Introduction the Journey to the West, Or Xiyouji, Is One of the Classical

MIND IS A MONKEY: A STUDY OF MIND CONTROL IN JOURNEY TO THE WEST Introduction

The Journey to the West, or Xiyouji, is one of the classical Chinese novels. Although it was written in the 16th century by the prominent author Wu Cheng‘en, the tradition of the story stretch back to period way before the Ming dynasty. The plot is based on the historical journey of the Buddhist monk Xuanzang who waged a journey to India in order to attain Buddhist sutras, most prominently the Heart Sutra. Ever since the 7th century, the story evolved substantially, taking many different forms and absorbing various influences. Wu Chengen‘s version, for instance, drew heavily on the incorporation of

Daoist and Neo-Confucian themes. Later, its manifold adaptations made it into an instrument of communist propaganda, a humorous book for children or (arguably rather shallow) action movies coming both from East and West. Thus, it has been subject to many reductions and the religious of mythological undertones were often overlooked. In particular, there has been very little focus on the Buddhist influence on this syncretic novel.

The value of Xiyouji does not lie solely in its historical and cultural significance. It is a text of manifold layers, rich in both form and content. While the main storyline progresses around the westward journey for the Buddhist scriptures, there is also a very important element of the monkey king Sun Wukong. Indeed, under many interpretations, this charismatic character dominates the book. It is no coincidence that the narrative starts with seven chapters devoted to the monkey‘s birth from stone, learning the ways of Daoism and subsequent attainment of immortality and various magical powers. Using his might, the cheeky and recalcitrant monkey king builds a strong kingdom and, upon being invited to heaven, wreaks havoc among the immortals. Only after numerous battles does Heaven manage to break his resistance and punish him by trapping him under a mountain. In chapter x, Xuanzang (who in the novel assumes the religious name

1 Tripitaka), who is sent to the West to acquire the scriptures, liberates the Monkey and makes him his companion and guard on the journey.

However, even after accepting the Buddhist path, Sun is far from an orderly and obedient disciple. His truculent defiance, tamed only by a magical device, led many scholars to view the Monkey as an allegory of the mind and the difficulties of its control.

This metaphor will be the focal point of this paper. After exposing current scholarly evidence on the presence of the allegory, it will move on to consider the Heart Sutra as well as direct textual evidence to answer the question whether, if at all, the mind is subdued and full control is achieved. I will argue that, with the auxiliary evidence from the Heart Sutra, it becomes apparent that it is only attained in the very last chapter when both Tripitaka and Sun Wukong achieve Buddhist enlightenment. The argument will trace the development through the symbolism represented by the magical power cap, which Xuanzang uses to control and punish Sun Wukong. The proposed interpretation maintains that it is only when the monkey is trusted without this commitment device that the mind can be considered fully under control.

Religious Allegory

The first English translations were substantially abridged and focused primarily on the comical and adventurous aspects of the book. It was only in the second part of the twentieth century that this work attracted considerable scholarly attention. Among the major contributions to the scholarship were Anthony C. Yu‘s translation and critical introduction (1973) and Glen Dudbridge‘s Antecedents.

Having found evidence connecting the book to various religions and mythologies, scholars entered a debate over its correct interpretation. For instance, in his Four

Masterworks of the Ming Novel, Plaks argues for a Neo-Confucian interpretation (Bantly

513), while Francisca Cho Bantly takes issue with it, arguing that such an account would deny the fact that the doctrinal content is a faithful reflection of Mahayana ideals (Bantly

2 523). It is not within the scope of this paper to enter this debate. Rather, while implicitly assuming with Anthony C. Yu that the ―elements of serious allegory‖ are ―derived from

Chinese religious syncretism‖ (xiv), it will provide evidence for there being a substantial

Buddhist allegory in the book to single out one particular focal metaphor. This will be none other than the allegory of ―monkey of the mind‖. Then, working with the assumption of potentially fruitful Mahayana interpretation of this phenomenon, it will introduce the emptiness Buddhism account of the mind and apply it to direct textual evidence.

Mind is a Monkey

Among other fascinating aspects of the book, this scholarship uncovered the metaphor of the Monkey King as representing the human mind. As Yu puts it, ―the figure of Sun

Wukong, as conceived and developed throughout the book, brilliantly embodies the venerable idiom, ‗the monkey of the mind.‘‖ (69) There is ample evidence in the book suggesting that the meaning is deliberate. Glen Dudbridge points to the verse in Chapter

14 saying ―The Great Sage escapes from the Eight Trigrams Furnace / The Monkey of the Mind is held firm beneath Wu-hsing shan.‖ (xy in Dudbridge 167) Indeed, with this metaphor in mind, one need not look too thoroughly to find evidence supporting the claim. Even controlling for a seeker‘s confirmation bias, the fact that we can find explicit verses like ―An ape‘s body of Dao weds the human mind. / Mind is a monkey—this meaning‘s profound.‖ (?) These references occur so often that it would be a massive coincidence if they were not deliberate.

As Dudbridge claims in his Antecedents, the origin of the metaphor in Chinese culture can be traced back to early Buddhist sutras. (Dudbridge 168) On his analysis, ―the random, uncontrollable movements of the monkey‖ symbolize ―the waywardness of the native human mind before it achieves a composure which only Buddhist discipline can effect.‖ (168) While Dudbridge himself calls into question whether Xiyouji should be read as a significant allegory and whether this metaphor itself is an urgent one (176),

3 subsequent scholarship suggests that its role ought not to be slighted. In his introduction to the revised edition of his translation, Yu even argues that over the course of the

Journey, the Monkey of the Mind ―progressively becomes Tripitaka‘s own true mind‖

(Yu 94) He further elaborates, stating that ―Monkey‘s own experience as the Tang

Monk‘s disciple mirrors his master‘s experience, one constituted by a series of imprisonment and release, harmonious integration and disastrous dissolution, epitomized in the idiom, ‗to subdue or release the Monkey of the Mind‘‖, whereupon he quotes the early Chinese scholar Yu Ji who saw the book as ―all about the retrieval or release of one‘s mind.‖ (Yu 73)

In a chapter devoted to Xiyouji in his book Fictions of Enlightenment, Qiancheng Li gives further support to this view.

Thus, accepting that this allegory plays a substantial role in the narrative, what are the implications? In order to fully understand them, we need to closely consider the Buddhist influence on the book. In particular, study of the emptiness schools of Mahayana

Buddhism and their interpretations of the Heart Sutra will prove illuminating.

The Heart Sutra

The Heart Sutra, a short yet influential Buddhist text from the class of Perfection of

Wisdom Sutras, is undoubtedly a major influence on Xiyouji. I will first show its direct presence in the narrative and then proceed to show its implicit influence on it.

Ever since Tripitaka gets the Heat Sutra from the Crow Zen Master, he is preoccupied with abiding by it. Reading through the novel‘s entire length, it is plain that what the fictive Xuanzang must learn is to hold fast constantly to the doctrines of the loftiest idealism or mentalism enshrined in the Heart Sūtra (Yu 72)

He tries not only to apply it to his own conduct, but also makes it a frequent subject of his discussions with disciples. ―According to these four lines,‖ Tripitaka once puts it to

Sun, ―the lesson of all scriptures concerns only the cultivation of the mind.‖ The Monkey

4 seconds his interpretation, claiming that ―goes without saying,‖ and further explains that when ―the mind is pure, it shines forth as a solitary lamp, and when the mind is secure, the entire phenomenal world becomes clarified. The tiniest error, however, makes for the way to slothfulness, and then you‘ll never succeed even in ten thousand years.‖ (v.4

145)

Anthony Yu claims that this is one of the most significant passages in the book. In his view, it symbolizes ―(1) that the journey to the West is not just a physical trek but symbolizes something else; (2) that the sum of scriptural doctrine unanimously affirmed by master and disciple concerns the cultivation of mind‖. (Yu 67) Thus, the Heart Sutra seems like a good source of illumination for our question

Having seen the Heart Sutra‘s importance in the book, let us now see its content relevant to our inquiry

The Heart Sutra gives us further reason to favor the mind-allegory interpretation.

Interestingly enough, Buddhist traditions stemming from The Heart Sutra portray hindrances on the path to liberation as mara, or demons. (Gyatso 148) In like manner, the pilgrims on the Journey to the West face several challenges from demons. Li also notes this phenomenon, citing the passage telling us that ―when the mind is active, all kinds of mara come into existence; when the mind is extinguished, all kinds of mara will be extinguished.‖

Citing the verse ―The Mind is the Buddha and the Buddha is Mind; / Both Mind and

Buddha are important things‖, Li analyzes the double-edged role of the mind the

Buddhist doctrine. ―But this same mind is capable of many negative and dreadful things.

It may disturb heaven and earth, as Monkey will later do. It creates illusions that prevent one from grasping the truth.‖

5 Crucially, the Heart Sutra discusses the role of mind. We learn that "bodhisattvas rely on the Perfection of Wisdom, and their minds have no obstructions. Since there are no obstructions, they have no fears. Because they are detached from distorted dream- thinking, their final result is Nirvana. Because all buddhas of the past, present, and future rely on the Perfection of Wisdom, they attain unexcelled perfect enlightenment." (Allen 2)

It would thus seem that The Heart Sutra identifies the final stage of the cultivation of the mind, that is, the attainment of perfect mind control, with the state of enlightenment.

Li, whose primary focus is the analysis of Buddhist enlightenment in fiction, asks whether Xiyouji portrays enlightenment as a process or a sudden occurrence, a question that divides various Mahayana schools. Li argues that Sun Wukong epitomizes the sudden approach, which, however, presupposes ―a certain amount of merit‖. (Li 79) In the book, this is correlated with the process of the journey. Li cites the passage where

Sun tells the master that in order to attain ―no hindrances, and therefore, no terror or fear‖, he must first ―sweep away the dust of [his] mind / and wash off the dust by [his] ears‖ and ―taste the most painful of pain‖. (xy in Li 79) Moreover, Tripitaka, on Li‘s account, represents the gradual approach. Thus, he argues that the book attempts to resolve the tensions between the two: while enlightenment as such might come suddenly, ―it rests on accumulated, sustained effort‖. (Li 81) This interpretation will help us shed light

The Flower Cap

Through the lens of the Mind-Monkey metaphor, one recurring theme in the book becomes very striking: the flower cap that Bodhisattva Guanshiyin gives to Tripitaka.

Indeed, in the very presentation of this gift, the Bodhisattva seems to allude to the mind- control analogy. ―I have a spell which is called the True Words for Controlling the Mind, or the Tight-Fillet Spell,‖ she says by way of introduction. At first reading, it could seem

6 that ―Controlling the Mind‖ refers to controlling others‘ minds through this fillet. However, if we see the Monkey King as Tripitaka‘s own mind, it becomes a device for one‘s own mind-control. Tripitaka is told to memorize the spell and not to share it with anyone else.

Having done this, he gives it to Sun Wukong to wear. (Cheng‘en 317)

This device, in conjunction with the recitation of the spell, has a painful effect on its wearer. Guanshiyin gives Tripitaka instructions on how to use it: ―if he again refuses to obey you, recite the spell silently. He will not dare do violence or leave you again.‖ (317)

Tripitaka follows her instructions and, from this time on, he has Sun in check. Having demonstrated the painfulness of the punishment, he has the Monkey swear that he will listen to his instructions and never be unruly again. (320) Of course, Sun does not want to submit so easily and wants to strike his master and, upon realizing the originator of his suffering, the bodhisattva herself. However, further punishments persuade him that resistance is futile. He then admits that Tripitaka has power over him. ―I‘m willing to accompany you without ever entertaining the thought of leaving again,‖ he says, upon which we learn from the narrator that he ―gave up all thoughts of disobedience or rebellion‖. (320)

Now it would be quite tempting to read this as the instance when Tripitaka achieves mind-control. Prima facie, it looks like a plausible interpretation. For it can certainly be said that the Monkey is controlled by Tripitaka in the sense that he has power over his freedom and can use this device at any time to instruct him. This would be in accordance with conventional understanding of mind control. We would definitely be inclined to say that if someone can fully determine the outcomes of her thought processes, she is, in fact, in control of her mind.

Such a view could also be supported by the interpretation of the Chinese scholar Huang

Zhouxing who identifies this moment in the book with Sun‘s full conversion to Buddhism.

Li cites his praise of the supposed allegory: ―He can‘t be said to have been converted

7 until this moment. How precarious! How subtle!‖ (Li 57)

However, conversion to Buddhism in itself does not imply full mind control. Indeed, as we shall see, this is not the view either Mahayana Buddhism or this book takes. Recall our discussion of enlightenment… [connect, argue that conventional view of mind-control is insufficient from the Buddhist perspective and the ultimate m-c comes only with attainment of Buddhahood]

For a more accessible analogy, consider the well-known story of Ulysses. While at the sea, Ulysses and his Argonauts pass through a place inhabited by sirens. These exceedingly beautiful creatures are a source of great temptations of sailors and have an impressive track record of persuading them to jump off the board – and drown. Knowing this phenomenon, Ulysses orders his crew to stuff their ears and tie himself to the mast.

Thus, the crew are safe from the temptation and manage to survive. Yet would it be accurate to say that they escaped the danger thanks to their mind control? Hardly so.

Rather, their successful resistance to temptation was caused by what modern psychology would call a pre-commitment device, that is, a prosthetic that an agent imposes on herself in order to avoid negative behavior that she knows she would end up doing. It is precisely because of the lack of belief in her control over first-order desires that make her employ it.

In like manner, the Buddhist interpretation would maintain that rather than signifying mind control, Tripitaka‘s possession of this ―commitment device‖ hints to the exact opposite. For if he were truly in control of his mind, he would not need it…

[discuss the passage where Sun is liberated

Conclusion

It follows from the syncretic and multifaceted nature of Journey to the West that it can be interpreted in a number of ways. While it is certainly valuable to accent the comical and adventurous value of the narrative, such an approach can lead one to overlook the

8 amazing richness of cultural and historical background as well as hidden allegories and subtle allusions. It would be a great loss if these fascinating aspects were forgotten. This paper attempted to shed more light on a particularly rich and compelling metaphor, in which the Monkey king Sun symbolizes the recalcitrant human mind. By considering it in light of the Heart Sutra, a major Buddhist influence on the book, we were able to see that

Xiyouji gives tells us as that attainment of perfect mind control is in principle possible, albeit extremely difficult. By showing that it is in fact connected.

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