MIND IS A MONKEY: A STUDY OF MIND CONTROL IN JOURNEY TO THE WEST Introduction The Journey to the West, or Xiyouji, is one of the classical Chinese novels. Although it was written in the 16th century by the prominent author Wu Cheng‘en, the tradition of the story stretch back to period way before the Ming dynasty. The plot is based on the historical journey of the Buddhist monk Xuanzang who waged a journey to India in order to attain Buddhist sutras, most prominently the Heart Sutra. Ever since the 7th century, the story evolved substantially, taking many different forms and absorbing various influences. Wu Chengen‘s version, for instance, drew heavily on the incorporation of Daoist and Neo-Confucian themes. Later, its manifold adaptations made it into an instrument of communist propaganda, a humorous book for children or (arguably rather shallow) action movies coming both from East and West. Thus, it has been subject to many reductions and the religious of mythological undertones were often overlooked. In particular, there has been very little focus on the Buddhist influence on this syncretic novel. The value of Xiyouji does not lie solely in its historical and cultural significance. It is a text of manifold layers, rich in both form and content. While the main storyline progresses around the westward journey for the Buddhist scriptures, there is also a very important element of the monkey king Sun Wukong. Indeed, under many interpretations, this charismatic character dominates the book. It is no coincidence that the narrative starts with seven chapters devoted to the monkey‘s birth from stone, learning the ways of Daoism and subsequent attainment of immortality and various magical powers. Using his might, the cheeky and recalcitrant monkey king builds a strong kingdom and, upon being invited to heaven, wreaks havoc among the immortals. Only after numerous battles does Heaven manage to break his resistance and punish him by trapping him under a mountain. In chapter x, Xuanzang (who in the novel assumes the religious name 1 Tripitaka), who is sent to the West to acquire the scriptures, liberates the Monkey and makes him his companion and guard on the journey. However, even after accepting the Buddhist path, Sun is far from an orderly and obedient disciple. His truculent defiance, tamed only by a magical device, led many scholars to view the Monkey as an allegory of the mind and the difficulties of its control. This metaphor will be the focal point of this paper. After exposing current scholarly evidence on the presence of the allegory, it will move on to consider the Heart Sutra as well as direct textual evidence to answer the question whether, if at all, the mind is subdued and full control is achieved. I will argue that, with the auxiliary evidence from the Heart Sutra, it becomes apparent that it is only attained in the very last chapter when both Tripitaka and Sun Wukong achieve Buddhist enlightenment. The argument will trace the development through the symbolism represented by the magical power cap, which Xuanzang uses to control and punish Sun Wukong. The proposed interpretation maintains that it is only when the monkey is trusted without this commitment device that the mind can be considered fully under control. Religious Allegory The first English translations were substantially abridged and focused primarily on the comical and adventurous aspects of the book. It was only in the second part of the twentieth century that this work attracted considerable scholarly attention. Among the major contributions to the scholarship were Anthony C. Yu‘s translation and critical introduction (1973) and Glen Dudbridge‘s Antecedents. Having found evidence connecting the book to various religions and mythologies, scholars entered a debate over its correct interpretation. For instance, in his Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel, Plaks argues for a Neo-Confucian interpretation (Bantly 513), while Francisca Cho Bantly takes issue with it, arguing that such an account would deny the fact that the doctrinal content is a faithful reflection of Mahayana ideals (Bantly 2 523). It is not within the scope of this paper to enter this debate. Rather, while implicitly assuming with Anthony C. Yu that the ―elements of serious allegory‖ are ―derived from Chinese religious syncretism‖ (xiv), it will provide evidence for there being a substantial Buddhist allegory in the book to single out one particular focal metaphor. This will be none other than the allegory of ―monkey of the mind‖. Then, working with the assumption of potentially fruitful Mahayana interpretation of this phenomenon, it will introduce the emptiness Buddhism account of the mind and apply it to direct textual evidence. Mind is a Monkey Among other fascinating aspects of the book, this scholarship uncovered the metaphor of the Monkey King as representing the human mind. As Yu puts it, ―the figure of Sun Wukong, as conceived and developed throughout the book, brilliantly embodies the venerable idiom, ‗the monkey of the mind.‘‖ (69) There is ample evidence in the book suggesting that the meaning is deliberate. Glen Dudbridge points to the verse in Chapter 14 saying ―The Great Sage escapes from the Eight Trigrams Furnace / The Monkey of the Mind is held firm beneath Wu-hsing shan.‖ (xy in Dudbridge 167) Indeed, with this metaphor in mind, one need not look too thoroughly to find evidence supporting the claim. Even controlling for a seeker‘s confirmation bias, the fact that we can find explicit verses like ―An ape‘s body of Dao weds the human mind. / Mind is a monkey—this meaning‘s profound.‖ (?) These references occur so often that it would be a massive coincidence if they were not deliberate. As Dudbridge claims in his Antecedents, the origin of the metaphor in Chinese culture can be traced back to early Buddhist sutras. (Dudbridge 168) On his analysis, ―the random, uncontrollable movements of the monkey‖ symbolize ―the waywardness of the native human mind before it achieves a composure which only Buddhist discipline can effect.‖ (168) While Dudbridge himself calls into question whether Xiyouji should be read as a significant allegory and whether this metaphor itself is an urgent one (176), 3 subsequent scholarship suggests that its role ought not to be slighted. In his introduction to the revised edition of his translation, Yu even argues that over the course of the Journey, the Monkey of the Mind ―progressively becomes Tripitaka‘s own true mind‖ (Yu 94) He further elaborates, stating that ―Monkey‘s own experience as the Tang Monk‘s disciple mirrors his master‘s experience, one constituted by a series of imprisonment and release, harmonious integration and disastrous dissolution, epitomized in the idiom, ‗to subdue or release the Monkey of the Mind‘‖, whereupon he quotes the early Chinese scholar Yu Ji who saw the book as ―all about the retrieval or release of one‘s mind.‖ (Yu 73) In a chapter devoted to Xiyouji in his book Fictions of Enlightenment, Qiancheng Li gives further support to this view. Thus, accepting that this allegory plays a substantial role in the narrative, what are the implications? In order to fully understand them, we need to closely consider the Buddhist influence on the book. In particular, study of the emptiness schools of Mahayana Buddhism and their interpretations of the Heart Sutra will prove illuminating. The Heart Sutra The Heart Sutra, a short yet influential Buddhist text from the class of Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, is undoubtedly a major influence on Xiyouji. I will first show its direct presence in the narrative and then proceed to show its implicit influence on it. Ever since Tripitaka gets the Heat Sutra from the Crow Zen Master, he is preoccupied with abiding by it. Reading through the novel‘s entire length, it is plain that what the fictive Xuanzang must learn is to hold fast constantly to the doctrines of the loftiest idealism or mentalism enshrined in the Heart Sūtra (Yu 72) He tries not only to apply it to his own conduct, but also makes it a frequent subject of his discussions with disciples. ―According to these four lines,‖ Tripitaka once puts it to Sun, ―the lesson of all scriptures concerns only the cultivation of the mind.‖ The Monkey 4 seconds his interpretation, claiming that ―goes without saying,‖ and further explains that when ―the mind is pure, it shines forth as a solitary lamp, and when the mind is secure, the entire phenomenal world becomes clarified. The tiniest error, however, makes for the way to slothfulness, and then you‘ll never succeed even in ten thousand years.‖ (v.4 145) Anthony Yu claims that this is one of the most significant passages in the book. In his view, it symbolizes ―(1) that the journey to the West is not just a physical trek but symbolizes something else; (2) that the sum of scriptural doctrine unanimously affirmed by master and disciple concerns the cultivation of mind‖. (Yu 67) Thus, the Heart Sutra seems like a good source of illumination for our question Having seen the Heart Sutra‘s importance in the book, let us now see its content relevant to our inquiry The Heart Sutra gives us further reason to favor the mind-allegory interpretation. Interestingly enough, Buddhist traditions stemming from The Heart Sutra portray hindrances on the path to liberation as mara, or demons. (Gyatso 148) In like manner, the pilgrims on the Journey to the West face several challenges from demons. Li also notes this phenomenon, citing the passage telling us that ―when the mind is active, all kinds of mara come into existence; when the mind is extinguished, all kinds of mara will be extinguished.‖ Citing the verse ―The Mind is the Buddha and the Buddha is Mind; / Both Mind and Buddha are important things‖, Li analyzes the double-edged role of the mind the Buddhist doctrine.