CONFLICT RESOLUTION',VOLUMiE I, N[UMBER 1, 1957

Project for a world intelligence center

QUINCY WRIGHT CarnegieEndowment for International Peace

1. Introduction primarily with creating a new atmosphere -Since H-bomb has become a definite of mutual confidence between the Western possibility, all thinking people have recog. and Soviet blocs, which, it was hoped, nized that the proper conduct of interna- would make subsequent negotiations on tional relations is of prime importance to specific topics fruitful. The participants in national welfare and, indeed, to the survival this conference expressed conviction that of the human race. President Eisenhower such a new atmosphere had been created. has said: "There is no longer any alterna- Many commentators agreed with them at tive to peace," and nine eminent scientists, the time. It was said, however, that, with led by Bertrand Russell and Albert Ein- the subsequent foreign ministers conference, stein, have declared: "All, equally, are in the atmosphere deteriorated. peril, and, if the peril is understood, there The questions may'be asked: What does is hope that they may collectively avert it." one mean by a "better atmosphere" in inter- The conference at the summit which met national relations? What is the evidence at Geneva in July, 1955, was concerned establishing it? How much did the atmos-

315 94 CURRENT RESEARCH phere improve? These questions are at the 2. The Project heart of , and the It is proposed to establish a center for sound conduct of foreign policy depends collecting and analyzing current informa- upon the answers. But if answers are at- tion on international relations 'and to pre- tempted, they are usually vague and sub- sent this material in narrative, statistical, jective. and graphical form in an annual publication The atmosphere of international rela- which might be called "The World Intelli- tions, like the weather, is a complex of gence Yearbook." The word "intelligence" many factors, but students of international carries the dual meaning of information, as relations have not been so successful as in military intelligence, and of rational ac- meteorologists in analyzing these factors tion in contrast to action directed by igno- and ascertaining their relations. The evi- rance, emotion, or prejudice. 'M dence for change is largely the subjective The purpose of such a publication would reaction of statesmen who meet one an- be to inform and enlighten the public by other or the subjective feeling of corre- presenting and analyzing factual material spondents and commentators conveyed to indicating the changing atmosphere of the public. International relations has no world opinion, the changing condition of thermometers, barometers, humidity meas- world politics, and the alternatives available urers, charts of wind velocity, or records of and the probable consequences of adopting precipitation, such as provide evidence of each in the decisions which have to be the physical atmosphere superior to that made by governments and international or- provided by the individual's feeling of heat, ganizations. Such a publication should also cold, and humidity and his observations of be of value to national governments and in- clouds, rain, and wind. People assume that ternational organizations themselves, al- the atmosphere of international relations is though such agencies normally have sources at any moment getting better or worse with of information and competent analysts more or less rapidity, but few would at- which, on the surface, would appear to be tempt to present accurate measurements of superior to those available to the proposed these changes from day to day. center. In 1800 Lamarck, working with Laplace A private center, however, would have a and Lavoisier, began publication of the number of advantages in informing both series of "Annuaire m6t6orologiques," and the public and the governments. It would this was the pioneer of weather mapping. A not be limited by the necessity to support periodical mapping of the atmosphere of in- an established policy, as are government ternational relations in the different areas of agencies. It could select a staff which the world, indicating the degree of change, would be less influenced by the prejudices would be of great value both in the under- of party, nation, and local community than standing of international relations by are political agencies. It could be less in- peoples and in the practical conduct of for- hibited in publication and research than are eign policy by governments. the staffs of international organizations. The It is believed that the scientific study of limitations of authority and the dependence international relations has advanced to a for support upon many governments impose point making practicable the initiation of extreme prudence on the activities of such such a mapping and its presentation in an organizations, especially in studying such annual publication. subjects as the atmosphere and tensions of I

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316 .CURRENT RESEARCH 95

international relations. Furthermore, gov- World War II, had, as its first purpose, "To ernmental agencies, whether national or in- develop the world community's awareness ternational, must confine themselves to of itself so that eventually a world order studies immediately relevant to their pri- may be evolved in which races, nations and mary function of making decisions. They cultural associations may be harmonized, cannot examine the entire field of interna- thus reducing strife without eliminating tional relations in a scientific spirit as could variety." a private center. The World Intelligence Yearbook should Because of these advantages, an endowed help to make the world community aware private agency can be in a better position of itself. than official agencies to present objective The "world commmunity" is a vast, com- and impartial information on international plicated, and varied group, manifesting as relations and to analyze it in such a way as much of conflict as of co-operation. It is a to enlighten world public opinion. The ca- community only in the sense that there is pacity to do so would depend, of course, some communication among its important upon the qualifications of the personnel of groups and that, consequently, the action the center. of each is influenced to some extent by its There are many yearbooks, such as the opinion of the others. These opinions are Annual Register, the Statesmen Yearbook, often at variance with the facts, because of the United Nations Yearbook, the United the inadequate "intelligence" and the biases Nations Statistical Yearbook, the United Na- of governments and peoples. While the in- tions Demographic Yearbook, the United formation and analyses available to the gov- Nations World Economic Report, and the ernments are usually better than those United Nations Human Rights Yearbook. available to the people, it often happens These provide much useful information, that in democracies governments cannot uti- but, if political, it is usually merely descrip- lize their better "intelligence" because the I tive and not quantitative. If quantitative, it people insist on policies which correspond I is usually economic or social but not polit- with what they believe. The major problem 1 ical. Undoubtedly, much of the quantita- is, therefore, to make the beliefs of people tive information of the latter type has great correspond more closely to reality, that is, political significance, but this is usually not to make the world community more aware brought to the reader's attention. What is of itself. needed is a quantification of political and Progress in the solution of this problem psychological conditions and trends. The involves (1) a more adequate theory of in- significant variables contributing to the in- ternational relations, to indicate which of all ternational atmosphere should be identi- the myriad events and conditions of the 600a1V-9-0B~1Ei~~j1~surcysyi44*6& Gasb fied and their changes presented. A com- rapidly changing world are most important S^o^«- petently prepared "World Intelligence to know; (2) continuous investigation, to SO_ Yearbook" would seem to fill a definite ascertain these facts; and (3) continuous need. publication, to present them in such a way that they can be read and their significance 3. Importance easily understood in the busy life of deci- The World Citizen's Association, which sion-making officials and of the average citi- functioned for a decade before and after zen.

317 96 CURRENT RESEARCl

4. Theoretical Foundations done much in the field. The significance of During the past generation great ad- communication, opinions, and attitudes vances have been made toward a theory of upon policy in the international field is be- international relations capable of empirical coming better understood, and a theory of and quantitative verification. A study of international relations has developed sufi- war carried on at the ciently to provide a basis for selecting events from 1926 to 1942 and resulting in two and plotting trends significant for interna. published volumes entitled A Study of War tional relations. Changing conditions of in- (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, dividual and group attention, attitude, and 1942) did a pioneering work in this field. opinion; of national policy and power; and The Harris Institute publications, especially of international atmosphere, distances, and that entitled The World Community (Chi- tensions appear to be particularly important. cago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), 5. Contents of the Yearbook have presented mature opinions on the sub- ject from anthropologists, psychologists, A World Intelligence Yearbook would, of economists, political scientists, international course, include much concrete information lawyers, and others. Volumes by Quincy of a descriptive or historical character, but Wright entitled Problems of Stability and it would also seek to combine great quanti- Progress in International Relations (Berke- ties of information in easily read graphs, ley: University of Califorpia Press, 1954) diagrams, and maps. Has tension between and The Study of International Relations the and the Soviet Union in- (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, creased or decreased during the past year, 1955) bring together much of the theory in and how much? Has the North Atlantic this field. has made major Treaty Organization become more or less contributions through his World Politics and solid during the last year, and how much? Personal Insecurity (New York: McGraw- Are internal tensions in Germany increasing Hill Book Co., 1935) and in several projects or decreasing, and how much? What is the which he has inspired: The Policy Sciences: relative attention given by the American Recent Developments in Scope and Method people to domestic affairs and to interna- (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, tional affairs? To Great Britain? To Russia? 1951); The Language of Politics: Studies in To defense? To conciliation? Has French Quantitative Semantics (New York: Stew- opinion moved to the right or left in the art, 1949), and in the "RADIR Studies,' past year, and how much? Has American opinion become more or less favorable which he initiated with a paper entitled The to Communist China during World Revolution of Our Time: A Frame- the past year, and how much? What is the relative power work for Basic Policy Research (Stanford, posi- tion of the United States and the Soviet Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1951). Union? What changes have taken place in Daniel Lerner, Ithiel de Sola Pool, Karl this position in reference to military forces? Deutsch, and Norbert Wiener are making To national morale? To allies? To popula- similar studies at the Communications Insti- tion? To industrial plants? What changes in tute at Massachusetts Institute of Technol- technological, strategic, psychological, and ogy. Richard Snyder, Richard Van Wagen- other aspects of distances have taken place en, and Frederick Dunn, at the Institute of between the principal powers? What effect International Studies at Princeton, have also did the summit conference of July, 1955, 1

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME I NUMBER 1 c.0d4 O «O I C.oh. ^e.-r ,

318 CURRENT RESEARCH 97

have on the atmosphere of international re- through experience of their men in the field lations? in various parts of the world. Some of these questions will be extremely University centers and institutes for the 1~ difficult to answer, even using the best study of international relations at Harvard, techniques and data available. Many could Yale, Massachusetts Institute of Technol- be answered at least better than they are ogy, Princeton, Columbia, Chicago, Brook- answered through subjective speculation by ings, Michigan, and other institutions might newspapers, commentators, and politicians. co-operate. A systematic survey of the changing compo- sition of elites; of the changing attention to 7. Organization symbols of states, procedures, and policies; The center would be managed by a com- of the changing direction, intensity, ho- mittee, perhaps five persons, whose duties mogeneity, and stability of public opinion would be general supervision and control of in the various countries in reference to cer- the fund. The director would be immediate- tain of these symbols; of the trends of ten- ly responsible for management and would sions, policies, distributions of power, de- control the staff. A consultative committee, cisions, and incidents, such as would be including persons from various parts of the presented in the Intelligence Yearbook, world, would also be desirable. Such a com- would help to answer them. mittee might be enlarged to twenty or thirty persons. 6. Method f The center would have a small staff utiliz- 8. Publication _ ing library material and analyzing con- It would probably be desirable to devote temporary sources of information. It would the first year of the institute to consultation not seek to obtain confidential materials. and preparation of test materials for criti- Expert consultation would be necessary cism, postponing the first publication until to determine the significance, methods, and the end of the second year. After that, the reliability of proposed measurements. The Yearbook should appear annually at a fixed data would be assembled from the press, date. opinion polls, government and United Na- tions documents, and other sources of infor- 9. Budget mation available in libraries, with some sup- Details concerning a budget for a trial plementation by consultation with on-the- period of five years are being worked out. A spot agents. he Institute of Contemporary minimum budget might run between fifty World Asais (Walter Rogers) and the and sixty thousand dollars per year. American University Field Service (Phil- It is hoped that eventually the Yearbook lips Talbot) might assist in criticizing con- would be made self-sustaining. A commer- clusions arrived at from library studies cial publisher might be interested. J

319 The value for conflict resolution of a general discipline of international relations

QUINCY WRIGHT Carnegie Endowment for InternationalPeace

Forms and Causes of Conflict nomic, political, social, and ideological sys- "Conflict" is a term of broad connotation tems becomes increasingly difficult to main- with applications in the physical, biological, tain as the world shrinks and as the rate of philosophical, and social worlds. Conflicts shrinkage accelerates. Such inconsistencies of material bodies and of animals of the seen to demand resolution, and efforts at same or different species, as well as con- resolution breed conflicts, which in turn in- flicts of ideological, philosophical, or reli- crease tension and the probability of war, gious systems, may al provide approaches especially if efforts are made to effect such to the study of conflict between persons or resolution as rapidly as the accelerating rate social groups. The latter type of conflict, of historic change seems to make necessary however, is the central interest in the study (16). of "Conflict Resolution"; and, of all such Social conflict has been attributed to the conflicts, international conflict, often result- effort of social entities to maintain autono- ing in war, is (1) the most dangerous to my. This self-centeredness or hybris, seek- mankind; (2) the most typical of social ing to bend the world to the purposes of conflicts; (3) the most comprehensive of all the individual or group, thereby identifying other forms of conflict; and (4) the most those purposes with the will of God, has been called by Toynbee the "cardinal sin," thoroughly examined in the literature deal- L I ing with conflict. though he recognizes that the struggle for \1 That international conflict in the age of survival, of which it is an implication, is the nuclear fission and fusion is dangerous to essence of life itself (11). ex- all men and to all societies few will question. plains this source of social conflict as the War has always been a peril to human hap- practice of giving weight to external com- piness, though it has sometimes facilitated munications only after they have been ap- progress. Today general war with modem praised by the internal communications sys- instruments would be a catastrophe with few, if any, mitigations.1 There can be little 1 President Eisenhower said in 1955: "There doubt of the tendency of international con- is no longer any alternative to peace"; and nine flict to generate war and, as Clausewitz eminent scientists led by Bertrand Russell and pointed out, for to spread and to be- Albert Einstein declared in the same year: "All equally are in peril, and, if the peril Is under- come absolute or total (3, 15, 16). The stood, there is hope that they may collectively peaceful coexistence of inconsistent eco- avert it."

320 4 QUINCY WRIGHT tern, relating the values and drives which all social conflict, it can be most easily stud- constitute the individuality ofthe organis ied in international conflicts, both because or society. In such appraisal, he writes, there the sovereign states are, par excellence, the jis "a propensity to prefer self-referepce sym- social entities seeking autonomy (13) and bols to information from the outside world" because in the sovereign state the decision- (5), often resulting in disaster for the entity 2 making process is most open to observation, (15). Yet, without some such preference, at least if the government is constitutional there is no autonomy and no life. The an- and democratic. tinomy between the effort to do what is Conflict, as noted, may be physical, bio- right according to the conscience of the logical, or philosophical, as well as social. ruler, the culture of the society, the law of International conflicts may exhibit all these the state, or the interests of the people and characteristics. War is fought on the mili- to do what is necessary according to infor- tary, economic, propaganda, legal, and po- mation available concerning the power and litical fronts. Armies, like physical entities policies of other states, the opinions of other moving toward one another, seek to occupy societies, the universal law of nations, or the the same place at the same time, each at- general interests of mankind fills the "real- tempting to annihilate or capture the other. ist" school of international politics3 with Generals, like game players, seek to devise profound pessimism. To do what is right and carry out strategies which will outcal- according to internal symbols, dispositions, culate the enemy's responses with a mini- and communications-that is, to preserve mum of cost and risk of defeat and a maxi- autonomy, independence, or sovereignty- mum probability of victory. Governments may be to commit suicide. Deutsch notes seek to control economic goods and services that religious insight suggests a modera- in order to starve or bankrupt the enemy tion of autonomy and self-interest by con- and to provide essential materials for them- sideration of the interests of others and of selves. They communicate symbols to the the society of which all are members, exem- home population, to neutrals, and to ene- plifying the virtues of humility, faith, rever- mies, each government seeking to convince ence, and love, but only, according to Toyn- all that its ideals, goals, and values are right bee, at the expense of suffering, thus saving and the enemy's wrong and that in any case 4 one's life by losing it (5, 11). it is going to win and the enemy to lose. On Though autonomy may be at the heart of the legal front, each government argues in the court of world opinion the rightness and 2Lasswell (in 8) writes: "Social conflict re- justice of its cause and conduct, and the vi- sults from the conscious pursuit of exclusive olations of by the enemy. values." On the political front, diplomats of each 3 Oswald Such as Machiavelli, Schopenhauer, side seek to induce neutral governments to Spengler, Reinhold Nicbuhr, Hans Morgenthau. be benevolent or to participate on their side 4 David Riesman has contrasted the "inner di- rection" of conscience with the "other direc- and to induce the enemy to abandon its tion" of public opinion (10), the latter tend- futile efforts. Thus analogies from every ing to develop as social change becomes rapid. form of conflict-party politics, industrial For evidence that foreign policy tends to respond strife, litigation, revolution, insurrection, more to external pressures upon, than to the in- ternal constitution of, states, as the world shrinks, prize fights, football, and chess-can throw see reference 15. light on the subject of international conflict.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLUME I NUMBER 1

321 A GENERAL DISCIPLINE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 5

The study of war can contribute to the recognized goals, such as those stated in the study of all forms of conflict (15, 16). United Nations Charter and the Universal From the point of view of developing a Declaration of Human Rights. It would dif- science of conflict resolution, international fer from the particular international disci- conflict is especially important because it plines in that it would not limit itself to a has been so widely studied. A unified disci- particular method, to a particular body of pline of international relations is only be- data, or to the needs of a particular profes- ginning to emerge, but its components-in- sion. Such a comprehensive discipline, both ternational politics and diplomacy, interna- universal and interdisciplinary, in order to tional law, international organization, inter- avoid the character of an encyclopedia or of national economics, the art of war, interna- a diffuse eclecticism, would, however, have tional communications and propaganda, and to be developed from a definite point of international education-are well-established view or frame of reference for organizing isciplines, each with a voluminous litera- data and methods. That point of view might ture which gives special emphasis to the be theoretical, seeking a conceptualized de- causes and methods of solution of interna- scription and history of international rela- rtional conflicts. The disciplines of political tions by locating governments and peoples geography, political demography, interna- in a multidimensional field defined by geo- tional ethics, and the technology, sociology, graphic and analytical co-ordinates. 1 and psychology of international relations are Scrutiny of the location of states in the' less centered on the problem of conflict; but geographic field, with indication of the each seeks to conceptualize the field of in- transportation and communication distances ternational relations utilizing a particular and the barriers, natural and artificial, be- body of data, so that both conflict and co- tween them, would suggest the relative fre- operation among states can be better under- quencies of controversy and the relative vulnerabilities to attack and, consequently, stood (18). I the probability of conflict to be expected The extensiveness of this literature and its within different pairs of states. The relative division into disciplines, each developing a permanence of boundaries in past history; special point of view or concentrating upon the abundance of trade across them; the dis- a particular type of data, make synthesis a tribution of resources and population and of desideratum for the study of conflict resolu- forms of culture, economy, and polity at a tion, because that subject cuts across all the given moment could also be indicated, sug- "r. r-- _ Sta- «»r-.. -- - A C -rlrta* -d disciplines (18). riulf, UIe iiaLUitl UUuIuaitI UVL bLLV.c and the probability of conflict through at- A Discipline of International tempts to modify "unnatural" boundaries. Relations The directions of movement in time in the A unified discipline of international rela- field could be illustrated by the study of tions would differ from the study of the de- trends of change in these variables (18). cision-making process or the foreign policy The relations among the strategic, ideologi- of particular states in that it would be uni- al, political, psychological, and other as- versal in scope. It would seek to formulate pects of "distance" between states and propositions of predictive value for the among rates of change in these variables world as a whole and propositions of control might, with proper analysis, suggest with value useful for realizing the most widely greater precision the probability of co-op-

322 G QUINCY WRIGHT eration or conflict between the members of reconciliation of individual freedom, nation- each pair of states (15). al independence, and social order, which has By locating states in an analytical field been the dominant problem of national gov- defined by co-ordinates, each indicating an ernments, is no less a problem when trans- aspect of capability or of value, the political ported to the international order. Rising orientation and long-run goals of states could prosperity tends to augment disparities be- be indicated (18). The relation between the tween the rich and the poor in each state, location of the government, the constitution, and also between rich states and poor states, the culture, and the people of each state in tending, in practice, toward inequality of the field might suggest the probable direc- opportunity. The problem, in dealing with tion of movement through time of each state these values, is therefore one of balance in the field, on the assumption that in de- rather than of establishing and maintaining mocracies the opinion of the people draws a hierarchy of means and ends. Measure- the government toward itself, while in an- ment is therefore the essence of the problem. archies the reverse is true. Scrutiny of this Formulas and models stating the relations field might suggest the policies and actions of relevant variables and statistical series of governments to be anticipated from these indicating the fluctuations of these variables changing relations, as well as the changes in time and space might serve as guides to in the character of the field as a whole, de- national foreign policy and international fined by those relations, whether toward regulatory action designed to achieve bal- some sort of order or toward anarchy (18). anced progress toward all these goals. Such Such a field analysis, providing the basis materials should be the content of a disci- for synthesizing the characteristics and tend- pline of international relations from the encies of each state, for comparing the re- practical point of view (4). lations between the members of different pairs of states, and for appraising trends of Conflict Resolution and a Discipline change in the state of international relations of InternationalRelations as a whole, might suggest general conditions The resolution of international conflicts and special circumstances breeding conflict can proceed through the continuous regula- and might even throw light on the nature tion of international relations by national and type of intervention likely to influence governments or international agencies so as the course of conflict toward peace or war. to prevent tensions from arising and aggra- A general discipline of international rela- vating disputes and situations among na- tions might also adopt a practical point of tions. Such resolution can also proceed view, seeking formulations for realizing the through the application of appropriate most generally accepted values, such as in- methods of negotiation, inquiry, mediation, ternational peace with justice, national self- conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, determination with international stability, utilization of regional agencies, or resort to human freedom with order, general pros- the United Nations for recommendation and perity with equal opportunities. If these the co-ordination of measures to prevent values are all treated as absolute goals, they aggression. A unified discipline of interna- tend to conflict with one another. Efforts to tional relations would assist in both these realize national conceptions of justice and types of activity (17). Such a discipline to maintain self-determination or autonomy would also provide a basis for evaluating are likely to disrupt peace and stability. The the applicability of any of the special disci-

CONFLICT RESOJ.UTION VOLUME I NUMBER 1

323 A GENERAL DISCIPLINE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 7

plines of international relations to a given ing such a discipline. It is to be anticipated dispute or situation, and itrwould further- that Conflict Resolution will, in successive more provide a basis for more specialized numbers, contribute to the development of study of international conflict, whether such a discipline and that, in turn, the de- treated as a function of the entire field of veloping discipline will contribute to the international relations, as a function of the just and peaceful resolution of international relations of the states in a particular situa- conflicts. tion or controversy, as a function of the properties or characteristics of each govern- REFERENCES ment or nation involved in the situation, or 1. BAILEY, S. H. International Studies in Great as a function of the procedures or policies Britain. London: Royal Institute of Intcrna- adopted to deal with a particular conflict tional Affairs, 1937. 2. --. InternationalStudies in Modern Edu- situation. cation. London: Royal Institute of Interna- This is not the place to elaborate further tional Affairs, 1938. the possible approaches to the development 3. CLAUSEWITZ, CARL VON. On War. London, of such a discipline. The present writer has 1911. attempted to do so in his volumes entitled 4. DE SOLA POOL, ITHIEL. Symbols of Interna- tionalism. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univer- A Study of War and The Study of Interna- sity Press, 1951. tional Relations and in his essay entitled 5. DETrSCH, KARL AV. "Self-refercnt Symbols "Criteria for Judging the Relevance of Re- and Self-referent Communication Patterns." searches on the Problem of Peace." The ris- In BRYSON, LYMAN, et al. (eds.), 13th Sym- ing interest in education on international posium on Science, Philosophy, and Religion: affairs has stimulated many writers and or- Symbols and Values, an Initial Study. New York: Harper & Bros., 1954. ganizations to study the development of 6. GOODWIN, GEOFFRnEY (ed.). The Unicvrsity such a discipline. Attention may be called Teaching of International Relations: Pro- to the studies by Sir Alfred Zimmern (19, ccedings of the International Studies Con- 20), S. H. Bailey (1, 2), Edith Ware (12), ference, Windsor, 1950. London: Basil Black- Charles A. W. Manning (9), Grayson Kirk well, 1951. 7. KmRK, GRAYSOS. The Study of International (7), Geoffrey Goodwin (6), Howard Wil- Relations in American Colleges and Univer- son (14), and others under the stimulus of sities. New York: Council on Foreign Rela- the Institute of International Intellectual tions, 1947. Cooperation, UNESCO, the Carnegie En- 8. LASSWELL, HAROLD D. "Conflict, Social," dowment for International Peace, the New Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. 9. MANNINC, CHARLES A. W. The University York Council on Foreign Relations, and the Teaching of Social Sciences, International Royal Institute of International Affairs (18). Relations. Paris: UNESCO, 1954. Approaches to such a discipline through the 10. RIESMAN, DAVID. The Lonely Crowd. New medium of history have been attempted by Haven: Yale University Press, 1950. Arnold J. Toynbee in his Study of History; 11. TOYNDEE, ARNOLD J. An Historian's Ap- proach to Religion. London: Oxford Uni- by James T. Shotwell in The Economic and versity Press, 1956. Social History of the World War, which he 12. WARE, EDITH E. The Study of International edited; and by the UNESCO Commission Relations in the United States. New York: on a World History. Many of the papers Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, presented at various sessions of the Confer- 1939. 13. WATKINS, ence on Science, F. hi. The State as a Concept of Philosophy, and Religion , p. 71. New York, 1934. have thrown light on the problem of creat-' 14. WILSON, HOWARD E. Universitiesand World

324 8 QUINCY WRIGHT

Affairs. New York: Carnegie Endowment Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., for International Peace, 1952. 1954. 15. nicCHT, QUINCY. A Study of War, pp. 292, 18. ---. The Study of InternationalRelations. 297, 300 ff., 330. Chicago: University of Chi- New York: Appleton-Ccntury-Crofts, 1955. cago Press, 1942. 19. ZIMMrERN, Sin ALFnED. "Education for World 16. ---. Problems of Stability and Progress in Citizenship." In Problems of Peace, 5th se- International Relations, pp. 150 ff. Berkeley: ries. Geneva: Institute of International Re- University of California Press, 1954. lations, 1931. 17. --. "Criteria for Judging the Relevance 20. --. University Teaching of International of Researches on the Problem of Peace." In Relations: Proceedings of the International WRICHT, Q., CO'RnELL, W. F., and BoAs- Studies Conference, , 1938. Paris: soN, C., Research for Peace. Published for International Institute of Intellectual Coop- the Institute for Social Research, Oslo. eration, 1939.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION VOLU ME I NUM BER I

325 OSS '96: THE CONFERENCE Proceedings, 1996 Volume II, Fifth Internatinal Symposium Global Security & Global Competitiveess: Open - Link Page Previous Professor Daniel Keuhi, School of Information Warfare and Strategy, National Defense, Information Warfare Threat and Strategy -- A Model Next Mr. Robert D. Steele, (then) Team Leader, Project GEORGE, Artificial Intelligence Staff, Office of Information T~echnology, Central Intelligence Agency, Generic Intelligence Center Production Requirements, 3 October 1988

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