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Language and Identity in Oru Refugee Camp, Ogun State, Nigeria

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LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY IN ORU REFUGEE CAMP, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA BY NWAGBO, OSITA GERALD B.A. (LAGOS); M.A. (IBADAN) MATRIC, NO. 108722 A THESIS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ARTS IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA i ABSTRACT Refugees, in Oru camp, who chose integration instead of repatriation, are confronted with socio- cultural challenges which constrain them to adopt the language of their host community. Most of the previous studies on refugees investigated their socio-political and cultural concerns, with inadequate attention to their sociolinguistic challenges. Consequently, this research investigated the manifestation of identities in language use, attitudes, stereotypes and codeswitching/borrowing among Liberian and Sierra Leonean refugees in Oru Camp, Ogun State. This is with a view to evaluating the identity preferred by the refugees. This study adopted the ethnolinguistic identity theory and the mentalist theory of language attitudes. A questionnaire was administered to 240 respondents, comprising 15 teenagers (13- 19yrs), 15 young adults (20-39yrs) and 10 full adults (40-60yrs), purposively drawn from each of the six ethnic groups investigated: Krahn, Bassa, Kpelle (Liberia); Mende, Temne, Limba (Sierra Leone). Thirty-six respondents comprising two teenagers, two young adults and six full adults, drawn from each ethnic group were subjected to unstructured interviews. Through participant observation, the respondents‟ spontaneous interactions were recorded on audio-tape and field notes. Qualitative data were subjected to ethnolinguistic analysis; quantitative data were analysed using percentages and Chi-square. Borrowings were social (terms for prostitutes, hard drugs and police) and cultural (terms for foods, trado-medicine and monarchy) as the observed respondents borrowed lexemes from Yoruba and their indigenous languages. Codeswitchings included metaphorical and emblematic types and were occasioned by greetings, quotations and proverbs. Stereotypes were negative as Liberians labelled Sierra Leoneans „violent people‟ while Sierra Leoneans labelled Liberians Okafrieowey (wayward). All respondents resisted being labelled omo refugee by Nigerians because it is discriminatory and preferred respectable identities like “sir” and “madam”. The reasons for minimal use of indigenous languages were the prestige of English and accommodation, while the minimal use of Yoruba was mainly due to negative attitude of host community. In terms of language attitude, an average of 72.2% of teenagers and 100% of young adults valued their indigenous languages without speaking them; 100% of full adults valued their indigenous languages but seldom used them; 80.0% of young adults and 88.8% of full adults undervalued Yoruba and did not speak it. In respect of language use at home, an average of 100% of young adults and 88.7% of full adults used English/pidgin/krio in parent-child interaction while 8.3% of full adults used English/indigenous languages. With regard to neighbourhood, 100% of young adults and teenagers, and 70.0% of full adults used English/pidgin/krio in intra-ethnic interaction while 30.0% of full adults used indigenous languages/pidgin/krio. With reference to school, 100% of teenagers used English in classroom and English/ Yoruba during break time. The significant value of = 12.61; df =2, p< 0.05; (home) and, = 15.86; df= 2, p<0.05 (neighbourhood) suggests that age influenced language use rather than ethnicity. Oru refugees manifest multiple linguistic identities but prefer a modern identity represented by English more than an ethnic/Yoruba identity. Refugees in Oru camp, who opted for integration, need to identify more with Yoruba for purposes of inclusion and the benefits of diversity. Key words: Oru refugees, Ethnolinguistics, Linguistic identity, Language use, Language attitudes. Word count: 499 ii CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was carried out by Mr. Nwagbo, Osita Gerald under my supervision in the Department of Linguistics and African Languages, University of Ibadan. It has not been presented to any previous application for a higher degree. All quotations are indicated and the sources of information are specifically acknowledged by means of references. ……………………………………….. ……………………………… Supervisor Date Prof. Herbert Igboanusi Department of Linguistics & African Languages University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. iii DEDICATION To the One who made me, and who is still making me. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study on language and identity was realized because a number of individuals positively identified with it by several means. All the glory go to the Almighty Father for the provision of life, good health and enduring mercies. Initial fund for this project was partly provided by the Education Trust Fund (ETF), on the basis of which the University of Lagos offered me a three- year study leave.. Additionally, the University of Lagos provided a grant toward the end of the project. I am grateful to these bodies for their assistance. First, I am indebted to my supervisor Prof. Herbert Igboanusi who is a supervisor par excellence. He kindly provided guidance and motivation, as well as material resources needed to begin and complete the research. Additionally, his humane disposition in no small way aided in neutralizing the tedium and stress of research. Gratitude goes to Professor O. Oyetade of the Department of Linguistics and African languages, University of Ibadan. He supported the research with some essential materials and also made insightful inputs that strengthened the work. Many thanks go to Prof. Obododinma Oha of the department of English, University of Ibadan who reviewed the work and made meaningful suggestions which significantly helped to put the work in good shape. A bundle of gratitude goes to Asoonye Uba - Mgbemena of the Department of Linguistics, African and Asian Studies, University of Lagos who sacrificed his time to read the manuscript. In doing so, he made useful contributions which were effected in the study. Big thanks go to Dr. Iwu Ikwubuzo (Associate Professor), my academic mentor whom the Father used to pull me into the academic world. I would sincerely say that without his incessant persuasions, I would not be a staff of the department not to talk of writing a PhD thesis. Furthermore, since the programme commenced, his frequent inquiries about my progress provided the impetus to work relentlessly. One of his major academic principles is thoroughness; a virtue which proved helpful during my field work and data analysis. Some of those who also motivated me with their advice and encouragement include Professor Duro Oni, the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic), University of Lagos, my senior colleagues in the Department of Linguistics, African and Asian Studies: Dr. Yusuf, Dr. Dele Orimoogunje, Dr Nnabuihe, Mrs Ebele Okafor, Mrs Tina, Dr. Ajiboye (the Head of Department), Mr Medubi, Mr Oladeji and Dr v Ojo. All of them showed genuine concern, in various ways, which helped to ginger me in the course of the study. I remain grateful to Prof. Arinpe Adejumo the Head of Department of Linguistics and African languages, University of Ibadan and the Ex-Post-Graduate Co-ordinator, Dr. Maduagwu for approving my seminars. Thanks also go to Mr. Kelim, the amiable Ex-Secretary of the department, Mr. Jelili an Ex-Departmental Officer for aiding and facilitating my registration, seminar and related matters. I would also like to express profound gratitude to my research facilitators in Oru Refugee Camp: Mummy Gideon, Saffiatu Cole, Pastor Kennedy, Sa Popei, Charles Lebbie, Mummy Favour, and Mrs. Ledlum. They assisted in questionnaire distribution, organization of interviews, provision of interpretation and translation. Generally, they offered me maximum support, assistance and understanding. I will not forget Daa Good and Happiness whose secretarial dexterity facilitated the production of the manuscript. My warmest gratitude is reserved for my wife Chinyere and my children, Chinwe and Jaachi who bore with me throughout. Needless to say, none of these nice people should be held responsible and accountable for any failings, errors and misjudgments in the work, which, along with the positions and opinions expressed therein are entirely mine. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page i. Abstract ii. Certification iii Dedication iv Acknowledgment v Table of Contents vii List of figures xii List of Tables xiii CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 5 1.3 The Setting 7 1.4 The refugee camp 7 1.5 The United Nation Durable Solution 9 1.6 The Language situation in Liberia 10 1.7 The Language situation in Sierra Leone 12 1.8 The Language Situation in Nigeria 14 1.9 The Liberian ethnic groups 15 1.9.1 The Krahn 16 1.9.2 The Bassa 16 1.9.3 The Kpelle 17 1.10 The Sierra Leone ethnic group 17 1.10.1 The Mende 17 1.10.2 The Temne 18 1.10.3 The Limba 18 1.11 Aims of the Study 19 1.12 Significance of the study 19 1.13 Scope of the Study 19 vii CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Review of Empirical Studies 21 2.3 Review of related studies 28 2.3.1 Identity and multilingualism 28 2.3.2 Identity and ideology 30 2.3.3 Identity, globalization and diversity 31 2.3.4 Identity and face 33 2.3.5 Identity and Acculturation 34 2.3.6 Identity and code Alternation 35 2.3.7 Identity and stereotype 37 2.4 Theoretical framework
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