ADAPTATION & REPRESENTATIONiu i< — T > CHINESE C f EPIC SF u tn sfotm in g t H o n k t y SUN GO CD u n iv e r sit y ?" PENNSYLVANIA. LIBRARIES Transforming Monkey Transforming Monkey ADAPTATION AND REPRESENTATION OF A CHINESE EPIC Hongmei Sun UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON PRESS Seattle f l l 1 I modern language I I I I initiative THIS BOOK IS MADE POSSIBLE BY A COLLABORATIVE GRANT FROM THE ANDREW W. MELLON FOUNDATION. Copyright © 2.018 by the University of Washington Press Printed and bound in the United States of America zz 21 zo 19 18 54321 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. University of Washington Press www.washington.edu/uwpress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from the Library of Congress. ISBN (hardcover): 978-0-195-74318-9 ISBN (paperback): 978-0-295-74319-6 ISBN (ebook): 978-0-295-743Z0-Z To my parents. With you there, I will never feel lost. To my three sisters. We do not mention the love between us, only because we know it is always there. CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Introduction 3 1. Who Is Sun Wukong? The Image of the Monkey King in Journey to the West 15 2. The Transmutable Monkey: Between Theater and Fiction in Traditional China 3 6 3. From Trickster to Hero: National Mythmaking in Wartime and Maoist China 60 4. From Fighter to Lover: The Postsocialist Hero in the PRC and Hong Kong 91 5. Chronotope and Orientalism: Time Travel between China and America 119 6. Of Monkey, Human, and God: The Performance of Asian American Identity 135 Conclusion 169 Notes 175 Selected Bibliography 195 Index ' 215 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writing of this book is a journey that can be compared to the jour­ ney of Monkey, one that has crossed many borders, lasted many years, and encountered many demons (obstacles). Along the jourriey I have been indebted to many whose guidance, support, and generosity have helped me getting started and moving forward. My deepest gratitude to my teachers, mentors, and friends, who have inspired, encouraged, and challenged me during the earlier stages of writing: Elizabeth Petroff, William Moebius, Edwin Gentzler, Enhua Zhang, Floyd Cheung, Paola Zamperini, Maria Tymoczko, Jules Chametzky, and Jonathan Lipman. Without you, this book would not exist. Many thanks to all my friends who have shared with me your laughter and dragged me along through the most difficult days, especially Kanchuka Dharmasiri, Swati Burla, Srinivas Lankala, Antonia Carcelen Estrada, Nicole Calandra, and Bunkong Tuon. I am grateful to my mentors, colleagues, and friends at George Mason University and other places and institutions, with whose help and encouragement I was able to give the book its needed transforma­ tions, especially Carma Hinton, Rei Berroa, Karl Zhang, John Foster, Briankle Chang, John Crespi, and Jane Larson. My special apprecia­ tion goes to Douglas Eyman, who has been my many-time first reader and most reliable supporter. I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers of the manuscript, whose insights have been essential for helping me realize its final form. I owe special thanks to my editors at University of Washington Press, Lorri Hagman and Niccole Coggins, for their passion and patience. Many thanks to Susan Murray for her diligent work as copy editor. An earlier version of my discussion of Lost Empire, and The For­ bidden Kingdom appeared in Asia Pacific Translation and Intercul- tural Studies, y.z (zoi6): 175-87. Transforming Monkey r Introduction Sun Wukong, known as the Monkey King in English, is the protago­ nist of the Ming dynasty novel Journey to the West (Xiyou ji). He is famous for his ability to shape-shift and ride the clouds, his size- changing magic rod, and his love of playing tricks. The longevity of his story reflects his popularity in Chinese culture: the “Journey to the West” narrative is among the most malleable and long-lasting in Chinese literary history. With the repeated adaptations of the narra­ tive over the centuries, the image of the protean monkey character has evolved into the Monkey King we know today. Journey to the West is a one-hundred-chapter novel published in the sixteenth century during the late-Ming period. It is considered one of the four masterworks of the Ming novel, along with Water Mar­ gin (Shuihu zhuan), Romance o f the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo yanyi), and The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jinping mei).1 Loosely based on the historical journey of the famous monk Xuanzang (602-664), who traveled in the Tang dynasty from China to India in search of Bud­ dhist scriptures, the story experienced a series of adaptations over hundreds of years before it was developed into the full-length novel, which recounts a mythological pilgrimage of the monk Tripitaka (the fictional Xuanzang), accompanied by three disciples and protectors he converts along the way: Sun Wukong (aka the Monkey King, or Monkey), Zhu Bajie (aka Zhu Wuneng, Pigsy, or Pig), and Sha Wujing (aka Sha Seng, Sha Heshang, Friar Sand, or Sandy). These disciples, as well as a dragon prince who transforms into a white horse as Tripi- taka’s steed, are demons or animal spirits who have sinned and who 3 agree to accompany Tripitaka as atonement. Along the way, the group encounters and overcomes eighty-one tests, most of which involve demons and spirits who want to capture Tripitaka and eat his flesh in order to gain immortality. The history of Journey to the West represents a process of continu­ ous adaptations of Xuanzang’s story. The historical trip becomes a mythological journey in a world full of demons, spirits, Taoist gods, and Buddhist celestials. At some point—the actual origin and prove­ nance remain unclear— the monkey follower of Xuanzang was added to a retelling of the story. Once included, the monkey figure grew in popularity until he replaced the monk as the main character and pro­ tagonist. It is owing to the long process of adaptation that today the Monkey King remains popular globally. In 2013, Lincoln Center in New York City presented Monkey: Journey to the West as “ China’s greatest story retold for the 21st century,” a theatrical piece coproduced by Chinese director Chen Shi-zheng, British musician Damon Albarn, and British artist Jamie Hewlett, combining music, animation, singing, and acrobatic and martial art performances. Before appearing in this venue, it had been performed around the world, following a 2007 premiere in Manches­ ter, England. In contrast, the competition for mascot for the 2008 Beijing Olympic and Paralympic Games was a story of failure for Sun Wukong. Many applications featured him, reflecting his popular sta­ tus in Chinese culture as a beloved figure for both adults and chil­ dren. However, the monkey lost the competition precisely because of this popularity— so many registered brands featuring him existed throughout Asia that crafting a unique image with the Olympic theme was deemed difficult.2 In more recent years, new films of the Monkey King have been created and consumed annually: Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons (Xiyou: Xiangmo pian) produced and directed by Ste­ phen Chow (2013); The Monkey King (Xiyou ji: Da’nao tian’gong) starring Donnie Yen and Chow Yun-fat, which was primarily a Hol­ lywood production (2014); the animated film Monkey King: Hero Is Back (Xiyou ji zhi dasheng guilai), which was lauded as a break­ through in Chinese animation (20x5); The Monkey King 2 (Xiyou ji zhi Sun Wukong sanda Baigu Jing) and A Chinese Odyssey: Part Three (Dahua Xiyou 3), both sequels of successful earlier installments (2016); and the list goes on. The uneven quality of these films seems to have little effect on their commercial success: the popularity of the Monkey King’s image alone serves as rich cultural capital that can be repeatedly reused. The zoi6 Year of the Monkey in the Chinese lunar calendar was a time when the Sun Wukong theme was particularly welcomed, especially during the New Year holiday period. One of the two 2016 Monkey King movies, The Monkey King z, was released in China on February 8, the first day of the lunar New Year. There had been much speculation about which Monkey King would appear on the televised Chinese New Year gala (chunwan), a must-watch for many Chinese viewers. Many were disappointed to discover that Zhang Jin- lai, known as Liu Xiao Ling Tong for his acting of the Monkey King in the 1986 CCTV television series Journey to the West, and consid­ ered by many to be the quintessential Monkey King actor in China, was not invited by CCTV to perform at the gala. Many fans posted their opinions online, urging CCTV to include Zhang in their pro­ gram, since they couldn’t imagine a gala for the Year of Monkey with­ out him.3 This anecdote reveals several key points about the Monkey King and Journey to the "West: the influence and popularity of the 1984 television series as an adaptation of the classical novel; accep­ tance of the image of Zhang Jinlai as the classic Monkey King, just as the television series has established itself as a classic for many audi­ ences; and the position of the Journey to the West television series and Zhang’s Monkey King in the collective memory of the generation of Chinese people who grew up watching the show. In short, it demon­ strates how influential a literary classic can be, and how, via adapta­ tion, the classics exercise such influence.