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Rethinking Care Ethics American Political Science Review Vol. 108, No. 2 May 2014 doi:10.1017/S0003055414000094 c American Political Science Association 2014 Rethinking Care Ethics: On the Promise and Potential of an Intersectional Analysis OLENA HANKIVSKY Simon Fraser University his article contributes to current debates and discussions in critical social theory about diversity, inclusion/exclusion, power, and social justice by exploring intersectionality as an important the- T oretical resource to further develop and advance care ethics. Using intersectionality as a critical reference point, the investigation highlights two key shortcomings of care ethics which stem from this ethics’ prioritization of gender and gendered power relations: inadequate conceptualizations of diversity and power. The article draws on concrete examples related to migrant domestic work to illustrate how an intersectionality lens can advance new theoretical insights for understanding caring practices (or lack of them), and generate new methodological and practical strategies for confronting and transforming the deeply entrenched interlocking power inequities that undermine the realization of care in an increasingly complex context of national and international policy and politics. INTRODUCTION spectives together is logical for a number of reasons. Care ethics and intersectionality are both social con- he ethics of care now occupies a central position structivist approaches, sharing many overlapping pri- within moral philosophy and feminist theory. Its orities including attention to context, relationships, in- Tpolitical relevance, largely influenced by Joan terdependence, and a commitment to social justice. As Tronto’s groundbreaking 1993 work Moral Boundaries: scholars search for alternative orientations to rethink A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care, continues to societal organization that are attuned to the complex be demonstrated through concrete applications to pol- and interdependent dynamics of domination, oppres- itics, policies, and practices in many of national and in- sion, and resistance, care ethics and intersectionality ternational contexts. While this exponential growth has are proliferating across disciplines. And within politi- been characterized as extraordinary when compared cal science and beyond, the contemporary and broad with the history of other ethical theories (Pettersen relevance of examining intersectionality in relation to 2011), care theorists are turning their attention to what care ethics is evidenced by ongoing academic debates ... can be “challenged, given a new emphasis or taken about the social construction of diversity, the politics of in new directions” (Koggel and Orme 2010a, 110) in inclusion/exclusion, the dynamics between power and relation to care ethics. This article contributes to such resulting inequities, and social justice (e.g., Gaventa a project by bringing care ethics in conversation with and Tandon 2010; Hancock 2007; Pateman and Mills the theoretical paradigm of intersectionality. Emerging 2007; Scott 1992; Yuval-Davis 2011). from the fields of legal theory, feminist theory, and crit- At the outset, it is important to note that some care ical race theory, intersectionality is widely viewed as a theorists (e.g., Sevenhuijsen 1998; Tronto 1993) and catalyst to some of the most important theoretical shifts those who draw on care theory (e.g., Scuzzarello 2010) in the last decade (McCall 2005; Mehrotra 2010; Nash 1 claim to engage with intersectionality theory. While 2008; Purkayastha 2010), especially in terms of offer- significant advancements have been made in terms of ing a robust method for understanding the significance how care scholars have addressed issues of social diver- of intersections of difference and their relationship to sity, the position of this article is that care ethics is not power. an inherently intersectional perspective. Accordingly, The specific aim of this article is to investigate how through a careful interrogation of care ethics, the arti- care ethics can be enhanced through critical engage- cle reveals where care theorizing is either inconsistent ment with intersectionality. This is an innovative con- with the tenets of intersectionality or could be consid- tribution insofar as such an investigation has not yet erably strengthened by the insights of this theoretical been undertaken. Bringing these two theoretical per- paradigm. In particular, the article demonstrates that evaluated against an intersectionality perspective, even Olena Hankivsky is Professor, School of Public Policy, Simon Fraser the most nuanced, complex versions of care theory fall University (Harbour Centre Campus), Rm. 3275 - 515 West Hastings short because they center and prioritize gender and St., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6B 5K3 ([email protected]). gendered manifestations of power. As a result, when The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their care scholars consider factors beyond gender, they are helpful comments. I would also like to acknowledge my colleagues, Joan Tronto, Michael Orsini, and especially Rita Dhamoon, for their inclined to add race and class rather than consider the support and insightful feedback which was invaluable in pushing me ways in which these are co-constructed in multiple to refine and sharpen my argument. ways and with various effects. This leads to missed 1 It is critical to note that while intersectionality became popular- opportunities for investigating the salience of other ized in 1989 by the work of Kimberle´ Crenshaw, the history of this social locations and the interactive effects produced paradigm can be traced back historically to U.S. black feminism, indigenous feminism, third world feminism, and queer and postcolo- by a more expansive possibility of factors. Moreover, nial theory (Collins 1990; Combahee River Collective 1977; Hooks while the care ethics literature includes theories and 1984). studies about the feminization and racialization of care, 252 American Political Science Review Vol. 108, No. 2 care theorists tend to mask the historically rooted ties can live in it as well as possible. That world includes and mutually constituting processes and patterns of a our bodies, our environments, all of which we seek to broader range of oppressions, thus obscuring the full interweave in a complex, life-sustaining web” (Tronto range of possible forces of power that shape difference. 1993, 103). A distinguishing feature of care ethics is Yet precisely because care ethics and intersectionality the recognition that humans are concrete beings, who share normative ideals towards social justice, I seek exist in mutually interconnected, interdependent, and to offer a form of care ethics that is inspired by inter- often unequal relations with each other. What makes sectionality in order to punctuate attention to social care ethics so compelling is its view that “all people are diversity and inequities of power. vulnerable, dependent and finite, and that we all have The article begins with a brief overview of care ethics. to find ways of dealing with this in our daily existence It then highlights the central critiques of this ethic, and in the values which guide our individual and collec- focusing on persistent shortcomings related to care’s tive behaviour” (Sevenhuijsen 1998, 28). Care places at conceptual inclusiveness and approaches to power. The the forefront human flourishing and the prevention of discussion then moves on to consider how care theory harm and suffering. For many, care is seen as a contrast can benefit from the insights of intersectionality. In to the individualistic nature of liberalism and a radi- contrast to care theory, intersectionality explicitly re- cal basis from which to rethink human nature, human jects the prioritization of hierarchical orderings of any needs, and how political judgments are made to en- social category such as gender even when attempts are sure more democratic policies in which power is more made to attend to individuals and groups in holistic evenly distributed (Tronto 1993; 1995; 2010). and context-specific ways. In attending to the more Drawing on these foundations, a number of care complex context of human lives, intersectionality also theorists have argued for a fundamental rethinking of transcends additive (race + gender + class) or multi- politics, citizenship, and democracy and what should plicative analyses (race × gender × class) and instead be prioritized in policy actions and decisions. Fiona focuses on the meaning and consequences of interac- Williams (2001) has proposed that care can be seen as tive and interlocking social locations, power structures, a central referent in social policy. Selma Sevenhuijsen and processes. As such, intersectionality can transform (1998) has asserted that a universal set of ethical prin- the descriptive and prescriptive accounts put forward ciples for public life can be derived from an ethics of by care theorists relating to the identities of indi- care and lead to alternative conceptions of citizenship viduals and groups and the processes of power that where the right to receive care is promoted. Olena Han- shape and reify structural inequities. Such advances kivsky (2004) has developed key principles of care— are demonstrated by embedding the analysis of the principles that are not impersonal, abstract, and based article in the specific care activity of migrant domes- on rigid rules but flexible guides, able to accommodate tic workers.2 Through concrete examples the enhance-
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