore and analyze the prehistoric antecedents of Homo sapiens in Bellary District are also some 75,000 years old, their existence substantiated by the discovery of remains.

Sources of Prehistory in Bellary district

'Sanganakallu' and 'Kappagallu' are important prehistoric sites located about 5 km from the district of Bellary. The prehistoric sites are spread across these two villages and surrounding areas, covering more than a 1000 acres. These sites are considered to be the earliest human settlements in South India and hold a very important position in the prehistoric studies of South India. They are of keen interest to any archaeologist who is studying prehistory, since these are a few sites which have been under settlement for a very long time covering different phases of the prehistoric period. Sanganakallu and Kappagallu have been inhabited since the Mesolithic period and would have been in full glory during the Neolithic period, and continued also into the Iron age. The excavations here have yielded many clues regarding their agricultural practices here, majorly cultivation. The Birappa here has been dated to the Mesolithic period, and continuing till the Iron age. Radiocarbon dating of Birappa Rock Shelter has given the indication of dates as far back as 9000 BC (11000 years back). This site was first discovered by William Fraser in 1872 AD, although the first extensive study of the site was carried out by B. Subbarao in 1946. This site was further studied by Z.D.Ansari and M.S.Nagarajarao in 1965 who established the fact that these sites were associated with the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic

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periods. However, the most extensive and advanced study of this site was carried out in 2002 by Dr.Boivin and Ravi Korishettar. Sadly, these sites today lie in a state of neglect and distress. The government had proposed plans of developing this site into a tourist attraction and its proximity to the district of Bellary would be an added advantage.

Some work related to this project underwent, which finally was halted permanently due to various unknown reasons. The sad state of affairs across the country and our greed takes over the need. The day this site develops as a premium tourist spot in Karnataka, the entire quarry lobby here will be under threat. This is the primary reason why this project did not take off. Though the quarrying has considerably reduced, significant damage has already been done, which is quite evident. It is sad that such sites across our country are dying in neglect without any kind of protection or any intent to protect. Locals are the key to protecting such large sites and the government should rightly ensure that they promote these sites as tourist attractions. The granitic hills north of Sanganakallu village are famous for their Neolithic sites, which have been studied since the pioneering explorations of Robert Bruce Foote in the 1860s.

Unlike the more advanced stages for which various types of sources are available the study of the initial stages of human history is based entirely on the material remains left by early man. The period is referred when man was primarily a food gatherer or had just begun a settled life and for which no written records are available. The material remains of early man is available mostly in the form of stone tools and sometimes with the remains of animals that he hunted do not speak comprehensively about his life.

The basic information provided by the tools of the early man, his habitat and observed facts about communities still in the initial stages of societal development have led to certain conclusions about variations even in the earliest cultures and the cultural zones.With the introduction of iron technology about 3000 years ago, the focus of development shifted eastward into the Indo-Gangetic divide and the Ganga valley. The location of the Mahabharata epic, which is set in the beginning of the first millennium B.C., is the Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga-Yamuna doab (land between two rivers). Iron technology enabled pioneering farmers to clear the dense and tangled forests of the middle and lower Ganga plains. The focus of development now shifted further eastward to eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar which witnessed the events of the Ramayana epic and rise of the first political entities known as

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Mahajanapadas as also of Buddhism and Jainism. The second phase of urbanization of India, marked by trade, coinage, script and birth of the first Indian empire, namely Magadha, with its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna) also took place in this region in the sixth century B.C. The imposition by Brahmin priests of the concepts of racial and ritual purity, pollution, restrictions on sharing of food, endogamy, anuloma (male of upper caste eligible to marry a female of lower caste) and pratiloma (female of upper caste ineligible to marry a male of lower caste) forms of marriage, karma (reaping the fruits of the actions of previous life in the present life), rebirth, varnashrama dharma (four stages of the expected hundred-year life span) and the sixteen sanskaras (ceremonies) on traditional occupational groups led to the birth of the caste system – a unique Indian phenomenon. Humankind’s past is divided into two broad periods: the prehistoric and the historic. The prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing and the historic period to the time following this event. Modern humans, evolved in Africa and have lived on our planet for about 150,000 years. However, they learnt writing only about 5000 years ago. This means that only about 0×1% of humankind’s past is known through the written word.

Food Gathering Communities

Early Stone Age tools have been found in different areas of the subcontinent the most notable among which are the Potwar plain in north-western Punjab; the Beas and Banganga valleys; Nevasa in the valley of Pravara, a tributary of the Godavary; Gudalur in Gundlakamma basin in Andhra Pradesh; Nagarjunakonda in the Krishna valley, a string of sites (Vadamadurai, Attirampakkam etc) in the coastal plain near Chennai and the districts along the north bank of the Mahanadi in Orissa. Primitive man used tools and implements of rough stone. Flint was commonly used as it is hard but flakes easily. Tools serve a variety of purposes such as skinning of dead animals, cutting their flesh and splitting bones etc. Man during this period was essentially a food gatherer. He was totally dependent on nature for his food supply; requirement of game animals and edible plants. In course of time he learnt to control fire which helped improve the pattern of living in many ways.

He used the skins of animals, barks of trees and large leaves as clothes. Men were organized in small wandering groups consisting of few men, women and children. It was towards the end of the Palaeolithic period that the modern human being (Homo Sapien) first appeared around 36,000 BC. The cultures were around the date 33,000 BC to about 16,500 BC.

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There are indications that in some regions like western Rajasthan and MP the flake making technique was of a more improved variety than in others. These regional variations in dates and the total cultural assemblage became more prominent in the Late Stone age heralded by the use of smaller tools the microliths. In MP, Gujarat, Rajasthan and several other areas a long time span of 8500 BC-1700 BC has been suggested for these cultures.

Microliths being compound tools suggest a substantial technological change being hafted in bone, wood or bamboo. Atleast in few areas along with the microliths the technique of pot making a technique of great significance in human history as it came to be closely associated with food production and settled life. Langhnaj in Gujarat and Adamgarh in MP suggest presence of domesticated animals and exchange of commodities between different areas and communities.

Food Producing Men

Settled life based on food production first began in the northwest. Here man progressed from incipient food production to the foundation of Neolithic -Chalcolithic village cultures. In Ahar (Banas valley of Rajasthan), Maheshwar-Navdatoli in the Narmada valley, Nagda in the Chambal valley, Daimabad, Chandoli and various other sites of the northern Deccan early farmers were living in open villages and cultivating crops which included wheat, several kinds of legumes or rice as at Chirand in south Bihar.

In the south, in central and eastern Deccan the economy was predominantly pastoral and the Neolithic -Chalcolithic influence can be seen at Piklihal and Tekkalakota in Karnataka or Utnur and Nagarjunakonda in AP. This period continued from about 2000 BC to about the middle of the first millennium BC although in certain areas the advent of a new metallic technology seems to have taken place earlier.

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Neolithic /New Stone Age : Tool making

The main period of the Neolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent was 4000-1800 BC. This was the food producing age when man completely changed his way of life. Traces of Neolithic communities have survived mostly in the north-western region and the Deccan. Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan seem to be oldest around 3500 BC. In the new way of life man began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants. The dog, sheep and goat were probably the first to be domesticated.

Among plants, wheat and barley were the earliest cereals grown. As a result man began to settle down in certain selected areas. This led to the growth of villages and farming communities. The tools he needed also changed. All these developments took place first in north western India and culminated in the rise and growth of great Indus Civilization while the rest of the Indian subcontinent was late in undergoing the transition from Mesolithic to the Neolithic and then to the Chalcolithic periods. In fact, knowledge of writing diffused very slowly and even today a large section of humanity remains illiterate. Further, before the invention of printing technology in the medieval period, written documents were few and far between, and many of them have been lost due to being written on perishable materials like tree bark, palm leaf, papyrus and cloth. This means that the story of humankind has to be reconstructed largely with the help of non-literary or archaeological sources. These sources comprise objects – tools, weapons, ornaments, structures and artistic creations which were produced and used by humans and which have survived the ravages of time. Man differs from other creatures in his ability to learn, accumulate knowledge and pass it on to future generations. He has learnt to use various raw materials available in nature – stone, wood, bone, clay, metal, etc. – for shaping them into useful objects for satisfying his needs. Objects made of comparatively durable materials survive for varying lengths of time and constitute the main source of information for knowledge of the human past. Like other creatures, humans too have had to adapt themselves to the environment in which they live.

However, unlike other beings, they have done so with the aid of technology and material culture (material objects like tools, weapons, utensils, houses, clothes, ornaments, etc). Moreover, since the environment – landscape, climate, flora and fauna –tends to change over time, archaeologists have to reconstruct past environments as well. The biological remains of men have contributed to

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the understanding of not only his biological evolution but also cultural evolution. Archaeology, thus, is a multi-disciplinary study involving disciplines like geology, palaeontology, palaeobotany, biological anthropology and archaeological chemistry. Further, since cultural changes take place at an uneven pace in different regions, in many parts of the world, particularly in India, prehistoric ways of life have survived more or less unchanged into modern times. The study of non-industrialized societies, especially those practising hunting-gathering, fishing, primitive cultivation and pastoralism, known as ethnoarchaeology, contributes to interpreting the archaeological record. The story of man began in the Miocene period, around twenty million years ago, when the great apes, from whom the humans evolved, flourished in large areas of the Old World.

Relative chronology of prehistoric settlements

Proto humans appeared in the Pliocene period, around five million years ago, and their cultural evolution largely took place during the Pleistocene period, which began about two million years ago. While biologically humans differ from the other apes in their upright posture, ability to walk on two feet or hind limbs, extremely versatile hand, and an unusually powerful brain, culturally they differ in their ability to manufacture and use tools. The prehistoric period is divided into three ages, namely the stone, bronze and iron ages. These ages, besides being technological stages, also have economic and social implications. The Stone Age is divided into three periods, namely palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic. As the name suggests, the technology in these periods was primarily based on stone. Economically the palaeolithic and mesolithic periods represent the hunting-gathering stage while the neolithic represents the stage of food production, i.e. plant cultivation and animal husbandry. The palaeolithic period is further divided into three sub-periods, namely lower, middle and upper. A point which needs to be emphasised is about chronology. Chronology is of two types, relative and absolute. Relative chronology dates prehistoric events in relation to other events and geological deposits. It only tells us if a particular event is earlier or later than another event. Absolute chronology, on the other hand, dates events and phenomena in solar calendar years. This chronology is based on physical techniques and methods like radiocarbon, K/Ar, fission tracks, thermoluminiscence, TH230/U234 and dendrochronology. While dendrochronology is applicable only to a period of a

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few thousand years and only in the few areas where old wood samples have been preserved, radiocarbon dating can date events up to sixty thousand years old.

The other methods can, however, date events belonging to the entire prehistoric period. However, their application is dependent on the availability of suitable materials like volcanic ash and rock at archaeological sites. The Kayatha people used both copper and stone tools. Copper tools are represented by elongated and stone tools comprise microliths and blades. Kayatha has also provided copper bangles, beads of semi-precious stones and microbeads of steatite. Radiocarbon dates suggest a period of 2000 to 1800 B.C. for this culture. After a break in occupation, the site of Kayatha was reoccupied by people whose culture was similar to that of Ahar in Mewar. The precise antiquity of human colonization of the country cannot be determined due to the scarcity of geological deposits of the Pliocene and lower Pleistocene and of materials like volcanic rock and ash which can be dated by absolute dating techniques. Almost the entire subcontinent, barring the Ganga plains, northeast India, the Western Ghats, and extreme southern part of the peninsula, was colonized by the lower Palaeolithic people. Lower Palaeolithic technology made use of both core and flake tools, the most distinctive types being handaxes and cleavers. The succeeding middle and upper Palaeolithic cultures are found more or less in the same areas as the lower Palaeolithic.

The middle Palaeolithic technology mainly consists of flake tools like scrapers and points and that of the upper Palaeolithic is characterized by and tools. The earliest art in the form of engravings on ostrich egg shell pieces is known from the upper Palaeolithic. This period saw significant changes in climate and environment. These changes, which were characterized by alternating cool-dry and warm-wet periods, are particularly marked in northern latitudes, especially in the Thar desert in northwest India. The end of the Pleistocene Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago, saw a sharp increase in rainfall, which stimulated the growth of both plant and animal life and consequently of human population. This period, known as the Mesolithic, is marked by the introduction of microlithic technology. Microliths are tools made by blunting one or more sides of tiny blades or bladelets, and they were used as components of tools and weapons like spearheads, , , sickles, and daggers. The use of bow and as also of food processing equipment like querns and rubbers began in this period. This new technology augmented hunting efficiency and provided greater nutrition from the available food

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resources. The earliest human burials as also art in the form of rock paintings are known from this period. Around 8000 years ago agriculture and settled village life appeared in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The oldest known agricultural settlement is in Baluchistan. Agriculture led to a demographic revolution and emergence of new occupations like , basketmaking, lapidary and metalsmithy. In due course, surplus agricultural production resulted in the development of trade in raw materials and manufactured goods, diversification of society into occupational groups and eventually to the emergence of towns and cities. The first cities appeared in northwest India around 3000 B.C. in the Indus/Harappan civilization which flourished in the valleys of the Indus and the Saraswati rivers. Around the same time introduction of agriculture-based life began in other parts of the country. This is represented by a number of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures. However, because the technology during this time was based only on stone and copper-bronze, human settlements were mainly confined to the semi-arid regions. Introduction of iron technology around 3000 years ago helped the clearing of dense forests in the subhumid region of the middle and lower Ganga valley possible. Large-scale human colonization of this region took place during the early Iron Age. The focus of development now shifted to the Ganga plains where surplus agricultural production, made possible by iron technology, fertile alluvial soil, perennial availability of water, and human enterprise produced the second urbanization around the middle of the first millennium B.C. and to the birth of the first Indian empire with its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar). Iron tools also enabled the people to quarry rocks for building megalithic monuments and for digging wells and tanks in rocky terrains of peninsular India.

Agriculture and associated occupations

By the third century B.C. the urban way of life had spread to most parts of the country, except climatically unattractive regions like the Thar desert of northwest India and the hyper-humid northeast India. The intensification of agriculture took a heavy toll of forests and wildlife. As a consequence, hunter-gatherers were compelled to take to agriculture and associated occupations and get assimilated into the steadily expanding caste-based rural and urban society. The enforcement by brahmin priests of the Aryan concepts of racial superiority, rituals of purity and pollution, restrictions on food sharing, endogamy, including anuloma and pratiloma marriages, karma, rebirth, the sixteen sanskaras (ceremonies), prohibition on the remarriage of widows and

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divorcees and ban on all social groups, except the twice-born, on having access to sacred literature, converted the occupational groups into castes. Hunter-gatherers, who were too conservative to adopt the economically beneficial yet arduous agricultural way of life, have persisted with their atavistic lifestyle right into the present. However, because of the steady reduction of their habitat and traditional food resources by continuous encroachment by rural and urban populations, they have been forced to adopt one or more of the additional occupations like providing various craft items produced from , grass and stone; entertainment through song and dance to rural and urban populations; petty trade in crockery, cosmetics and trinkets; and, on occasion, even resorting to crimes.

Such groups like the Kanjars, Sansis, and Pardhis, to name only a few, are found all over the country, including the fringes of metropolitan cities. It is tragic and ironical that today, in 2001, while India competes with the most developed countries in agriculture, and the latest satellite and software , it also harbours the largest number of economically, educationally and socially deprived people in the world.Iron brought in a change of economy, the characteristic of advanced type of agriculture. In the Ganges Valley and in the region iron led to the rise of urban areas. Both Brahmanical and Buddhist texts are full with reference to cities during the middle of the first millennium BC and at sites like Ahichhatra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti and Ujjayini the evidences of Iron age urbanization is available. By the middle of the 6th century BC some of these settlements had reached the proportions of urban centres. This suggests that for the first time since the decline of the Harappan civilization a substantial agricultural surplus which could sustain such urban centres had emerged. The use of silver and copper coins in large numbers during this period implies considerable trade and commerce. Some of the urban centres were also seats of political power as suggested by defence arrangements in some of them.

Thus a political system with definable territorial units as its bases had developed by this time. In the Upper Ganges valley and the Indo Gangetic divide iron is first found associated around 800 BC with a culture known as Painted Greyware. Its use was sparse in the beginning but by the middle of the 6th century BC it had become fairly common and was associated with the new Northern Black Polished Ware culture. During this period its horizon expanded to include the central and lower Ganges valley where it marked a significant break from the earlier cultures. In

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the Malwa region and Tapti valley too it sites such as Nagda, Eran and Prakash, iron brought in an element of change in the earlier Chalcolithic cultures and it is possible that the use of iron was slightly earlier in this region (1000 BC) than in the Ganges Valley. At Hallur in iron appears to overlap the Neolithic implements of 900 BC

Conclusion

With excavations on Sannarachamma Hill by Subbarao, with frther excavations in the 1960s from Deccan college again at Sannarachamma, as well as the Kupgal Ashmounds and a dolerite faking site east of Sanganakallu, Banglatota. These sites have been a major focus of recent research based at Karnatak University with collaborators from the U.K. and elsewhere (the Bellary District Archaeological Project ).A 10-30m wide dolerite dyke on the northernmost of the complex of granite hills in the Sanganakallu-Kupgal area became one of the main sources of raw material for the production of stone axes in southern India during the late prehistoric period. At least three large hill settlements (several hectares each) were established in the hill complex, and one of them appears to have gradually developed into a large-scale production centre. Quarrying and flaking started around 1900 cal BCE, during the so-called Ashmound phase of occupation, and reached its maximum development between 1400-1200 cal BCE, when a large region of the south Deccan plateau might have been supplied with finished and half- finished products from Sanganakallu. Systematic archaeological excavation and survey carried out since 1997 in the Sanganakallu-Kupgal area, including the dyke quarry itself, has yielded tens of thousands of production flakes, blanks and macro-lithic tools related to the flaking, pecking and polishing of the axes.

The ongoing study of these materials permits us to gain insight into the organisation of production in this area from a temporal and spatial perspective. In view of the social and economic transformations taking place in the Deccan plateau during the second half of the second millennium BC, some key questions concern the relationship between intensification of production and the social division of labour between different working areas and settlements. Below is a satellite view of the southern Sangankallu hills, with Sannarachamma hill at the left (west). The heavily quarried hill to the right is Choudammagudda, which also had Neolithic settlement and an ashmound. As Sanganakallu and Kappagallu are two villages separated by the Hiregudda hill range, this site has been named differently by various archaeologists depending

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upon the approach used. The villages together were one of the earliest settlements in South India, which overlapped with the mature Harappan civilization. There are many interesting sites in and around these places such as the Peacock Hill, Dolerite Dyke , Hiregudda Factory, Kappagallu Ash Mounds, Birappa Painted Rock Shelter, Village Site, Stone Circles and other . Earliest Rock Musicians - The people of various settlements occupying this site made musical instruments out of the rocks found here. They made of such kind on the rocks that when struck emitted different musical notes. Such musical instruments have also been found at other similar sites such as the kettle's drum at Hirebenakal and the drum at Mosalayyana Gudda at . Such musical rock instruments must have been an inspiration in the construction of many musical pillars that form a part of temples.

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22. Ludden, D. (2002), India and South Asia: A Short History, One World, ISBN 978-1-85168-237-9 23. Massey, Reginald (2004). India's Dances: Their History, Technique, and Repertoire. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-434-9. 24. Michaels, Axel (2004), . Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press 25. Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1988) [First published 1966], Chandragupta Maurya and his times (4th ed.), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 26. Mukerjee, Madhusree (2010). Churchill's Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India During World War II. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00201-6. 27. Müller, Rolf-Dieter (2009). "Afghanistan als militärisches Ziel deutscher Außenpolitik im Zeitalter der Weltkriege". In Chiari, Bernhard (ed.). Wegweiser zur Geschichte Afghanistans. Paderborn: Auftrag des MGFA. ISBN 978-3-506- 76761-5. 28. Petraglia, Michael D.; Allchin, Bridget (2007). The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1. 29. Petraglia, Michael D. (2010). "The Early Paleolithic of the Indian Subcontinent: Hominin Colonization, Dispersals and Occupation History". In Fleagle, John G.; Shea, John J.; Grine, Frederick E.; Baden, Andrea L.; Leakey, Richard E. (eds.). Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 165–179. ISBN 978-90-481-9036-2. 30. Niyogi, Roma (1959). The History of the Gāhaḍavāla Dynasty. Oriental. OCLC 5386449. 31. Pochhammer, Wilhelm von (1981), India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent, Allied Publishers, ISBN 978-81-7764-715-0 32. Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan, eds. (1982), The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume 1: c. 1200 – c. 1750, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9

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33. Reddy, Krishna (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-048369-9. 34. Robb, P (2001). A History of India. London: Palgrave. 35. Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of and Tantra, Cambridge University Press 36. Sarkar, Sumit (1989) [First published 1983]. Modern India, 1885–1947. MacMillan Press. ISBN 0-333-43805-1. 37. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1955). A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- 560686-7. 38. Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W.H., eds. (1987). The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0277-3. 39. Sen, Sailendra Nath (1 January 1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.

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