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Ritual Management of Salmonid Fish Resources in California

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Ritual Management of Salmonid Fish Resources in California UC Merced The Journal of California Anthropology Title Ritual Management of Salmonid Fish Resources in California Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0rg7c5vf Journal The Journal of California Anthropology, 4(1) Authors Swezey, Sean L Heizer, Robert F Publication Date 1977-07-01 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Scaffold for A-frame net fbhing. Karok man pladn( net Into water. Ca. 1900. After Krocber and Barrett (1962:Plate 2). Courtesy of the Lowie Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. Ritual Management of Salmonid Fish Resources in California SEAN L. SWEZEY ROBERT F. HEIZER THNOGRAPHERS at times are more nets, toggle harpoons, and application of bo­ Econcerned with reporting data than tanical fish poisons. interpreting them. As a result, ethnographies Whereas the material aspects of fishery often have the appearance of being little more technology form a basic and informative part than collections of facts organized by a gener­ of the ethnographic record, the potential im­ ally standardized topical outline. Synoptic portance of specialized ritual procedures surveys may result from an effort to synthesize undertaken at the inception of anadromous a particular trait, custom, or complex, and fish runs has generally been overlooked. from these there often results a deeper insight Through much of Northern California, ritual into the function and purpose of what, in injunctions and social control mechanisms unanalyzed form, seem to be cultural prac­ were instituted by specific "ritual specialists" tices which are illogical or meaningless. We (formulists, shamans, and moiety chiefs) at the attempt here to review native ritual, belief, and outset of the first major seasonal migrations of ceremony connected with anadromous fish in salmon. In Northwestern California, ritual the northern part of the state in the effort to specialists also directed the construction and determine what logical and functional signifi­ use of large, fixed weirs designed to intercept cance these had in terms of Native California the upstream movements of fish. life and survival. A synthesis of ethnographic accounts of The importance of anadromous fish first salmon ritual reveals a remarkable simi­ resources to aboriginal societies inhabiting the larity of form and function throughout Native major freshwater river drainages of Northern California, particularly with respect to the California is well-documented in the ethno­ seasonal occurrence of these rites and the graphic literature. Hewes (1942, 1947), Rost- central regulatory role assumed by various lund (1952), and Kroeber and Barrett (1960) ritually empowered personalities.' have summarized these data in studies aimed at The present study entails a brief exami­ defining the cultural and geographic distri­ nation of the functional interaction between bution of material subsistence techniques ritual and certain ecological aspects of ana­ applied to the seasonal movements of im­ dromous fisheries, including seasonality, peri­ portant migratory fish species. Devices and odicity of migratory fish behavior, and harvest techniques which allowed for efficient harvest potential. The data can be topically divided of anadromous fish runs included fish weirs, into two broad categories: basketry traps, dip, thrust, arc, and A-frame (1) The anadromous fish resource in abo- 8 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY riginal California: What major anadromous subsistence economies in northern Native Cali­ fish species were important to aboriginal ec­ fornia. Of the five species of Pacific salmon in onomies? When did the seasonal influx of the genus Oncorhynchus, only two are abun­ important fish species occur? In what fresh­ dant in the freshwater systems of Northern water systems did fish annually run in suf­ California, and these species undoubtedly ficient quantity and regularity to exist as a dominated aboriginal fish harvests. The king major food resource? What distinctive charac­ or Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawyts- teristics of the annual spawning runs made cha, and the silver or coho salmon, O. kisutch, them an important "ecological event" to abo­ regularly migrate and spawn in California riginal resource economies and allowed them rivers at distinct seasonal intervals.^ O. tscha- to be efficiently harvested with aboriginal wytscha is normally more prevalent in larger technology? rivers, while O. kisutch does not migrate as far (2) Ritual regulation of fishing activities: upstream and frequents smaller streams What was the basic form of the "first salmon" (Shapalov and Taft 1954:57, 264). In addition or other anadromous fish ritual in Native to these salmon species, large spawning popu­ CaUf ornia and at what time of the year was it lations of steelhead or rainbow trout, Salmo observed? How was this rite culturally and gairdnerii, are seasonally common in nearly all geographically distributed? What was the role coastal streams of California. Except in those of specific ritualists in initiating and super­ areas near large freshwater lakes, the greater vising "first salmon" observances? What part of the aboriginal fishing effort was di­ aspects of these ritual functions were overtly rected toward these three anadromous taxa. managerial, conservational, or organizational Various environmental factors and species in effect? Did these prescribed ritual behaviors characteristics determine the distribution, encourage efficient harvest and maintenance seasonal behavior, and potential availability of of anadromous fish resources? salmon and steelhead in CaUfornia. The ana­ The hypothesis that successful adaptation dromous adaptation involves the migration of of aboriginal populations to riverine resources maturing adults from the sea to freshwater in California, in this case the seasonal streams and their smaller tributaries. After spawning runs, may have included not only migration upstream to the spawning grounds technological strategies but ritual procedures at the headwaters of the larger streams, eggs designed to manage and organize the harvest are deposited in suitable shallow gravel beds. of the resource remains largely theoretical due The mature salmon then die. The eggs hatch to the qualitative nature of the ethnographic during the following months and the "fry" information. However, the widespread oc­ remain in freshwater for a variable length of currence and basic similarity of large-scale fish time and then migrate to the sea where they rituals indicates similar cultural responses to develop to maturity over a period of several environmental pressures presented by the years. Upon maturation the adults return to major anadromous fisheries in aboriginal Cali­ the freshwater systems (often the same "parent fornia. streams") where they spawn and die, thus completing the migratory cycle. The natural maintenance of this cycle depends upon free THE ANADROMOUS FISH RESOURCES access to both freshwater spawning grounds IN ABORIGINAL CALIFORNIA and the sea (determined by stream depth and flow volume), lowered headwater tempera­ As a seasonally concentrated and annually tures suitable for spawning and early develop­ available food resource, freshwater anadro­ ment, and clean, unobstructed gravel beds mous fish were an important part of aboriginal RITUAL MANAGEMENT OF SALMONID FISH RESOURCES which provide a free flow of clear, well- In 1850 in this river during the running aerated water for incubation (Davidson and season, salmon were so plentiful, accord­ Hutchinson 1933:673; Rostlund 1952:15). ing to the reports of the early settlers, that Across California, these conditions normally in fording the stream it was with difficulty occur in the early fall. However, in several that they could induce their horses to make river systems, notably the Smith, Klamath, the attempt, on account of the river being and Sacramento-San Joaquin, headwaters suf­ alive with the finny tribe [quoted by Snyder ficiently cold for spawning activity occur not 1931:19]. only during the normal autumnal temperature Stephen Powers reported: drop, but also during the spring, when early snowmelt from surrounding mountain ranges There are two runs of salmon in the creates headwater temperatures and stream Klamath: one in the spring and one in the level appropriate for spawning activity of the autumn, of which the former is the better, the fish being then smaller and sweeter king salmon (Rostlund 1952:19-20). Thus, in [1872:533]. aboriginal California, the king and silver salmon both entered larger stream systems in A summer or fall migration of king salmon the latter half of the year, and the king salmon occurs in the same rivers as the spring run, and also entered in the early spring, creating an there were runs into the smaller tributaries of important spring-fall cycle of runs. the Klamath (such as the Salmon, Scott, and Oncorhynchus tschawytscha originally rang­ Shasta) and the coastal streams south of the ed as an important resource as far south as Klamath, including the Mad, Eel, Bear, and Monterey Bay on the coast and the San Mattole rivers, and Redwood Creek. There is Joaquin River and it main tributaries inland, some historical evidence which suggests that with individual fish found as far south as the an additional, winter run of king salmon may Ventura River (Evermann and Clark 1931:48). have occurred in the Sacramento River (Rost­ It entered the Smith, Klamath, Trinity, and lund 1952:22). Sacramento-San Joaquin systems (including A fall or
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