ISS PAPER 260 | AUGUST 2014 Illicit drug trading in Dimensions and intersections with governance Boubacar Diarisso and Charles Goredema

Summary The authors provide a thorough analysis of the situation with regard to illegal drugs in ’s capital, Dakar. The paper focuses on cannabis, cocaine and heroine, as well as counterfeit pharmaceutical products. It discusses the extent of cultivation, patterns of consumption, international trafficking methods and routes, the role of women, police action and the impact of trafficking on governance. It is concluded that while there is no evidence that hard drugs are manufactured in Dakar and there are insufficient indicators for Dakar being a drug trafficking hub, it is evident that crime networks are interested in exploiting the city for the channelling of drugs to other parts of the world.

ONCE THE CAPITAL OF French West During the 18th century Dakar was as a crucial link in international relations during the colonial period from nothing more than a village. The name and affairs.5 1902 to 1958, and then of the short- reportedly featured on a map for the Dakar boasts a telecommunications and lived Mali Federation in 1959, the city of first time in 1750.3 The first buildings infrastructure network that makes the Dakar became the political and economic appeared in 1857 in the wake of the city a favourite destination for cultural, capital of the newly independent state construction of a French fort. This political and economic events of an of Senegal in 1960. As one of the was followed by the design of an initial international nature. The metropolis few countries in Africa that has never cadastral plan, according to which covers an area of 547 km² and 4 experienced a military coup d’état, development began in 1858. The city constitutes 0,3 per cent of Senegal’s total Senegal is considered politically stable. was built to meet certain strategic and size of 196 712 km². The establishment It is situated to the south of the Sahara administrative needs of the French in Dakar of large industrial plants for the desert, at the westernmost end of the colonial empire and it thus became a production of export-oriented goods and African continent, 6 132 km from New symbol and crucial pillar of the French the re-packaging of imported products York, 4 371 km from London, 4 202 km imperial project in Africa. It served as the for the local Senegalese market have from Paris, 6 619 km from Cape Town starting point for conceptualising and turned the city into an industrial hub of and 5 036 km from Rio de Janeiro.1 Its fine-tuning France’s political dominance the region. Dakar has become Senegal’s airport was designated as a major stop- over West Africa in particular. Given leading centre since the country’s key over from the early days of commercial its advantageous location, and its economic activities rely on services air transport.2 cosmopolitan population, Dakar serves provided by the city. It has also become a

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focal point for domestic and cross-border Much of the cannabis found in Dakar • The south, especially in the migration. is cultivated on farms in the region. Département de Bignona It is often grown on small patches of A breakdown by age group in 2008 • The close to the border land in the fertile market-garden region indicated that Dakar’s population was with Guinea Bissau of Niayes, an area of about 100 km2 essentially very young, with 44,7 per along the coast extending almost up The Casamance region in the southern cent being under the age of 20 years to Saint-Louis in the north-west of the part of Senegal, is considered to be and more than 70 per cent being below country. The plants are hidden among Senegal’s largest cannabis cultivation the age of 35.6 The over 60 age-group normal crops. Small cannabis farms, area. Criminality in the region is worsened constituted slightly more than five per often managed by women, yield a good by the insecurity that has prevailed there cent of the population. In 2007, average income. For example, the price paid to a for three decades. The Niayes (Dakar- life expectance was estimated at 59,8 farmer for 5 kg of cannabis, the proceeds Gandiol-Saint-Louis corridor) supports years, though it is higher amongst from three or four plants, is equivalent women at 61,3 years.7 vast cannabis distribution and trading to the income obtained from 2 ha of networks. In the past few years, there Cannabis is the drug most commonly potatoes. However, because the land have been reports of bartering with used in Dakar and in Senegal. Because available for farming is shrinking under cattle owners exchanging their livestock, it is readily available and comparatively the pressure of land required for housing, stock-feed and even staple food stocks cheap, cannabis is by far the most as well as energetic law enforcement for cannabis. It is as difficult to estimate popular drug and is used by people activities, the cultivation of cannabis is the amount of cannabis produced in across the social strata. During a debate declining in the Niayes region. Dakar’s this region as it is to mount eradication on ’the security of citizens and their cannabis supply is becoming more and campaigns there. property’ in the National Assembly on more dependent on certain Senegalese 4 June 2013, the Minister of Interior, farmers who, in their quest for larger According to data provided by the General Pathé Seck, announced incomes, are abandoning subsistence drug squad of the Senegalese police, that in 2012 about 1,5 t of cannabis, crops in favour of cannabis cultivation. cannabis is encountered in several 12,45 kg of cocaine and 36 g of heroin Traffickers are prepared to pay the varieties, including verte de Mboro, had been seized by the Senegalese police. Trafficking of drugs in Senegal is A sharp increase in the abuse of cannabis in Dakar dominated by Dakar, closely followed by has been noted Kaolack, a gateway city with connections to Mali and The Gambia.8 The following farmers a high price, often in advance which is a locally improved variety; areas of Dakar are known for the of delivery. This applies to the Karones Green Makut, a variety from the Gambia; storage and concealment of cannabis in islands, and Blouff and Sine Saloum in Lopito or Lops from Ghana; Bouddha, 11 particular: particular. A large proportion of the an ’improved’ variety from Casamance; cannabis supply to the Dakar market Ganila from Mali;13 and the Salsa or • Keur Mbaye Fall (suburbs) comes from farms in the hinterland.12 ’Colombian’ variety introduced in 1996. • Mbao Protected Forest It should be noted that cannabis A sharp increase in the abuse of cannabis • Mbeubeusse (a household waste cultivation has spread from the Grande in Dakar has been noted. This can be dumping site)9 Zone des Niayes to other parts of attributed to its availability, but also to Senegal. Today, areas that can and are recreational smoking by unemployed • Boune ()10 being used for cannabis cultivation are youth. The average age of users is quite Cannabis is readily obtained in the Dakar scattered across the country, as follows: low, with first-time users being as young suburbs of Pikine, Guédiawaye, Parcelles as 12 or 13 years old.14 Cannabis is • The Gandiol-Saint-Louis region of Assainies, , Yeumbeul and Keur known to be used at academic institutions the Niayes Massar, as well as in , 25 km such as the University of Dakar and Dakar from Dakar. The Dakar neighbourhoods • Along the Senegal River up to La high schools. are home to the urban poor who Pointe de Sangomar migrated from rural areas in search of a Cannabis trafficking in Dakar • Along the tributary of Sine Saloum better life. Some of them are involved in We draw a distinction between dealers the trafficking of cannabis. • The Saloum islands and traffickers on the basis of the scale of

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8396 ISS Paper 260.indd 2 2014/08/14 9:47 AM their trade. The money generated by the vehicles as they wait for customers. More Trafficking of hard drugs cannabis trade has attracted both small serious traffickers have transport of some No hard drugs are produced in Dakar. dealers and ’major traffickers’. While sort. Currently, motorbikes are the most Yet, it is evident that cocaine and heroin the trade affects many neighbourhoods, common. Indeed, a motorbike is a good are trafficked in the city. Cases heard by it is mainly in the more populous hiding place for the average dealer as it the Assize Court since 2008 show that neighbourhoods that trading is most allows the unobtrusive transport of 2 kg cocaine trafficking is on the increase. The frequent and open. The most notorious to 3 kg of cannabis. Bigger traffickers use matter of the State versus Franck Koma, areas are Niary-Tally, Grand-Dakar and motor vehicles and canoes to carry drugs a Nigerian national, involved 10 packets , and the suburbs of Thiaroye, Pikine to Dakar, especially onto and from the containing a total of 5 kg of cocaine and Guédiawaye. beaches in Bargy and Sendou. Cannabis mixed with 10 kg of white powder.18 The is often landed along Senegal’s 118 km Despite the authorities’ efforts, these accused was also found in possession long coast. areas continue to be the favourite of a Guinean passport. In another hangouts of cannabis dealers and Foirail de la Seras and the Malian case, Mr Douglas Quashie, a Ghanaian traffickers. Drugs are also sold in commercial road-transport station in national, was arrested along with a certain the major markets of Dakar. There Mbao are considered hotspots for Aïssatou P Diallo on a pier in Dakar as the is a virtual ‘code of silence’ in the poor neighbourhoods. According to More serious traffickers have transport of some sort. the police, the inhabitants are either Currently, motorbikes are the most common accomplices or reluctant witnesses. cannabis trafficking in Dakar. Most big former disembarked from the Aline Sitoé Even where residents might know the dealers get their supplies from there. Diatta boat that had just arrived from traffickers, they will not report them. When questioned on the subject, the Ziguinchor. Some 4,5 kg of cocaine was Whether this is because of some police and gendarmerie in Senegal found in their possession and they were assistance that they may have received stated categorically that there were no charged with criminal conspiracy and from such traffickers or because of organised criminal networks actively international cocaine trafficking.19Since social relationships is a matter of involved in the dealing or trafficking of the foreign element could not be proven, speculation. However, during our study cannabis.16 They also pointed out that, the international drug trafficking charge it was also repeatedly pointed out that Senegalese people generally do not although traffickers and dealers may had to be revised to one of inland report one another to the police as this sometimes have violent confrontations transportation of high-risk drugs. among themselves, the level of violence is considered a form of cowardice.15 In matters involving international drug was not on the levels seen in South Furthermore, the police’s relationship trafficking the foreign element is a Africa or Nigeria. The police reported that with the public is not conducive to determining factor. Dakar is increasingly traffickers very rarely use firearms.17 unsolicited cooperation; they are proving to be a transit zone in international perceived to be unfriendly and corrupt. The police perception on criminal drug trafficking. Several entry points have Even so, the police are able to report networks may be based on a narrow been identified. Dakar’s Leopold Sedar daily arrests for cannabis trafficking in definition of organised crime. Our study Senghor International Airport is a major the neighbourhoods mentioned shows that cannabis is produced on transit point. The port of Dakar on the The police regularly arrest ’packet a systematic basis by producers that Atlantic coast is another entry point into retailers’, small dealers selling ‘cones’, are paid in advance. The drug is then Senegal, while the third is the Gambian the normal name for a small measure passed on to buyers who arrange for border in the southern part of the country. of the drug. Cannabis is sold secretly the transportation of the cannabis to In addition, the express train from Mali in homes or on the street. Indeed, to urban markets where it is concealed provides access to Senegal that can be find small quantities of cannabis, all it by wholesalers until such time as it abused for smuggling drugs. Senegal takes is to go to certain street corners. can be distributed to dealers for retail. also shares a border with Guinea- Unsolicited approaches by dealers The absence of violence or the limited Bissau, which has been implicated in the offering cones are common. Small street- extent thereof is not a decisive factor. smuggling of cocaine from production corner dealers will keep the drugs in their Comprehensive profiling of the networks areas in South America to West Africa. pockets, buried in the sand or hidden dealing in cannabis will underscore this Reports indicate that cocaine from in a dump site or under abandoned argument further. the Andean regions of South America

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Flow map BM 01.03.09

PAPER

EUROPE

Atlantic Ocean

Mediterranean Sea

MAURITANIA Red Sea MALI

CAPE VERDE SENEGAL

THE GAMBIA NIGER

GUINEA-BISSAU

GUINEA BURKINA FASO BENIN SIERRA TOGO LEONE CÔTE Cocaine flows D’IVOIRE NIGERIA LIBERIA GHANA From Transit areas BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA, 1 000 km COLOMBIA, ECUADOR, PERU, BRAZIL

Figure 1: Cocaine trafficking routes through West Africa Source: UNODC Report on transnational organised crime in West Africa–October 2013

is procured by a consortium of South seizures indicates, however, that the both sides of the Atlantic to establish Evolution of measured apprehensions at several European countries' borders, 1999-2008 American and West African traffickers. (verticalthree scales most are dif ferents)regularly targeted countries routes through the Gambia that are worth Nigerian nationals appear to dominate are Nigeria, Ghana and Guinea-Bissau. billions of dollars.21 these groups. The cocaine is then MigrantsWhen apprehended the cocaine in Spain is destined for EuropeMigrants apprehended in Italy Migrants apprehended in Malta at sea border (thousands) (thousands) By far the greatest source ofand concern Africans apprehended is in Greece (thousands) transported to West Africa, predominantly 30 it is transported across the Sahara to the Strait of Gibraltar/ 50 the proximity of Senegal to 3Guinea-Bissau, Alborean Sea 20Canary Islands by ship as this permits larger volumes to 20 shores of Morocco. There are indications Malta 40 a country that has been characterised2.5 be carried and interception by anti-drug that individuals with dual or multiple Rest of Italy 10 2 30 as Africa’sSicily* ‘first narco-state’. AmongEgyptian thes agencies avoided with ease. Sao Paulo nationalities have become central to the in Greece 1.5 20 reasons for this uncharitable descriptionSomali and Salvador in Brazil are important management of the trafficking routes 1 in Greece

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 is the use of its territory to traffic drugs, 10 Sardinia departure points. Venezuela and the that link South America and West Africa. 0.5 mainly cocaine, from South America. A Caribbean islands of Martinique and the Their growing significance has emerged United Nations study concluded that ‘up

1999 2000 2001 to2002 22003 2002004 2005 pounds2006 2007 2008 of cocaine was2000 flown2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 By far the greatest source of concern is the proximity of*including Lampedusa Senegal to Guinea-Bissau, Africa’s ‘first narco-state’ into Guinea-Bissau every night, and more arrived by sea. As many as 50 drug lords Dutch Antilles are also significant staging since the turn of this century. One of the from Colombia are based in Guinea- points. The cocaine is landed on West nationalities held is invariably that of a Bissau, controlling the cocaine trade African shores from the ships direct or South American or Caribbean country. and bribing the military and politicians by using smaller craft, such as speed to protect it.’22 Of particular significance A typical scheme is to establish and boats and fishing vessels. The coastline is the influence of such trade on the register a business in a West African state. between Dakar and Saly is littered with functioning of the fledgling institutions of The fishing industry provides a convenient landing points for speed boats. state. It has been described as follows:23 cover since it affords the opportunity to Some of the cocaine, estimated to total bring in drugs and a trade with which ‘Through the drug trade, certain between 20 t and 50 t annually, eventually to explain any funds that may accrue senior officials, both in the military enters Dakar. The proportion of the trade to the operator. Some of the individuals and civilian sectors, have been able transiting through Senegal has not been implicated in drug trafficking through West to amass unprecedented wealth and quantified. Data on interceptions and Africa have used their legal presence on influence, making them less beholden

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8396 ISS Paper 260.indd 4 2014/08/149 9:47 AM to the constraints of their offices, other but hitherto often a matter of speculation, the importer will choose the best quality. institutions, or the political system. fully emerged in 2011. Nationals from 13 For subsequent orders a dishonest Their decisions are opportunistic, countries were implicated in international importer (such as a trafficker) will opt for based on personal interests, and drug trafficking arrests, namely Cape cheaper quality drugs, which may be arbitrary. Meanwhile, power shifts have Verdeans, South Africans, Spaniards, dangerous to health. The Dakar market become more frequent and violent Argentineans, Germans, Ivorians, contains medicines that are priced given the huge amounts of money Malians, Guineans, Gambians, Nigerians, across a broad range. Some drugs involved in the drug trade relative to Ghanaians, Bissau-Guineans and manufactured in China or India, though the economy. This transcends previous Senegalese. Criminal elements have also clinically effective, have destructive public patterns of corruption and patronage been found to hold positions in the most health consequences. For example, in Guinea-Bissau, which required a unlikely organisations. In 2009 the UN Diclofenac, which is known as Niokète in certain degree of inter-elite or cross- Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) drew the Wolof language (meaning painkiller) institutional support. Drug trafficking attention to the involvement of certain is linked to a high rate of cardiovascular has provided both the means and , Muslim religious leaders and problems that are being experienced in motive to sidestep the state, and it has teachers in West Africa, in the trafficking rural areas in Senegal. These medicines sparked its own fierce competition. It of drugs.24 are distributed in large quantities in Dakar has weakened the state as a whole, as institutions are co-opted.’ The smuggling and trafficking of counterfeit

The scenario described approximates pharmaceutical products, mostly medicines, what may also be called ‘criminal is of increasing concern governance’. Trafficking of and upcountry. Although Diclofenac is Isabella Atechhkeng Leke, a Cameroon pharmaceuticals facing heavy criticism in Europe, it is national working in Dakar as a cleaner, 25 The smuggling and trafficking of popular in rural Senegal. was arrested in the ‘Arrivals’ section of counterfeit pharmaceutical products, Dakar Airport by agents of the Central Trafficking in counterfeit medicines on mostly medicines, is of increasing Bureau for Combating Illicit Drug the parallel market occurs in three ways, concern in Dakar. Such medicines Trafficking (OCRTIS). In a urine test as follows: are distributed in large quantities in she tested positive for cocaine and a 1. The trafficker is supplied with the Dakar and the country as a whole. subsequent X-ray showed the presence medicines through official channels, It is necessary to obtain a marketing of 65 drug pellets in her abdomen. either from the Central Pharmacy with authorisation before any medicines may She claimed to have been transporting the complicity of insiders, or through be sold in Senegal. Authorisation is only the drugs for a fee of €3 000. On that a pharmacist operating his own granted once products have been tested occasion she was in transit from Brazil pharmacy. This was substantiated to Cameroon, the final destination of by a reference laboratory. However, when pharmacists who had ordered the cocaine. Other cases indicate the analysing a medical substance is very more medicines than they required growing role of women as couriers. expensive. Traffickers therefore smuggle were caught in neighbouring According to OCRTIS data, Senegalese counterfeit medicines from neighbouring during a government inspection. women initially only played secondary countries such as Mauritania, the Gambia Their obvious intention was to sell roles, usually working for a fee as and Mali. the surplus on the parallel market. couriers for major drug dealers. Since The illegal medicines are procured A pharmacist who enjoys a 50 per the 1980s, however, women have taken from Indian and Chinese laboratories cent profit can offer a 30 per cent on more prominent roles within large specialising in the manufacture of generic commission to his retail client. networks. The 1 943 women arrested drugs. The drug importer is offered a 2. The trafficker brings in pharmaceutical around the country for drug use and choice among different qualities of basic trafficking during the decade leading up products banned in Senegal from ingredients. For instance, oxytetracycline to 2010 demonstrates the magnitude of Mauritania. compound found in virtually all veterinary the problem in Senegal. medicines is available in different 3. The trafficker imports counterfeit The heavy involvement of foreign nationals qualities. Generally, for the first order to medicines in containers from European in Dakar’s drug industry, long suspected be subjected to authorisation testing, countries, mainly Italy.

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The profitable nature of trafficking in three segments, namely production, (occasionally using mules), by road and counterfeit pharmaceuticals explains transportation/distribution and selling. by sea. why there are all types of medicines on No evidence has yet been found for Many inmates in the women’s prisons the Ocas or ‘discount’ market of Touba the production of hard drugs in Dakar. of Liberté VI in Dakar and Rufisque at a range of prices. The market also However, completed investigations have been incarcerated for drug- supplies the Keur Serigne bi (home of the and legal case histories indicate related activities. Senegalese women ) market located in the centre that, in conjunction with their foreign are also serving prison sentences in of Dakar. This centre for illicit medicine counterparts, Senegalese traffickers are other countries. One of these is serving trafficking also houses a Koranic school. increasingly involved in the trafficking a prison term in Brazil’s Sao Paulo for Those who go Keur Serigne bi looking for of cocaine and heroin. Dakar is a carrying 18 kg of cocaine, while another cheap medicines have no idea about the destination as well as transit point for was arrested in the same country for having 5,6 kg of cocaine on her. No evidence has yet been found for the production Senegalese women carrying cocaine of hard drugs in Dakar have been arrested at Casablanca airport while in transit to Europe. A Senegalese risks they are taking. Law enforcement these drugs. The largest seizure to date woman married to a Romanian was agents have raided the market on yielded 2 475 kg of cocaine in June wanted in 2008 by the agents of the a number of occasions and seized 2012 from a deserted yacht just off the OCRTIS in a case involving 5 t of counterfeit pharmaceutical products, but coast of Dakar and a hideout near the cocaine. Round about the same time, middlemen continue to sell medicines city. In 2013, British customs seized another Senegalese woman was arrested openly to passersby nearby. a consignment containing 168 kg of with 8 t of hashish29. cocaine at Tilbury in transit from Dakar Keur Serigne bi is occupied by to Belgium. Drugs are also smuggled on board the traders belonging to the dynamic train between Senegal and Mali and on religious brotherhood, which It is evident that locals are involved trucks travelling between Mali and Dakar is prominent in the informal sector in the transportation of drugs from to collect goods from the Dakar port. The in Dakar. The brotherhood is known Dakar to Europe for a fee that is paid Bissau-Banjul-Dakar route carries some to command considerable political in euros or dollars. The methods in use of the cocaine from South America. and economic clout. Successive include the swallowing of balls of drugs, governments have played down the concealment in false-bottomed suitcases The only drug that appears to have a illicit sale of pharmaceuticals, apparently and transportation in liquid form.27 A strong consumer market in Dakar is not to alienate voters aligned to the relatively novel method is to conceal the cannabis. However, it should be noted brotherhood. In fact, former President drugs in imported commodities such as that cocaine and heroine, which used to Abdoulaye Wade declared during the electronic goods and even confectionery. be considered the drugs of the rich and inauguration of the Touba Sandaga The latter practice goes hand-in-hand privileged, are now being used by some of Dakar’s youth. Drug addicts are often Commercial Centre that he himself was with bogus marriages between young young, aged between 12 and 29. Drug- a primary informal trader. That statement Senegalese women and European related crime, according to data provided will have encouraged informal trade in all men. This strategy comprises several by the penal correction services, has its forms. Closing or pulling down Keur stages, which begins with a foreign reached an alarming level. Most crimes Serigne bi without the permission of the trafficker settling down in a residential tend to result either from drug abuse or Khalife Général de Touba might inflame neighbourhood of Dakar where he starts trafficking with the offences committed emotions in Dakar. The market houses a a small business selling products such including theft, assault, murder, rape, religious school.26 as cosmetics and electronic equipment physical and verbal violence, and imported from Europe or the USA. In the disturbance of the peace. The impact of trafficking second stage, he ‘marries’ a Senegalese on governance woman in order to integrate into the While there are insufficient indicators To highlight the impact of drug trafficking community. In the third stage, the couple of Dakar being a drug trafficking hub, on host environments, the initial step establish a company that imports goods anecdotal evidence indicates that there is to recognise the segmented nature that have drugs concealed in them.28 is an interest in using the city for the of the drug trade. It is structured into The drugs are finally smuggled out by air channelling of drugs to other parts of

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8396 ISS Paper 260.indd 6 2014/08/14 9:47 AM the world. The networks responsible for transparency and accountability in the At this stage of the study, evidence of the bringing drugs to Dakar are obviously funding of political parties and electoral influence of drug trafficking on policing keen to ensure the success of their candidates. As with legitimate business in Dakar is merely anecdotal, even ventures. This brings about an interaction entrepreneurs, drug traffickers consider it though high-ranking law enforcement with public institutions. Both legitimate in their interests to invest in politics. But officer Abdoulaye Niang, who headed and illicit business entrepreneurs good governance entails more than the up OCRTIS, was implicated in the theft tend to want to influence agencies responsible, accountable administration and re-sale of drugs seized by the police of government, political institutions of public affairs. It also connotes the during his tenure. He was suspended in and other businesses. In the case of fair and sustainable administration of July 2013 but, after a judicial process, organised crime, the intention is to resources.31 The Mo Ibrahim Index he has been cleared.35 In a subsequent incapacitate such institutions or, if that of African Governance includes the development, a police agent working at cannot be achieved, exploit or co-opt provision of sustainable economic the Central Bureau for Combating Illicit them and usurp their functions. The opportunity as a key pillar by which to Drug Trafficking (OCRTIS) was arrested aspiration to dominate or exploit is not measure governance.32 as he was about to recycle and sell one-sided, as some commentators have observed:30 At this stage of the study, evidence of the influence of

‘There are many examples where drug trafficking on policing is merely anecdotal political and other state institutions Drug trafficking requires the management cocaine pellets to a well known Nigerian have taken full advantage of their of the risks of interception and trafficker in Dakar. The suspect agent positions, often co-opting organised interruption by public authorities, if criminal groups as a means to meet accused some of his colleagues of necessary by corrupting the system. It their own political and financial complicity in the practice of selling seized may also require the establishment of interests. This political-criminal nexus drugs back to criminals. a foothold along smuggling routes by continues to deepen, assisted on A point occasionally raised is the providing amenities, goods and services the one hand by the dynamic and significance of visa-free access to West to communities or key individuals. There adaptive nature of criminal networks African nationals for drug trafficking are numerous examples of both forms of and their ability to operate and and other criminality in Dakar. There are risk management by illicit organisations manoeuvre between physical and perceptions that unrestricted access from other parts of Africa33 and from cyber space, and on the other by the has allowed foreign criminal networks to South America.34 waning legitimacy of state and political do business in Dakar without affording institutions across the globe.’ Drug trafficking cannot prosper without the authorities sufficient opportunity to The collusive arrangements involving the collusion of officials in strategic vet them. This argument may be valid crime networks and state functionaries positions, notable in the customs if one considers the ease with which in Guinea-Bissau have been profiled department. At the time of writing, a case some questionable international persons above. In a sense, it is understandable in Dakar involving the collusion of two are able to acquire the right to move that drug trafficking conducted via a customs officers with some businessmen freely across West Africa by gaining the poverty-stricken, non-consuming territory in the hotel industry and a Senegalese nationality of an ECOWAS member state. could bring about such a situation. An wrestling tycoon was pending. No case The Gambia and, it is believed, Guinea additional factor that could support a involving the complicity of a prominent Bissau as well, make it possible to obtain drift in that direction is the absence of politician has been reported. their passports at a cost of €100.

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Notes is appreciated because of its high quality and Commonly-used-painkiller-should-be- the amount of money it can generate. banned-over-heart-risk.html (accessed 16 1 See http://www.notre-planete.info/terre/outils/ November 2013) distances.php (accessed June, 2012). 14 Inter-ministerial Committee against Drugs 26 Perceived interference with religious leaders 2 Ibid. 15 Interviews conducted by Boubacar Diarisso in March and April 2013. and institutions is regarded as sensitive., as 3 See the ‘28th map of Senegal’s maritime illustrated when the charismatic Cheikh Bethio 16 Interview with Inspector Chimère Ba, OCRTIS coastline, from Cape Verde to the Island of Thioune was arrested on murder charges Gorée’ in ‘Adanson’s unpublished maps of 17 Interview with Commissioner Camara, Head in April 2012. See http://www.nytimes. Senegal’, Fig. 5, p. 98, National Archives of of Urban Security in Dakar. The statement com/2012/11/20/world/africa/murder-case- Senegal and France. was confirmed by Tamsir Diakhaté, Divisional against-cheikh-bethio-thioune-tests-senegals- 4 See Seck, Assane, West-African Metropolis, Commissioner and former Commissioner at new-government.html?_r=0 (accessed Mémoires de l’Institut Fondamental d’Afrique the Central Police Headquarters in Dakar, November 2012). Noire 85, IFAN-Dakar 1970, p. 285 and and by General Abdoulaye Niang of the 27 Information provided by the Senegalese onwards. Senegalese Gendarmerie. customs department. nd 5 Ndao, Momar, Supply services in Dakar from 18 See Dakar Assize Court Judgment No. 12, 2 28 Interview with Special Divisional 1914 to 1945, [city?]: L’Harmattan, 2009, session of 16 November 2009) Commissioner, Abdoulaye Niang, op. cit. p. 9; also see Rural-urban migration and 19 (See Assize Court Judgment No. 6 of 1 March General Niang was subsequently accused of Urbanisation in Senegal, Paris: Orstrom’s 2011, the State versus Douglas Quashie and complicity in drug trafficking. Records and Publications, 1977. Aïssatou Pathé Diallo). 29 Interview with the Director General of Police 6 See The Economic and Social Status of the 20 See the general discussion of routes through of Senegal, Special Divisional Commissioner , Dakar: National Agency for West Africa on the African Narco News blog, of Police and former Director of OCRTIS, Demography and Statistics, 2006 , p. 16; available at http://african-business.blogspot. Abdoulaye Niang. also see The Dakar Job Market: employment, com/2013/08/west-african-cocaine-routes- 30 Doherty (2001); Glenny (2009) Helgesen unemployment and working conditions in to-europe.html (accessed 30 September (2009) [please insert full references] Greater Dakar, Results of phase 1 of the 2013). survey 1-2-3, DPS, May 2004. 31 (Standing 2008) 21 See http://african-business.blogspot. 32 Mo Ibrahim Index of African Governance 7 Ibid., 18. com/2013/10/inside-1-billion-west-african- published annually and available at www. 8 Declaration by the Minister of Interior, General cocaine.html (accessed October, 2013). moibrahimfoundation.org. Pathé Seck, during the burning ceremony of 22 UN 2012 cited at http://african-business. seized drugs on the occasion of International 33 For example, the Cape flats in South Africa. blogspot.com/2013/10/inside-1-billion-west- Day against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking african-cocaine.html (accessed October, 34 Cano I, Violence and Organised Crime in on 26 June 2013. 2013). Brazil,2013, Berlin: Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 9 The Mbeubeusse dump receives 1 300 t of 179–188. 23 O’Regan D & Thompson, P. Advancing garbage daily from the Senegalese capital. 35 The arrest was prompted by statements stability and reconciliation in Guinea-Bissau: from a Nigerian drug trafficker that senior 10 The Gendarmerie of Rufisque and an lessons from Africa’s first narco-State. 2013. police officers had colluded in his activities interview with the Police Commissioner of Washington, DC: Africa Centre for Strategic and sold seized cocaine worth $100 Pikine, Ndiara Sène. Studies, 21. 000. See media report at http://www. 11 Inter-ministerial Committee against Drugs. 24 See http://www.visiobooks.com/news/ africareview.com/News/Senegal-police- 12 Interview with the police. Societe/ in-a-pickle-over-link-with-Nigerian-drug- 13 Ganila is the trade mark of a high quality ‘bazin 25 See, for instance, http://www.telegraph. lord/-/979180/1918744/-/lio722/-/index.html riche’ fabric. The cannabis of the same name co.uk/health/healthnews/9866239/ (accessed July 18, 2013)

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8396 ISS Paper 260.indd 8 2014/08/14 9:47 AM SUBSCRIPTIONS TO ISS PUBLICATIONS

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About the authors ISS Pretoria Boubacar Diarisso is a consultant in governance and public administration. Block C, Brooklyn Court, 361 Veale Street He contributed to the development of Senegal’s Strategy Paper on New Muckleneuk, Governance, led by the Ministry of the Promotion of Good Governance, Pretoria, South Africa and spent nearly two years in charge of the USAID Peace and Governance Tel: +27 12 346 9500 Programme in Senegal. He conducted extensive research on public Fax: +27 12 460 0998 administration as part of a PhD in political science at the University of Dakar. [email protected]

Charles Goredema is a senior research consultant working on various ISS Addis Ababa projects managed by the ISS and the African Development Bank. His focal 5th Floor, Get House areas are transnational economic crime, governance and illicit financial flows. Building, Africa Avenue, A lawyer by training, Charles’ career includes the prosecution of economic Addis Ababa, Ethiopia crime (Zimbabwe), lecturing courses in Criminal Justice (Zimbabwe and Tel: +251 11 515 6320 South Africa) and managing research projects focusing on organised crime Fax: +251 11 515 6449 [email protected] (South Africa). ISS Dakar 4th Floor, Immeuble Atryum About the ISS Route de , Dakar, Senegal The Institute for Security Studies is an African organisation that aims Tel: +221 33 860 3304/42 to enhance human security on the continent. It does independent and Fax: +221 33 860 3343 authoritative research, provides expert policy analysis and advice, and [email protected] delivers practical training and technical assistance. ISS Nairobi Braeside Gardens, off Muthangari Road Acknowledgements Lavington, Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 20 266 7208 IDRC CRDI Fax: +254 20 266 7198 International Development Research Centre [email protected] Centre de recherches pour le développement international This paper was made possible with support from the International Development Research Centre. The ISS is grateful for support from the following members of the ISS Partnership Forum: the governments of www.issafrica.org Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the USA.

© 2014, Institute for Security Studies ISS Paper No 260 Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies, and no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission, in writing, of both the authors and the publishers. The opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the ISS, its trustees, members of the Advisory Council or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal capacity.

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