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Università Di Pisa Università di Pisa Dipartimento di Civiltà e Forme del Sapere Corso di laurea magistrale in Storia e Civiltà Tesi di laurea Dalla poesia di Verlaine alla rete di Garbo: l’importanza delle operazioni di deception per la riuscita dello sbarco in Normandia Relatore: Prof. Luca Baldissara Correlatore: Candidato: Dott. Gianluca Fulvetti Alessandro Berti Anno Accademico 2016-2017 1 2 Dedicata a tutti quei ragazzi che il 6 giugno del 1944 persero la vita, per rendere, ancora una volta, il Mondo libero. «Think not only upon their passing. Remember the glory of their spirit.» 3 4 Indice Introduzione………………………………………………………… p. 7 Capitolo Primo: La Seconda guerra mondiale 1.1 Preludio………………………………………………………… p. 13 1.2 1939…………………………………………………………… p. 19 1.3 1940…………………………………………………………… p. 21 1.4 1941…………………………………………………………… p. 28 1.5 1942…………………………………………………………… p. 35 1.6 1943…………………………………………………………… p. 43 Capitolo Secondo: Il ruolo della Resistenza 2.1 La guerra contemporanea……………………………………… p. 47 2.2 Un nuovo tipo di guerra: la Resistenza………………………… p. 51 2.3 La Resistenza europea………………………………………… p. 53 2.4 La Francia di Vichy…………………………………………… p. 64 2.5 La Francia Libera e la Resistenza……………………………… p. 74 Capitolo Terzo: Il ruolo dei servizi segreti 3.1 I servizi segreti Alleati…………………………………………. p. 89 3.2 Il SOE………………………………………………………… p. 94 3.3 Bletchley Park……………………………………………… p. 104 3.4 Double Cross System………………………………………… p. 110 5 Capitolo Quarto: Il preludio al D-Day 4.1 Le grandi conferenze e il Secondo Fronte…………………… p. 121 4.2 Stabilire le modalità d’invasione……………………………… p. 128 4.3 Gli uomini…………………………………………………… p. 142 4.4 I mezzi………………………………………………………. p. 147 4.5 I porti artificiali……………………………………………… p. 151 4.6 Il Vallo Atlantico……………………………………………… p. 155 4.7 Operazione Fortitude………………………………………… p. 170 4.8 Garbo e la Rete……………………………………………… p. 180 Capitolo Quinto: Il giorno più lungo 5.1 La vigilia della partenza……………………………………… p. 189 5.2 I lunghi singhiozzi dei violini d’autunno……………………… p. 209 5.3 Le truppe aviotrasportate……………………………………. p. 214 5.4 L’alba………………………………………………………… p. 228 5.5 Gli sbarchi nel settore americano…………………………… p. 233 5.6 Gli sbarchi nel settore inglese e canadese…………………… p. 246 5.7 Verso l’interno………………………………………………. p. 252 5.8 La reazione tedesca è incerta: la fine del Giorno più lungo…… p. 254 Conclusioni………………………………………………………… p. 261 Bibliografia………………………………………………………… p. 269 Indice dei nomi…………………………………………………… p. 277 Cronologia………………………………………………………… p. 281 Abbreviazioni…………………………………………………… p. 285 Nomi in codice………………………………………………… p. 286 6 Introduzione «C’è stato un giorno particolare che ha cambiato il corso di una guerra, il corso di un secolo, il corso della storia.» 1 Esiste un luogo in Francia dove il tempo si è fermato. Un posto che trasmette, ovunque si passi, un senso di malinconia e che risulta essere, allo stesso tempo, un luogo ricco di ricordi e di memoria: si tratta della Normandia. Questa incantevole regione, meravigliosamente bella dal punto di vista naturalistico e paesaggistico, ed estremamente interessante dal punto di vista artistico e culturale, non è solamente associata alle tele di pittori impressionisti del calibro di Claude Monet o Alfred Sisley, i quali ritrassero le famose scogliere di Étretat e i piccoli villaggi di pescatori. La Normandia è anche la regione dove ebbe luogo uno degli eventi più importanti della storia: il D-Day. Lo sbarco del 6 giugno 1944 rappresenta un punto di arrivo e annuncia una situazione del tutto nuova: mesi di attesa, di calcoli, di preparativi vi trovano epilogo. Dopo anni di sangue e di morte, dopo giorni interminabili di sofferenza e mesi infiniti di conflitti, il Mondo ha l’occasione di liberarsi definitivamente dal giogo nazista e di dare inizio alla campagna militare in Europa che contribuirà all’abbattimento definitivo del Terzo Reich. Quelli sbarchi rimangono tutt’oggi l’attacco dal mare più importante mai tentato, e rappresentano un trionfo sul piano della pianificazione e dell’esecuzione, la cui scala, anche a più di settant’anni di distanza, lascia senza fiato. Ciò nonostante, questa grandiosa impresa sarebbe potuta fallire: la storia è costellata da tentativi di far sbarcare truppe su spiagge validamente difese risoltisi in modo catastrofico, e Hitler riponeva le sue speranze appunto in questa incertezza. Se gli Alleati fossero stati ributtati in mare, l’esito della guerra avrebbe avuto conseguenze profondamente diverse. Il Feldmaresciallo Erwin Rommel, l’uomo a cui era stato affidato l’incarico di difendere le coste francesi, formulò una previsione, poi divenuta celebre: il giorno della futura invasione sarebbe stato sia per gli Alleati che per le potenze dell’Asse “il Giorno più lungo”. Aveva ragione. 1 Stafford, D-Day. Conto alla rovescia, Cit. p. 9. 7 Ogni qual volta si parla dello sbarco in Normandia, le prime cose che vengono in mente sono le immense flotte di aerei e di navi che la mattina di quel freddo martedì si riversarono sulla costa francese; nella memoria comune emergono i lanci dei paracadutisti nella notte, la presa dei ponti sul fiume Orne, il sacrificio dei soldati americani a Omaha Beach; ebbene, il D-Day non fu solo questo. Altrettanti uomini e donne persero la vita per far si che Overlord, nome in codice dell’intera operazione, avesse successo; ma i loro nomi quasi mai appaiono nei libri di storia o nelle targhe commemorative poste lungo le spiagge e nei musei normanni. Sono coloro che quella mattina non misero piede sulle spiagge, non si lanciarono da un aereo o presero parte al bombardamento navale; essi sono la parte nascosta delle operazioni, sono i dannati della storia, sono i privi di medaglia, sono gli uomini dei servizi segreti e della Resistenza francese. L’intento di tale tesi è, infatti, di dimostrare: come la riuscita dello sbarco in Normandia non fu solo merito della così detta “guerra combattuta”, e dunque di tutta quella serie di operazioni logistiche e strategiche che intercorsero prima e il giorno stesso dello sbarco, ma bensì anche del lavoro di preparazione d’intelligence che fu alle spalle di Overlord. Per lo studio di tali vicende mi sono avvalso dell’utilizzo di materiale bibliografico, specie di matrice anglosassone e statunitense, per ciò che concerne la parte inerente al ruolo dei servizi segreti, e di produzione francese per ciò che, invece, riguarda la funzione svolta dalla Resistenza; è stato inoltre indispensabile, per dare spessore ai contenuti della tesi, l’utilizzo di fonti bibliografiche manualistiche, incentrate per lo più sull’analisi della storia militare della Seconda guerra mondiale. È stato necessario, per approfondire alcuni argomenti, studiare direttamente una serie di fonti primarie quali: foto e testimonianze dell’epoca, rapporti fra le forze di liberazione e la Resistenza, documenti su piani strategici e logistica sia degli Alleati che delle forze tedesche, fino ad arrivare a documenti che per molto tempo sono stati classificati sotto la dicitura Top Secret e Ultra Secret, di cui purtroppo la maggior parte non sono consultabili direttamente on-line né tantomeno dagli archivi militari e statali, se non con richieste e deleghe specifiche. Inutile dire che migliaia di documenti a riguardo non si potrebbero trovare nemmeno nel più remoto scaffale o armadio dell’ultimo sottoscala di qualche 8 scantinato, poiché per loro natura molti dei documenti su determinati eventi o furono distrutti o addirittura non furono mai scritti. Per permettere una maggiore chiarezza nella scrittura di tali tematiche è stato indispensabile recarsi direttamente sui luoghi dello sbarco e visitare i relativi musei e memoriali, fonte: oltre che di materiale, anche d’ispirazione. La regione normanna è ricca, difatti, di un ampio numero di musei: ogni singola città e paese, che fu in qualche misura coinvolta negli eventi del D-Day, ha o un museo o un memoriale dedicato. Si passa da strutture di carattere statale e di scopo polivalente, con un ampio numero di persone che vi lavorano, con competenze diverse e in ambiti differenti; a piccole attività, per lo più posizionate lungo la costa, aventi poco personale, che posseggono per lo più collezioni di oggettistica, come riproduzioni reali di mezzi ed equipaggiamento. Un esempio del primo tipo è il Memoriale di Caen, inaugurato nel 1988; concepito intorno agli eventi della battaglia di Normandia, vuole essere, non solo un museo di carattere storico, ma innanzitutto un centro culturale internazionale dedicato alla pace, le cui sale espositive raccontano in maniera superba una delle pagine più nere della storia contemporanea attraverso filmati, oggetti e testimonianze. Durante il viaggio intrapreso in Normandia, mi è stato dunque possibile constatare di persona l’impatto che lo sbarco Alleato ebbe e che ha ancora sulla cultura e sulla mentalità del posto. Ogni singola spiaggia dove ebbe inizio l’invasione e ogni sito che fu direttamente coinvolto in tali circostanze sono diventati anche monumenti. Assolutamente affascinante è riscontrare nelle persone del luogo, che mi permetto di definire come persone estremamente cordiali e altrettanto disponibili, nei confronti di tutti coloro che tutt’oggi si dedicano agli studi inerenti allo sbarco in Normandia, una perenne solennità e rispetto nei confronti del gesto di sacrificio a cui molti giovani uomini furono chiamati quel lontano giorno, oramai più di settant’anni fa, e che persero la vita per liberare quella meravigliosa terra dalle atrocità dei regimi nazi-fascisti. Non vi è né un singolo museo, né un singolo memoriale, né un
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