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The Valley Nisenan

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KROEBER .CONTENTS PAGE The people and their study........................ 253 Geography and settlements.................... 255 Technology and subsistence.....................259 Society.................... 264 Kuksu cult.................... 266 Other religious ceremonies.................... 272 Shamanism : 273 Myths and tales........................ 275 Place and relations of the culture........................ 278 Appendix: Language........................ 280 Phonetics........................ 280 Vocabulary........................ 282 Suffixes ... 290 THE PEOPLE AND THEIR STUDY The Nisenan are the Southern Maidu. Dixon divided the Maidu into three groups on the basis of speech: Northeastern, Northwestern, and Southern, the area occupied by the latter being about as large as that of the first two together. The two northerly divisions Dixon described monographically in his Northern Maidu;' but on the south- ern group he has only scattering references in this and other papers.2 Other accounts of the Nisenan are by Stephen Powers ;3 by Faye, Notes on the Southern Maidu ;4 and by Gifford, Southern Maidu Religious Ceremonies.5 These relate almost wholly to the hill Nisenan. The present account is of the valley Nisenan. As might be expected, culture differed considerably in the plains of -the Sacra- mento valley and the foothills of the Sierra Nevada. This is equally 1Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 17:119-346, 1906. 2 Cited ibid., 122. 3 Tribes of California, 313-345, 1877 (chs. 31--32, The Nishinam). 4 This series, 20:35-53, 1923. 5 Am. Anthr., n.s., 29:214-257, 1927. 254 University of California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethn. [Vol. 24 true of the Nisenan and of the Northwestern Maidu.6 To the north, Wintun and Yana show a corresponding differentiation according to valley and hill habitat; and to the south, Yokuts and Miwok. In the case of the Maidu-Nisenan, the relative uniformity of speech7 has led to a tendency to think -of the group as a unit, irrespective of habitat; though Dixon's account clearly shows the degree of difference accord- ing to elevation. Among the Nisenan, for instance, the valley people had and the hill people did not have a true religious organization or secret society of Kuksu type.8 Strictly, Nisenan is not a specific tribal or group name. The word means merely people or Indian. It is used, in default of a native ethnic name, in analogy with Maidu, Miwok, Yokuts, Wintun, Yana, Yahi, which also, in the usage of the people themselves, only denote "persons."9 The Nisenan differ from the proper or Northern Maidu much as the Patwin ("Southeastern and Southwestern Wintun") differ from the Wintun-Wintu.10 The cultural distinctness tends to be obscured by the use of designations expressing only a generic speech kinship, much as if we insisted on calling the Assiniboin, Northern Sioux, or the Comanche, Southeastern Shoshone. Nisenan, in the form Nishinam, was already used by Powers." The data in this report are all from Tom Cleanso, an Indian of perhaps 70, living near Sacramento. His father was born at Pushune or Puzhune (Pujune), near the mouth of the American river, now within the city limits of Sacramento. His mother was from Yukulme, a valley Nisenan village, on lower Feather river, where the dialect differed somewhat from that of Pushune. Tom himself was born and raised at Kadema, a village 7 or 8 miles up the American river. He has been blind since childhood, is now deaf in one ear and hard of hearing in the other, and has lost his upper front teeth; but proved a cooperative and intelligent informant within the limits imposed by his physical infirmities and a consequent habitual apathy. He was generally quite clear where his knowledge ended and belief or ignor- 6 The Northeastern Maidu live in high valleys, snowed-in in winter, and are a separate people, best described as Mountain Maidu. 7 And the much faster disappearance of the valley Indians, with consequent loss of the old culture except as a memory. 8 Gifford, 257; Powers, 326. 9 "Maidu," homo in Maidu, occurs in Nisenan as maidiik, but meaning vir., not homo. 10 Similarly, the Plains Miwok might be set off from the hill Miwok as the Miuko, following Merriam's Meuko, Mewko. 11 The final -m is almost certainly an error for -n, even in the hill dialects. 1929] Kroeber: The Valley Nisenan 255 ance began. He lives part of each year with an older half-sister whose physical faculties are less impaired, and they still sometimes speak their natal language to each other; but, both in 1923 to myself and in 1929 to Gifford, she proved an unwilling and practically im- possible informant. Tom's enforced non-participation in the unsettled and scarcely successful adaptation of his relatives to civilized life has left him a relatively unclouded Indian point of view to fall back upon. Tom Cleanso was first interviewed by Dr. A. H. Gayton in 1925. She obtained from him a series of notes, of which Gifford published a few relating to dances. From January 27 to February 7, 1929, Tom was at the University and at the State Industrial Home for the Blind in Oakland, through the courtesy of whose administration the problem of his care was happily solved. Dr. C. Daryll Forde, Commonwealth Fellow, and I worked with Tom during this period. Dr. Gayton and Dr. Forde having generously put their notes at my disposal, these data have been incorporated in the following account. GEOGRAPHY AND SETTLEMENTS The range of the informant 's ethnogeographical knowledge is probably significant of ancient ethnic affiliations and cultural rela- tionships. He knew the villages of his own group on Sacramento and American rivers, but was vague as to such as there may have been off these streams.
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