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Enzymes in Industry Enzymes in Industry Production and Applications Edited by Wolfgang Aehle Third, Completely Revised Edition Enzymes in Industry Edited by W. Aehle Enzymes in Industry Production and Applications Edited by Wolfgang Aehle Third, Completely Revised Edition Dr. Wolfgang Aehle All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully pro- Genencor– A Danisco Division duced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher PO Box 218 do not warrant the information contained in these 2300 AE Leiden books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers The Netherlands are advised to keep in mind that statemtents, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may First Edition 1990 inadvertently be inaccurate. Second, Completely Revised Edition 2004 Third, Completely Revised Edition 2007 Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek The Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de> # 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim All righs reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be repro- duced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Printed in the Federal Republic of Germay. Printed on acid-free paper. Typesetting Thomson Digital, Noida Printing betz-druck GmbH, Darmstadt Bookbinding Litges & Dopf Buchbinderei GmbH, Heppenheim Wiley Bicentennial Logo Richard J. Pacifico ISBN 978-3-527-31689-2 V Contents Preface to the Third Edition XV List of Contributors XVII Abbreviations XXIII 1 Introduction 1 1 History 1 1.2 Enzyme Nomenclature 4 1.2.1 General Principles of Nomenclature 5 1.2.2 Classification and Numbering of Enzymes 5 1.3 Structure of Enzymes 7 1.3.1 Primary Structure 7 1.3.2 Three-Dimensional Structure 7 1.3.3 Quaternary Structure, Folding, and Domains 8 1.3.4 The Ribozyme 11 1.4 Enzymes and Molecular Biology 12 1.4.1 Biosynthesis of Enzymes 12 1.4.2 Enzymes and DNA 12 2 Catalytic Activity of Enzymes 13 2.1 Factors Governing Catalytic Activity 15 2.1.1 Temperature 15 2.1.2 Value of pH 16 2.1.3 Activation 16 2.1.4 Inhibition 16 2.1.5 Allostery 18 2.1.6 Biogenic Regulation of Activity 19 2.2 Enzyme Assays 21 2.2.1 Reaction Rate as a Measure of Catalytic Activity 21 2.2.2 Definition of Units 21 2.2.3 Absorption Photometry 22 2.2.4 Fluorometry 24 2.2.5 Luminometry 24 2.2.6 Radiometry 25 VI Contents 2.2.7 Potentiometry 25 2.2.8 Conductometry 26 2.2.9 Calorimetry 26 2.2.10 Polarimetry 26 2.2.11 Manometry 26 2.2.12 Viscosimetry 26 2.2.13 Turbidimetry 27 2.2.14 Immobilized Enzymes 27 2.2.15 Electrophoresis 27 2.3 Quality Evaluation of Enzyme Preparations 29 2.3.1 Quality Criteria 29 2.3.2 Specific Activity 29 2.3.3 Protein Determination 30 2.3.4 Contaminating Activities 31 2.3.5 Electrophoretic Purity 31 2.3.6 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 32 2.3.7 Performance Test 32 2.3.8 Amino Acid Analysis and Protein Sequence Analysis 32 2.3.9 Stability 33 2.3.10 Formulation of Enzyme Preparations 33 3 General Production Methods 35 3.1 Microbial Production 35 3.1.1 Organism and Enzyme Synthesis 35 3.1.2 Strain Improvement 38 3.1.3 Physiological Optimization 39 3.1.4 The Fermentor and its Limitations 42 3.1.5 Process Design 44 3.1.6 Modeling and Optimization 46 3.1.7 Instrumentation and Control 47 3.2 Isolation and Purification 48 3.2.1 Preparation of Biological Starting Materials 48 3.2.1.1 Cell Disruption by Mechanical Methods 50 3.2.1.2 Cell Disruption by Nonmechanical Methods 50 3.2.2. Separation of Solid Matter 51 3.2.2.1 Filtration 51 3.2.2.2 Centrifugation 52 3.2.2.3 Extraction 54 3.2.2.4 Flocculation and Flotation 54 3.2.3 Concentration 55 3.2.3.1 Thermal Methods 55 3.2.3.2 Precipitation 55 3.2.3.3 Ultrafiltration 56 3.2.4 Purification 58 Contents VII 3.2.4.1 Crystallization 59 3.2.4.2 Electrophoresis 60 3.2.4.3 Chromatography 60 3.2.5 Product Formulation 65 3.2.6 Waste Disposal 68 3.3 Immobilization 68 3.3.1 Definitions 69 3.3.2 History 69 3.3.3 Methods 70 3.3.3.1 Carrier Binding 70 3.3.3.2 Cross-linking 74 3.3.3.3 Entrapment 74 3.3.4 Characterization 77 3.3.5 Application 78 4 Discovery and Development of Enzymes 81 4.1 Enzyme Screening 81 4.1.1 Overview 81 4.1.2 Natural Isolate Screening 82 4.1.3 Molecular Screening 84 4.1.4 Environmental Gene Screening 85 4.1.5 Genomic Screening 86 4.1.6 Proteomic Screening 89 4.2 Protein Engineering 90 4.2.1 Introduction 90 4.2.2 Application of Protein Engineering in Academia and Industry 94 4.2.3 Outlook 97 5 Industrial Enzymes 99 5.1 Enzymes in Food Applications 99 5.1.1 Enzymes in Baking 99 5.1.1.1 Introduction 99 5.1.1.2 Amylases 104 5.1.1.3 Xylanases 105 5.1.1.4 Oxidoreductases 106 5.1.1.5 Lipases 108 5.1.1.6 Proteases 109 5.1.1.7 Transglutaminase 111 5.1.2 Enzymes in Fruit Juice Production and Fruit Processing 111 5.1.2.1 Introduction 111 5.1.2.2 Biochemistry of Fruit Cell Walls 112 5.1.2.3 Cell-Wall-Degrading Enzymes 115 5.1.2.4 Apple Processing 117 5.1.2.4.1 Apple Pulp Maceration 117 VIII Contents 5.1.2.4.2 Apple Juice Depectinization 118 5.1.2.5 Red-Berry Processing 120 5.1.2.6 Tropical Fruit and Citrus Processing 121 5.1.2.7 Conclusion 123 5.1.3 Enzymes in Brewing 123 5.1.3.1 Introduction 123 5.1.3.2 Enzymes in Malting and Mashing 125 5.1.3.3 Enzymes for Problem Prevention or Solving 128 5.1.3.3.1 Bacterial a-Amylase in Mashing 128 5.1.3.3.2 Fungal a-Amylase in Fermentation 129 5.1.3.3.3 b-Glucanase in Mashing 129 5.1.3.3.4 Cysteine Endopeptidases (Postfermentation) 130 5.1.3.3.5 Glucoamylase in Mashing 130 5.1.3.4 Enzymes for Process Improvement 130 5.1.3.4.1 Adjunct Brewing 130 5.1.3.4.2 Improved Mashing Processes 131 5.1.3.4.3 Shelf-Life Improvement 132 5.1.3.4.4 Accelerated Maturation 133 5.1.3.4.5 Starch-Haze Removal 134 5.1.3.5 Special Brewing Processes 134 5.1.4 Enzymes in Dairy Applications 135 5.1.4.1 Introduction 135 5.1.4.2 Cheesemaking 135 5.1.4.2.1 Cheesemaking Process 135 5.1.4.2.2 Mechanism of Renneting 135 5.1.4.2.3 Types of Coagulants 136 5.1.4.2.4 Properties of Coagulating Enzymes 136 5.1.4.2.5 Cheese Ripening 138 5.1.4.2.6 Cheese Flavors and Ripening Acceleration 139 5.1.4.2.7 Lipase 140 5.1.4.2.8 Lysozyme 140 5.1.4.2.9 Milk Protein Hydrolysates 141 5.1.4.2.10 Transglutaminase 141 5.1.4.3 Milk Processing 142 5.1.4.3.1 b-Galactosidase 142 5.1.4.3.2 Other Enzymes 143 5.1.5 Other Food Applications 143 5.1.5.1 Introduction 143 5.1.5.2 Meat and Fish 143 5.1.5.2.1 Meat Processing 143 5.1.5.2.2 Fish Processing 144 5.1.5.3 Protein Cross-linking 145 5.1.5.4 Flavor Development 146 5.1.5.4.1 Protein Hydrolysis 146 5.1.5.4.2 Lipid Hydrolysis 147 Contents IX 5.1.5.5 Egg Powder 148 5.1.5.6 Oils and Fats 149 5.1.5.6.1 Fat Splitting 149 5.1.5.6.2 Interesterification 150 5.1.5.6.3 Esterification 153 5.1.5.6.4 Oil Degumming 153 5.2 Enzymes in Nonfood Applications 154 5.2.1 Enzymes in Household Detergents 154 5.2.1.1 Historical Development 154 5.2.1.2 Laundry Soils 155 5.2.1.3 Detergent Composition and Washing Process 157 5.2.1.3.1 Washing Process 157 5.2.1.3.2 Detergent Compositions 158 5.2.1.4 Enzyme-Aided Detergency and Soil Removal 160 5.2.1.5 Detergent Enzyme Performance Evaluation and Screening 160 5.2.1.6 Enzyme Types 164 5.2.1.6.1 Proteases 164 5.2.1.6.2 Amylases 167 5.2.1.6.3 Lipases 171 5.2.1.6.4 Cellulases 173 5.2.1.6.5 Mannanase 176 5.2.1.7 Future Trends 177 5.2.2 Enzymes in Automatic Dishwashing 178 5.2.2.1 Introduction 178 5.2.2.2 Characteristics of Enzymes for ADDs 179 5.2.2.3 Proteases 180 5.2.2.3.1 Proteins: The Substrate of Proteases 180 5.2.2.3.2 Proteases for ADDs 181 5.2.2.4 Amylases 182 5.2.2.4.1 Starch: The Substrate of Amylases 182 5.2.2.4.2 Amylases for ADDs 183 5.2.2.5 Other Enzymes 186 5.2.2.6 Automatic Dishwashing Detergents 186 5.2.2.6.1 Composition of Automatic Dishwashing Detergents 186 5.2.2.6.2 Application of Enzymes in ADD 187 5.2.2.6.3 Stability and Compatibility 192 5.2.3 Enzymes in Grain Wet-Milling 193 5.2.3.1 Introduction 193 5.2.3.2 Overview of the Conversion of Corn to HFCS 193 5.2.3.2.1 Corn Steeping 195 5.2.3.2.2 Coarse Grinding and Germ Removal by Cyclone Separation 196 5.2.3.2.3 Fine Grinding and Fiber Removal by Screening 196 5.2.3.2.4 Centrifugation and Washing to Separate Starch from Protein 196 5.2.3.2.5 Hydrolysis with a-Amylase (Liquefaction) 196 5.2.3.2.6 Hydrolysis with Glucoamylase (Saccharification) 197 X Contents 5.2.3.2.7 Isomerization with Glucose Isomerase 197 5.2.3.2.8 Fructose Enrichment and Blending 198 5.2.3.3 a-Amylase 198 5.2.3.3.1 Origin and Enzymatic Properties 198 5.2.3.3.2 Structure 199 5.2.3.3.3 Industrial Use 201 5.2.3.4 Glucoamylase 201 5.2.3.4.1 Origin and Enzymatic Properties 201 5.2.3.4.2 Structure 202 5.2.3.4.3 Industrial Use 203 5.2.3.5 Pullulanase 204 5.2.3.5.1 Origin and Enzymatic Properties 204 5.2.3.5.2 Structure 204 5.2.3.5.3 Industrial Use 205 5.2.3.6 Glucose Isomerase 205 5.2.3.6.1 Origin and Enzymatic Properties 205 5.2.3.6.2 Structure 206 5.2.3.6.3 Industrial Use of Glucose Isomerase 207 5.2.3.7 Use of Wheat Starch 208 5.2.3.8 New Technology for Fuel Ethanol Production 209 5.2.4 Enzymes in Animal Feeds 209 5.2.4.1 Introduction 209 5.2.4.2 Enzymes Used in Animal Feed 211 5.2.4.2.1 Fiber-Degrading Enzymes 211
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