The Iconoclastic Edict of the Caliph Yazid II, A. D. 721 Author(S): A

The Iconoclastic Edict of the Caliph Yazid II, A. D. 721 Author(s): A. A. Vasiliev Source: Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 9/10 (1956), pp. 23-47 Published by: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1291091 . Accessed: 09/03/2014 10:59

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This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions THE ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF THE CALIPH YAZID II, A.D. 721

A. A. VASILIEV

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The Committeeon Publicationswishes to thankProfessor Marius Canard for his kindnessin editingthis article. Except for minorcorrections and the omissionof the last section,which had no directbearing on the subject, it appearsin the formin whichit was writtenby A. A. Vasilievbefore his departurefor Europe in April,1953.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions HE attitudeof Islamtoward representations ofhuman beings has been the subjectof numerousworks of whicha listmay be foundin K. A. C. Creswell's"The Lawfulnessof Paintingin Early Islam,"Ars Islamica,XI-XII (1946) 159.' It was inspiredby conceptionsanalogous to those of Judaismand doubtlessinfluenced by them. These ideas found theirexpression in thehadiths, the traditions concerning the life and sayings of the prophetMuhammad the dates of whichare not clearlydetermined.' It is a well knownfact that before the appearanceof the hadithas well as afterit therewere many representations of humanbeings in Islam,but they were forbiddenin the mosques,the onlyplace wherethe interdictionwas strictlyapplied. It is curiousto reportthat only during the fifthand sixth centuriesdid theJews forbid images in theirsynagogues; this restriction did not existpreviously, as is evidentfrom the synagogueof Dura-Europos." Amongthe caliphswhose attituderegarding images conformedstrictly to Moslem law, therewas one, the UmayyadYazid II, who extendedthe prohibitionto the Christianchurches of the empire.' Inasmuchas thereis a certainparallelism between the developmentof the iconoclasticideas in Byzantium,which was relativelyslow beforethe promulgationof the edict of Leo III in 726,' and the developmentof the

'Revised version of his firstessay in his Early Muslim Architecture,I (Oxford, 1932) 269-271. See supplement to the bibliographygiven by Creswell in Bishr Fares, "Essai sur de la decoration 1'esprit islamique. Caire, 1952," Confirencesde l'Institutfranpais d'archdologie The orientale,III, 27. authorpoints out in this work that only the most rigid applied the inter- diction and that in the tenth literally, centuryauthorized scholars believed that only the repre- sentationof Allah in bodily formwas strictlyforbidden. 2 Contraryto thereis on this in the Koran. ' formerlyaccepted opinion, nothing subject See B. "La des chez les J. Frey, question images Juifs a la lumiere des r6centes XV d6couvertes,"Biblica, (Rome, 1934) 298-299. The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Pre- of the Sixth liminaryReport Season of Work,October 1932-March 1933, ed. by M. Rostovtzeff, A. Bellinger,C. Hopkins and C. Welles (New Haven, 1936). was not to 'It obviously necessary apply the same measures to the synagogues. Some scholars have thought that the predecessor of Yazid, "Omar II, well known for his strict Muslim and his acts the orthodoxy against Christians,also pursued an iconoclastic policy. A. S. The and their Tritton, Caliphs non-MuslimSubjects (London-Bombay,1930). R. Aigrain, Dictionnaire et de d'histoire gdographiedccldsiastiques, III (Paris, 1924) col. 1323; J. B. cit. 299; R. de "Une Frey, op. Vaux, O.P., mosaique byzantine t Ma'in [Transjordan]," Revue biblique, XLVII (1938) 227-258. On the basis of an inscriptiondated 719-720 (614, the era of Bosra), de Vaux conjecturesthat the mosaics of the church of Ma'in were restored in this the destructioncarried out the year following by Moslem iconoclasts under the reign of 'Omar II (died February 720). He doubts the historicityof the edict of Yazid II, for he thinksthat it has not been mentionedby any Arab author. See below. -But, on ascending the imperial throne in 717, Leo was not an avowed iconoclast. A remarkable of Leo's from molybdobull (seal) reign, this initial period, has been preserved. On one side is a clean-shaven represented young, emperor crowned with a diadem bearing a on the other the cross; side, Virginholding on her left arm the InfantJesus. Since the seal bears the legend "Leo and Constantine,the Faithful Emperors of the Romans," it is to be

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 26 A. A. VASILIEV same ideas in the Islamic world,which proceeded more rapidlybecause Islam was a more recentreligion, and, inasmuchas, accordingto some scholars,the edict of Leo III mayhave been inspiredby the edict of Yazid of 721, it is importantto reviewthe sourcesrelative to Yazid's iconoclasm, and to studycertain questions which bringout the politicalsimilarity be- tweenthe Emperorand the Caliph.

GREEK SOURCES

I begin thisstudy with a discussionof sourcesreferring to the edict of Yazid II, and considerfirst the Greek texts. The oldest,and contemporary,source that mentionsthe Saracen religious superstitionssimilar to idolatryfails to give any informationon Islamic iconoclasm.This sourceis the letterof the PatriarchGermanus of Constantinople(715-730) to Thomas of Claudiopolis,one of the icono- clasticbishops of Asia Minor,written about 724, shortlybefore the opening ofthe iconoclastic policy of Leo III, and preservedin the acts of the Second Council of Nicaea of 787.6 In his letter,after accusing the Jews,who "not onlyjust now,but oftenreproached us forsuch things"(i.e. foridolatry in the formof venerationof images), and callingthem "true worshippers of idols"(ot i7j3 6'vroTEL8ckoXarpEau 6paTrEvcral), Germanussays that the Saracens also seem to hit upon somethingsimilar, since "they,up to our own days, veneratein the desertan inanimatestone [XiOcdn ~c] which is calledKhobar [Xofadp]." 7 attributedto a year after720, when ConstantineV was associatedto the throne.See N. Liha'ev, "Sceaux de l'empereurLeon III l'Isaurien,"Byzantion, XI (1936) 473-474. Addi- tionalevidence of theearly attitude of Leo III towardsthe imagesis to be foundin his reply to a letterof the Caliph 'Omar II (hence before720), as givenby the Armenianhistorian Ghevond(see below,p. 43). This letterhas been translatedand explainedwith care by A. Jeffery,who considersit authentic:"Ghevond's Text of the Correspondencebetween 'Omar II and Leo III," HarvardTheological Review, XXXVII (1944) 269-332. Leo III, answering the the Caliph's question, "Why do you adore . . .pictures and the cross?" explains why Christianshonor the cross, and adds: "As forpictures, . . . findingin theOld Testamentthat divinecommand which authorized Moses to have executedin the tabernaclethe figuresof the Cherubim,and animatedby a sincereattachment for the disciplesof the Lord, who burnedwith love forthe Saviour Himself, we havealways felt a desireto conservetheir images, whichhave come downto us fromtheir times as theirliving representations. Their presence charmsus, and we glorifyGod who has saved us throughthe intermediaryof His only- begottenSon, who appearedin the worldin a similarfigure, and we glorifythe saints.But as forthe wood and thecolors, we do notgive them any reverence." (p. 322) 'Mansi, XIII, 109 B-E. D-E: Z~E KaL TO TOLOVTOV Ibid.,109 appaK-lVOi Edft f7r~LTKrTfT7LV 8OKOvULV, apKETOV E"1 arVTOL ft>, atU7VV'qV Kcu E vTpo7rp7vTpoayayEWV TqVi /EXPL TOV VVi EV T' Tp/j TLXOV/LVVircL p a-vTcA T E rq ToV XEYO/AVOVXo/ap Kal TAoL7TCLh -3MaTarLa' saVTrW ,E r[XJTULV, alOAX&)"rpo"rEv77OV~v,a KLUErva(YTpo41qs (W'sv ErLo~16L Zop7-j Orp? yvL()s77 pUTpLa. rarTporapa8o'C Ia'LL

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 27 Here is the earliestmention of the word Khobar in the sense of the Kaaba in Mekka. Later,but stillin the eighthcentury, John of Damascus, in his De haeresibusLiber, refersto the Kaaba as Xafia0lcor Khaber. As did the PatriarchGermanus, he reproachesthe Saracenswith adoring and kissingthe stone,which is said to representthe head of Aphrodite.8 The Xi0o la'fvxoqin the letterof PatriarchGermanus brings to minda saying ascribed by a Moslem writerto the second Caliph 'Omar, who, referringto the black stone,supposedly declared: "I know thatthou art a stone,without power to harmor to help,and had I not seen the Messenger of God kissthee, I would notkiss thee." 9 The letterof the PatriarchGermanus, though failing to supplyany informationon the iconoclasticedict of Yazid II, shows that,from his own pointof view,the real idolatorswere the Jewsand Arabs. In the personof the Patriarchwe have a man stronglyopposed to the iconoclasticpolicy of Leo III, who, refusingto signthe imperialedict of 730, was deposed, and against whom the iconoclasticcouncil of 754 proclaimed,"Anathema to the PatriarchGermanus, the worshipperof wood." The fact that the de- positionof this strongopponent of Leo's policy took place only in 730 showsthat the iconoclastic policy of Leo before730 was not too violentnor too intolerant,since during these preceding years the Emperor could tolerateas the head of the churchhis open adversary.Ostrogorsky, and Ladner,who followshim, assert that Leo III had triedby peacefulmeans to converthis subjects,before enforcing the firsticonoclastic measure.'0 The mostimportant Greek source concerningthe originof iconoclasm, which connectsit withthe Jewishand Arabianinfluences, is the reportof the most reverendpresbyter John of Jerusalem,representative of the

Damasceni de haeresibus Liber. 768 D-769 "Joannis Migne, P.G., XCIV, A-B: Staflpa3ovrt / SE TrpOUKvvovvTasTOv urTavpov, 0v Kal )Xv`(uovTrat Kal 4PaufEvrp aV*TroV" ]tdswsC18ooXo'karpa' oVv V/1EV3XlO7 KaTaTN1v XaflaO6avVIWvV, (t/LXTETOV ' XV0ov Ta7ragotLcvoL; ioW TpOrpUTp1,/EU6C Kl oVTo03E, Jv XtAov, ^r3 'A(po3TT E'UTLV,'qVrpOUcKVvovv, ' KcfaXT v Xa/f3p oV Kat PaucL TOts cV, 7rpoc7l-/opEvov, 4 'l uXpL v^v 6yyhvotSos d7roUKtaupta dJKptfwo KaTavoov^uL OaatvaL. See E. Caspar, "Papst Gregor II, und der Bilderstreit,"Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte,LII (1933) 39, n. 30. Idem, Geschichte des Papsttums, II (Tiibingen, 1933) 648. Cf. K. Giiterbock,Der Islam im Lichte der byzantinischenPolemik (Berlin, 1912) 11, and W. Eichner, "Die Nachrichteniiber den Islam bei den Byzantinern,"Der Islam, XXII (1936) 234-241. SLe Recueildes traditionsmahomitanes par Abou AbdallahMohammed ibn Ismail el- Bokhdri,published by M. L. Krehl, I (Leiden, 1862) 406, 1 sq. El-Bokhari, Les traditions islamiques traduites de l'arabe avec notes et index par 0. Houdas et W. Margais, I (Paris, 520. to this C. 1903) Referring quotation, H. Becker remarks: "That such fetish-worship some of his own the disgusted [i.e. Prophet's] followers appears evident from a saying ascribed to the Caliph 'Omar." Cambridge Mediaeval History,II, 325. 1" G. Ostrogorsky,"Les debuts de la querelle des images," Melanges Charles Diehl, I 238-242. G. (Paris, 1930) B. Ladner, "Origin and Significanceof the Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy,"Mediaeval Studies, II (New York-London,1940) 135.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 28 A. A. VASILIEV Anatolianbishops, who read it at the fifthsession of the Second Council of Nicaea, 787.11 At thissession, the PatriarchTarasius said: "It will now be rightfor us to hear our brotherand beloved lord John,legate of the [Kvp6,] Apostolic Thronesof the East; forhe has withhim a writingwhich will explainhow thesubversion ofimages began [dOfEv 7)pfaro47 rOv CEKdOVW KaracTpoP/OV] ." The Holy Councilsaid: "We shouldlike much, my lord, to hear about this." Hereafterfollows, in abridgedform, the contents of John's report, which he read fromhis previouslywritten paper [d7r TLrr77aKovavE'Yo]: "I, unworthyand humblestof all, wishto lay beforethis, your Holy and SacredCouncil, in all truth[/LET& -raor~ how,when, and whence gLXlE.asc], thismost vile and God-detestedheresy of the detractorsof Christianityand iconoclastshad its beginning;and, beinganxious to use what brevityI can, I have decided to read to you froma writtendocument, so thatno element of truthshould escape me." Then,after mentioning the death of the Caliph and a few wordsabout his Suleiman(o-6Vj0ovXog EXEUildv, 715-717), saying successor'Omar ('Omar II, Oi3fapog,717-720), John proceeded: "On 'Omar's Ezid Yazid II, 720-724], a man of frivolousand unstable death, ["Et8o0, turnof mind,succeeded him. There lived a certainman at Tiberias,a ring- a and an leader of the lawless [Lrapavl/uAv]Jews, magician fortuneteller, instrumentof soul-destroying demons, whose name was Tessarakontapechys, a bitter enemy of the Church of God.12 On learning of the frivolity " Mansi,XIII, 196 E-200. John'sreport was also publishedseparately by Combefis,in his editionof TheophanesContinuatus. See Bonn ed., 481-484. For an English translation of the Acta of thisCouncil, see The SeventhGeneral Council, the Second of Nicaea, held A.D. 787, in whichthe Worshipof Images was Established,with copious notesfrom the "CarolineBooks" compiled by orderof Charlemagnefor its confutation.Translated from the 294-297. originalsby The Rev. J.Mendham, M.A. (London,1850); forJohn's report, see pp. For the indicationof thisedition I am greatlyindebted to ProfessorE. Kitzinger.In spiteof someerrors and misunderstandings,thetranslation is satisfactory.John's report is reproduced in an abridgedEnglish version by K. A. C. Creswell,"The Lawfulnessof Paintingin Early Islam,"Ars Islamica, XI-XII (1946) 164. On Johnof Jerusalem, who was presbyter,monk, and the formerSyncellus of the Patriarchof Antioch,see B. M. Melioransky,George of Cyprus and Johnof Jerusalem,the Two Little Known Championsfor Orthodoxyin the Eighth Century(St. Petersburg,1901) 77-102 (in Russian). Accordingto Melioransky,the report whichJohn read at theCouncil had beencompiled not in 787 butmuch earlier, in 769 (p. 98). i.e. 40 cubits 197 I believe that this T"recapaKovrTa7rxs, high (Mansi, XIII, B). Jewish wizard fromTiberias may be identifiedwith an individualemployed by Leo III who is mentionedin an anonymousArabic historical work entitled Kitdb al-'Uyiin (Book ofthe Wells), of theeleventh to thirteenthcentury (?), and nicknamed"Forty Cubits." E. W. Brooks,"The Campaignof 716-718 fromArabic Sources," The Journalof HellenicStudies, XIX (1899) 26 and n. 2. On thisArabic source see A. Vasiliev-M.Canard, Byzance et les Arabes,II, 2 (Brussels,1950) 220-221. Since Theophanesmentions a certainSyrian freedman Beser his concurrence (Br~rjp)who gainedthe highesteem of Leo III forhis bodilystrength and in the emperor'siconoclastic policy (p. 402), we may surmisethat the ringleaderof the this lawlessJews mentioned in the Acta of the Counciland named Tessarakontapechyswas

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[KovUbrdnra]of the rulerYazid, thismost-wicked Jew approachedhim and attempted[r-EXEipca] to utterprophecies ... saying: 'You will remain thirtyyears in this your kingshipif you followmy advice.' That foolish tyrant,yearning for a long life (for he was self indulgentand dissolute) answered:'Whatever you say, I am readyto do, and, if I attainmy desire, I will repay you with highest honors.' Then the Jewish magician [4apptaKojdPvr&]said to him: 'Order immediately,without any delay or postponement,that an encyclicalletter -'o-70roXrv] be issued throughoutyour empireto the effectthat [,yKv'KXLOV everyrepresentational painting [ iToav dKOVK1V18a5coy/pdOn-tv], whether on tabletsor in wall-mosaics,on sacred vessels or on altar coverings,and all such objects as are foundin Christianchurches, be destroyedand thoroughlyabolished, nay also representationsof all kinds [ola87rorE] that adorn and embellishthe market placesof cities [iv ra^t dyopavgWoXECv]j.' And moved by satanic wickedness, the false prophetadded: 'everylikeness,' contriving thereby to make un- suspected[dvv0oparov] his hostilityagainst us."

Beser, although the latter was not a Jew. This name in the abridged form Sarantapechys occurs twice in the latter part of Theophanes' Chronicle. See Joshua Starr, "An Iconodulic Legend and Its Historical Basis," Speculum, VIII (1933) 500-503. Starr gives two other instances of this name, and, below, I shall produce additional instances. "3In the Latin version of this text in Mansi we read: falsus divinus addidit, omnem similitudinem:argumentatus hoc, ut importabilemostenderet inimicitiam quam contranos habebat. But the word avvdoparov does not mean importabilis.It seems that translatorstook for like irresistible.As we avv/doparov something meaning unendurable, know, OpOp-qTOv, John'sreport was also printed by Combefisin the volume of his edition of Theophanes Con- tinuatus (Bonn, 481-484), where the text of this passage is identical to that of Mansi; but instead of one word avv(dparov,Combefis' text gives two words av vo"parov. The Latin version runs as follows:falsus vates adjecit quicquid demum simulacrorumsuspectum exosumque exstaret,suum in nos odium studens declarare. I thinkthat the correctinterpretation of this passage may be found in the Third Antirrheticusof the Patriarch Nicephorus, who refers \ Here is the text: TO directlyto the text of John'sreport. tla/oALKVSf 70oVOOEoULaxov KaKovpylyJa, TOV &.XovyEpVI/I`v?TO3, (4 8 K\lL XavOav0VT(J3 La\TOv)7r ?v ofolOJxLaKaOaLpEiO-OaL, UvyKaTc~fSqr)qvaL t?) I.e.: "Diabolical was the wickedness of the Kal EpoypaOPtaT"v enemy KcaO" VE-KO(t'av. of God who concealed his cunningso that indirectly[aavOadvrO'T], along with the destruction of every likeness, the beauty of our sacred paintings should also be throwndown" (Migne, P.G., C, 529). In the Latin version of this text, the Greek adverb kaVOavoavdTris translated tacito artificio.Mendham translatesthis passage as follows: "the false prophet with satanic cunning added this 'every image,' contrivingthereby to display his hatred against us without being suspected" (op. cit., 296). Hefele, afterproducing the statement"thou shouldstdestroy also all the profane images which serve to the ornamentationof the cities," writes: "The Jew had added this last point in order that one mightnot suspect him of speaking in such a way because of hatred of the Christians."C. Hefele, Conciliengeschichte,III, 2nd ed. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1877) 374; French translationby Dom H. Leclercq, Histoire des Conciles, II, 2 (Paris, 1910) 630. Accordingto the two writersjust quoted, particularlyHefele, the Jew who had suggested the destructionof images and "any likeness"was very sensitiveto the opinion of the Christiansabout him; he wanted to show that he was opposed not only to the icons which mightstill have been dear to many Christians,but to the representationsof livingbeings

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"The wretchedtyrant, yielding most readilyto this advice, sent [offi- cials] and destroyedthe holy icons and all otherrepresentations in every provinceunder his rule, and, because of the Jewishmagician, thus ruth- lesslyrobbed the churchesof God underhis sway of all ornaments,before theevil came intothis land iv 7rjy rv As the [irpor70oO 4^0o-a paT KCaKoV]. God-lovingChristians fled, lest they should have to overthrowthe holy images with theirown hands, the emirswho were sent for this purpose pressedinto serviceabominable Jews and wretchedArabs; and thus they burnedthe venerable icons, and eithersmeared or scrapedthe ecclesiastical buildings. "On hearingthis, the pseudo-bishop of Nacolia and hisfollowers imitated the lawless Jewsand impiousArabs, outraging the churchesof God... When, afterdoing this,the Caliph [o-/p30LovXoq]Ezid died, no more than two and a half years later,and went into the everlastingfire, the images wererestored to theiroriginal position and honor.His son Walid [OiXV8oq0]," filledwith indignation,ordered the magician to be ignominiouslyput to deathfor his father's murder, as justpunishment for his false prophecy." Such was the report of the presbyterJohn, representative of the Anatolian bishops. Anothervery importantstatement about the iconoclasticactivity of Yazid II was givenby the bishopof Messana (MEoo-a0,r),who was present at the same Council of Nicaea. He said: "I was a boy in Syriawhen the Caliph of the Saracenswas destroyingthe icons."15 Theophanes,who wrote his Chronicleat the beginningof the ninth century,relates that Yazid issued his iconoclasticedict underthe influence of a Jewishmagician from Laodicea, who had promisedhim a reign of fortyyears if he destroyedthe holy icons in all the Christianchurches of his empire. Yazid decided to do so, but he died in the same year,so that the majorityof the populationwas not even aware of his decision. But the EmperorLeo was informedof thisby a certainBeser (Baser) who had been bornin Syriaa Christian,but laterhad apostatizedto Mohammedanismand escaped to Constantinoplewhere, because of his physical strengthand sympatheticallyheretical views, he won Leo's friendship.'" in general,knowing that the latterfeeling already existedin many regionsof the Empire. I am greatlyindebted to ProfessorE. Kitzinger,who called my attentionparticularly to the inter- pretationof this textand who is inclinedto accept the point of view of these writers. then ' Herein the presbyterJohn errs: Yazid's successor was Hisham (724-743); and came the briefrule of the Caliph Walid III (743-744). * Mansi, XIII, 200: Kayoa) 7ratLo LTv Ev Uvpla,0ll/rVLKa 0 7GV appaKrlv7v LrtW O'KltovxoO STheophanes, 401-402. The Arabian historianTabari mentions also that a certain Jew " Theophanes, 401-402. The Arabian historianTabari mentions also that a certain Jew

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 31 So, fromTheophanes' testimonywe may come to the conclusionthat Yazid issued his edict underthe exclusiveinfluence of a Jewishmagician. Beser, whom I am inclined to identifywith the Tessarakontapechysin John'sreport, is not a legendaryfigure, as Ostrogorskysupposes," but a real person,because Theophanes,in the latterparts of his chronicle,men- tionshim twice; in one instancehe calls him Leo's companion,apostate, and helperin his madness,and, in theother place, he speaksof the patrician Beser (whom he qualifies as Saracen-minded [o-apaKqv6fpova]), who, in 741,was killedin thewar of ConstantineV againstthe usurper Artavasdus."s The PatriarchNicephorus of Constantinople,in the earlypart of the ninth century(805-816), wrote his three Antirrheticiagainst the most violenticonoclast, the EmperorConstantine V Copronymus.In his third he Antirrheticus mentions a Jew from Tiberias (Karah r-? Tt/EOptdC8a)who was a veryprominent man amonghis compatriots,and whose surnamewas This same Jew took advantage of the weakness TEacapaKov7~6ITxvg. (E1XE'pEa) of the Saracen chief Yazid ('RE'o80), and, in promising him a thirty-yearreign, demanded that all erectedimages and everylikeness of living beings be torn down and destroyed.Nicephorus then proceeds: "Diabolical was the wickednessof the enemyof God [7roiGOEoLdcXOV] who concealed his cunningso that,indirectly [Xav0av6vrcoJ], along with the destructionof every likeness,our beautifulsacred paintingsshould also be torndown." 19 When thisprofane edict had been issued,in additionto otherimages and statues,the sacredimages in the churchesof Christwere predicted for Yazid fortyyears of reign. But he fails to mentionthe conditionof the destruction of the icons. Tabari, ed. de Goeje, II, 1463, line 20-1464, line 1. " G. Ostrogorsky,"Les d6buts de la querelle des images," Melanges Charles Diehl, I (Paris, 1930) 236 (probablement l6gendaire). See L. Br6hier,Beser, Dictionnaire d'histoire et de geographie eccldesiastiques,VIII (Paris, 1935) 1171-1172 (un personnage reel). Ac- cording to Iorga, the name Bruaqpseems to signify "vizier." N. Iorga, "Les origines de l'iconoclasme,"Bulletin de la sectionhistorique de l'Academieroumaine, XIII (1927) 142 (1). But this is unlikely,because the Arabic word for "vizier" is wazir. The name Beser, or Bisir, is probably Beshir or Bishr. Cf. C. H. Becker, "ChristlichePolemik und islamische Dogmenbildung," Zeitschriftfiir Assyriologie, XXVI (1911) 192 (reprintedin Islamstudien, 1924). 1 Theophanes, 405; 414. See A. Lombard, Etudes d'histoire byzantine: Constantin V, empereur des Romains (Paris, 1902) 24. L. Br6hier erroneouslysays that Beser was killed in 740, i.e., before the death of Leo III; in other words, before the rebellion of Artavasdus. Beser, 1171. 1 S. Nicephori AntirrheticusIII adv. ConstantinumCopronymum, 84. Migne, P.G., C, 528-532. If I am not mistaken, it has not been pointed out that the unusual surname Tessarakontapechysalso occurs in Nicephorus' Antirrheticus.On Nicephorus, especially from the point of view of the manuscripttradition of his works,see a very useful article of R. P. Blake, "Note sur l'activitelitteraire de Nicephore I" Patriarchede Constantinople,"Byzantion, XIV (1939) 1-15. In his J'UToplea 4T0vro/o;or Breviarium Nicephorus does not mention Yazid's edict.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 32 A. A. VASILIEV destroyed;some of them were scraped off, some were whitewashed (KOV0oviEo), some,along withtemples, vases, and vestments,were burned. - This profanework was, throughnecessity, done by the enemiesof Christ the Jewsand the Saracens- for,in spite of threatsof compulsion,Chris- tiansrefused to executethe order. With the carryingout of thisedict, the evil of iconoclasmspread throughoutthe Roman Empire.2o Accordingto Nicephorus,Yazid died two years and six monthsafter the promulgationof the edict.21 His son Walid (Oi"X8oq)22 ordered the magician executed. A littlefurther on, Nicephorusmentions Yazid once more,not by name, but by the word "barbarian"(fpdippapos). We read: "Once theroot of this evil had been plantedin theRoman Empire, it reached the thenruler, who was Leo [Lion] both by name and by disposition.In- dulgingin debaucheryand wantonnesslike thatbarbarian [i.e. Yazid], he, in his furyagainst piety, strove to extirpate[LeoprrE vw] the holy images fromthe churchesof God" (col. 532). In addition to Nicephorus'three Antirrhetici,there is the very little knownFourth Antirrheticus, the firstpart of whichwas publishedin 1852 by Cardinal Pitra, under the title Sancti NicephoriAntirrheticus; Liber quartus. Pars prima. Eusebii Caesariensis Confutatio.23Long before Pitra'sedition, the noted author of theImperium Orientale, Anselm Banduri (1670-1743), had seen thisfourth Antirrheticus, Adversus Eusebium sectae iconoclasticaeprincipem, but he failedto have it published.24 In the thirdchapter of the AntirrheticusIV, we read the usual storyof a Jewfrom Tiberias who suggestedthat "the king of the Arabs" (i.e. Yazid II) embarkon theiconoclastic policy; but in thelatter story a new,probably legendary,detail occurs;the Jewapproached the Caliph at the timewhen he was criticallyill, so that,among otherpromises, the Jewpromised him completerestoration of health. Since thistext is not easilyavailable, I give it here in originalGreek and English.25The latterreads: "[Iconoclasm] was initiatedby a certainJew by religion,a wicked man and a sorcerer, who was greatlyenraged against the faithof the Christians.According to

E To OY Ev ) SO&afl/oXuv'ro KaKOvpyJa,r &8XovyKp avTov ,O 8' Ka OEO/LUXOV KaGK -lq rj' ,aaveavov-ro STOvL iraOiV ool/oLa LTvyKcTa/lX'qvvatLKai LtpoypaopLa' v oav. On thistext see above.tKadaLpE3t(OaL, " cKoC V "v KaKW 0 tVp rE ELO3?7TAG', 7TaXEt0VCL3 81);O VAaq702 7T'f brLt(lV &5 Et0PLTOV", T 529-532). aroppf4yvvra(coll. successor. " Like Theophanes,Nicephorus mentions Walid, insteadof Hisham,as Yazid's see "D. J. B. Pitra,Specilegium Solesmense, I (Paris, 1852) 371-503; Prolegomena,p. LXXI. See Blake,op. cit.,2-3. text 2 See Ang.Mai, PatrumNova Bibliotheca,V (Roma, 1849) p. vi; reprintedfrom his in P.G., C, 201-202,and recentlyby Blake,op. cit.,2. Migne,' Pitra.op. cit.,375-376.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 33 reliable authorities,he had lived at Tiberias, where he was prominent amonghis compatriots.He came to the King of the Arabs,who was then criticallyill, and promisedthat, if he destroyedall the statuesand images amonghis subjects,he would be relievedfrom his illness,live happily,and prospermost signally thenceforward. These mattershave been expounded at greaterlength in previouswritings,26 so it is trulydemonstrated that this wickedcounsel did indeedoriginate with the Jews and Saracens;from them, by the permissionof God, was the evil hurledupon the Christiansamong whomit prevailed."27 Georgius Monachus is exceedinglysevere toward the Jews and their in part the issue of Yazid's edict.He writes:"When Yazid ['IaC"r] was the ruler of the empireof the Arabs, two God-battlingJewish youths, [who are alwaysarrogant (rpaX-qXtL3vrEg) towards the Lord and insolenttowards ChristHimself, devoted as theyare to juggleries,buffooneries repaTrecLLtKaL l(oLoXoXtoau)and diabolical divinationson the(SpvaLOLEvoL pretenseof pursuingsome astrologicalknowledge] come to the imperialcourt of the Arabs,and notifythe above-mentionedYazid, and reveal to him oraclesof a longand happylife, on conditionhe is able to destroyChristian adornment and wipe out [&arraXEiPac]from the confinesof the church [8&aKo'/0y-crtv], the images of the God-Man, our SaviourJesus Christ, and the Motherof God who had given Him birth. And thisman, who was fond of life and lived like a pig [xoLp6fltoo]complied with the advice of these deceivers and shook violently [8tEaodXEV-EV] all thechurches of theEast throughout his But the empire. wretchedman was deceived, forbefore a year had divine passed judgmentbefell him; and his son, who inheritedthe empire, determined to kill [these men] as false prophets.Then they,terrified, returnedto the Isaurianborder country." 28 The usual storyof a certainJew from Laodicea who urgedYazid, "the thenruler of the TOTE7 Syrianland" rby r yacr Kparovvra) to ('108 begindestruction of theholy icons, is also toldin vpLdro7So theLife of the Constan-

" This statementmay refer to the above quotedAntirrheticus III. Oo 77 t 7rpwTOV TLVO S V rLKTETaLr EK 0IovSalovILvT v OpOKteaV, LappOv KalL Ka2Lptya ra 717 v TO , KLTL TL dOrO]79, K" F T7Ov TV/v XpwrrtavLY K )TO /3 TtfleptUSa,vOa rrpovixwvinhX.tE.)VT7TKOTOFTrwv O1AoE6vwv 7tOTE.VoKT, 'v. 7rpo SETY TOv Wv "ApapwvflaXv aXa,ESO.TW, ,TEpt TrVLKaVTra/X7OE'VTra (OLTa, v7rtaXVO0VL/Evo, E'raaavEL KaL TWV1)ro XELpa KCaOE'XoL, vVOO T/ (rT/X/V EV VO(OV(iov SE/8t)wO'EaLatL KC'tL ELKOVOY/paoLaveU Ta E7ETaCaLXL raXXay,rOTOaLt, E aaT. v 7TEptLEv 4aa/aYL EtplTat, ESLtLovoO'ULtVaX/ E$ TE Lta7rpE7CTTr 7TrXa?TV'TEpOV oTTE EtKvvataL ovSCUWV Kat YapaK-tv(iv -'v TOLCVTV/VV/pT/(TOaL 7rXav-qv. EK 8 'qTOV'TV, V TO crv-yX-atoEoV^ TEL XptUTtLavwjvEVEYK^aV/To'V lxa3o firtESVLL V/KEY. 'Georgius Monachus (Hamartolus),ed. Muralt,629; de Boor, II, 735-736; in Old Slavonic:V. Istrin,The Chronicle of GeorgiusHamartolus in an Old SlavorussianTranslation, I (Petrograd,1920) 467-468.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 34 A. A. VASILIEV tinopolitanMartyrs, whose memoryis celebratedon the ninthof August.29 In theLife of St. Stephen,martyr under Constantine V, thereis no men- tionof Yazid, althoughin the textitself, Stephen holds the Syrians,i.e. the Arabs,among otherpeoples - the Greeks and the Jews- responsiblefor the originof iconoclasm.30 In the seventeenthcentury Combefis printed the textof "The Letterto the Emperor Theophilus concerningthe Holy and Venerable Images," whichhas long ago been provedspurious and apocryphal.The originaland authentictext of the Letter,dated exactlyApril 836, was publishedin 1864 and republishedin 1912-1913 under the title,"The Letter of the Three Oriental Orthodox [Melkite] Patriarchsto the Emperor Theophilus."31 The differencebetween these two texts,insofar as it concernsour study,is thatthe spurioustext gives a storyof the edict of Yazid ('IEIc) which is almostan exact copy of the above textof GeorgiusMonachus (P.G. XCV, col. 356-357), and the originaltext fails to mentionthe storyat all. For our study,therefore, the storywhich is foundin the spurioustext is to be dismissed as an interpolationreproducing the textof GeorgiusMonachus.32 Cedrenus tells about several Jews fromLaodicea, in Phoenicia,who came to the rulerof the Arabs,Yazid ('1?0), and promisedhim forty years

'2"Martyres Constantinopolitani, Acta Sanctorum,Augustus, II, die nonaaugusti, 435-436. 2nd See Arch.Sergius, The CompleteLiturgical Calendar (Menologion) of the Orient,II, 2, ed. (Vladimir, 1901) 317-318 (in Russian): "The Holy Martyrs who, with Mary the Patrician, sufferedMartyrdom for the Icons." A. P. Rudakov, Outlines in Byzantine Culture III based on Data fromGreek Hagiography (Moscow, 1917) 250 (in Russian) (under Leo de in 729). N. Iorga, "Les origines de l'iconoclasme," Bulletin de la section historique XIII n. 1. A. Fliche-V. Martin, Histoire de V l'Acadimie roumaine, (1927) 142, rEglise, (Paris, 1938) 432, note "d." Kat 'Jov8ctoi,1, Vp 01V, KlL tToo Tw 0? LKEcla, cfwaty`7WTvvcayElpwv, 'EkEXXvV 0-r//Lt7ra~t&l Kal Vita S. Junioris, C, 1116 B-C. See Ladner, op. cit. a&perOKCv1r-d (T1-4. Stephani Migne, P.G., 131, n. 22. of 345-385 31I use the firstspurious text in the edition Migne, P.G., XCV, (erroneously the second text in the edition published among the works of Johnof Damascus), and original furtherthe of L. Duchesne, Roma e rOriente, V, 225-239; 273-285; 349-366. Considering it should be noted that the historian part played by Theophilus in this matter, Egyptian I 177), in Maqrizi (see L. Hautecoeur and G. Wiet, Les mosquees du Caire, [Paris, 1932] fact his discussion of the iconoclasm of Theophilus, declares his attitude was caused by the from that, to a paintingof the Virgin Mary in one of the churches,had been added a breast which milk flowed,drop by drop. 3 On these two textsof the Letter see the detailed discussion of A. Vasiliev, "The Life of St. Theodore of Edessa," Byzantion,XVI, 1 (1942-1943) 216-225. See also Ladner, op. cit., of 131, n. 22. still believed that the Epistola ad Theophilum was a work of John Iorga of Damascus. Histoire de la vie byzantine,II (Bucarest, 1934) 32, n. 3. The spurious text this letterwas printedin German by Ch. W. F. Walch, Entwurfeiner vollstiindigenHistorie X der Ketzereien,Spaltungen und Religionsstreitigkeiten,bis auf die Zeitender Reformation, 2nd ed. (Leipzig, 1782) 153-155. See also C. T. Hefele, Conciliengeschichte,III, (Freiburg 2 im Breisgau, 1877) 375; in French, by H. Leclercq, Histoire des Conciles, III, (Paris, 1910) 631.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 35 of reignif he destroyedthe iconsin all the Christianchurches of his realm. The foolishYazid decided to issue an edict forthat purpose,but by the grace of Christand throughthe prayersof the Motherof God and all the Saints,he died withouthaving had the time actuallyto send the decree throughouthis empire;a yearhad not passed when the divinewrath befell him. His son wishedto killthe Jews as falseprophets, and, on learningthis, theyreturned to the Isaurianregion.33 Zonaras seems to abbreviatethe storyof GeorgiusMonachus. During the reignof Yazid ('I518), two Jewishmagicians, pretending to know the futurethrough their astrological knowledge, came to him and promiseda long reignif he threwout the images of Christand His Motherfrom the churches. The barbarian,without delay, destroyedthe holy icons in his empire,but the divinewrath very soon befellhim. A yearhad not passed afterhe issuedthe edictwhen he died. His successorwished to killthe false prophets,but theysucceeded in escapingto Isauria.34

LATIN SOURCES

The Latin sources are devoid of interestfor our studybecause they reproduceexactly their respective Greek originals. AnastasiusBibliothecarius who livedin theninth century, in his Chrono- graphia Tripertitaexactly reproduces, in Latin, the Greektext of Theoph- anes (de Boor,401-402), whichhas been discussedabove.35 The same text of Theophanes was reproducedin Latin by another writer,Landulfus Sagax. This historian,about whomwe knownothing but his name, lived duringthe timeof the Byzantineemperors Basil II (976- 1025) and ConstantineVIII (976-1028), and, according to the latest editorof his HistoriaRomana, wrote before the year 1025, when Basil II died. Priorto thenew edition,the work of Landulfus Sagax had been known generallyas Historia Miscella and had always been connectedwith the workof the historianPaulus Diaconus.36

Cedrenus, I, 788. Cf. Georgius Monachus. " Zonaras, XV, 3, 1-5; ed. Bonn, III, 257-258. Anastasius Bibliothecarius,Chronographia Tripertita, ed. de Boor. " Landulfi "Historia a Sagacis, Romana, cura di Amedeo Crivellucci,"vol. I in Fonti per la Storia 2 d'Italia, vols. (Rome, 1912-1913). The text which interestsus is XXIII, 17-18 (II, Volume one with an 193-194). opens ample preface (pp. VII-LV). Previously there were eleven editions of the all work, incomplete and interpolated.Through a misprint,the date of the death of Basil II is indicated as 1023 instead of 1025 (p. XXXVIII). I have also used the text in printed Migne, P.L., XCV, 739, under the lengthy title: Historia Miscella ab incerto auctore consarcinata,complectens Eutropii Historiam,quam Paulus Diaconus multis additis . . . ad usque tempora Justinianideduxit. Et Landulphus Sagax, seu quisquam alius continuavitusque ad annum Christi816. This title is taken fromMuratori, Rerum Italicarum

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One Latin textreferring to Yazid's edict,although failing to supplyus withany new material,deserves special attention. As is well known,there were some repercussionsof the iconoclastic troublesin the West,in the FrankishKingdom. The Frankishbishops and Charlemagnerejected the Second Council of Nicaea. But this rejection did not mean thatthey openly sided withthe iconoclasts,for they also re- jected the iconoclasticCouncil of 754. They had holy images and wanted to keep them;but theythought that the Fathersof the Council of Nicaea had gone too farin encouragingwhat might be consideredas idolatry.The Synodof Frankfurtcondemned in 794 the Second Councilof Nicaea. Some troublescontinued after Charlemagne's death, and, underLouis the Pious, the Synod held at Paris in November825 followedthe decisionsof the Synodof Frankfurt.At thisSynod the bishopstried to finda middleway, but leaned definitelytoward iconoclasm when theydecided that pictures mightbe toleratedonly as ornaments.37 The Synod at Paris is interestingfor our studybecause it raised the question: "Whence forthe firsttime had the destructionof images in the Orientalchurches originated" (unde primumexorta sit in ecclesiis Orien- taliumimaginum destructio)? The answerto thisquestion, in the Libellus Synodalis Parisiensis,included, in an abridged form,the reportof the PresbyterJohn, which he had read at the fifthsession of the Council of Nicaea, and in whichhe had mentionedthe namesof the Caliphs Suleiman (Seleman), 'Omar (Humarus), and Yazid (Ezidus). Here is the text of the fourteenthchapter of the Acts of the Synod: Tyrannosquidam fuitSeleman nomine,Aggarenus genere. Quo defuncto successitHumarus in regno,cui iterumsuccessit Ezidus, vir valde levis et insipiens.Huius enim temporibuserat quidam in Beriade maleficusac divinus,Serantapicus nomine, praeceptor iniquorum Hebraeorum et in- imicusDei ecclesiae,qui, ut comperitlevitatem Ezidi protosymboli,accessit ad eum, caepitque illi quaedam divinareac praedicere. Illi autem ad hoc acceptabilisfactus, ac nonmultopost ei dicere coepit: Benignitatituae ex- ponerevolo, unde, me si audieris,addatur tibi longitudovitae et perseve- res in hoc principatuannos triginta,si quidem impleverissermones meos. Ille vero insipienstyrannus obscuratus mente desiderii longaevae vitae: Quicquid mihi,inquit, praeceperis paratus ad perficiendumexisto et, si

Scriptores, I. On Landulfus Sagax, see also a mention in M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischenLiteratur der Mittelalters,I (1911) 263. ' On the Synod at Paris, see Hefele-Leclercq, Histoire des Conciles, IV, 1 (Paris, 1911) 44-48. Fliche-Martin,Histoire de lEglise, VI, L'dpoque carolingienne(Paris, 1947) 237-238. The author of this volume, Emile Amann, calls this Synod "un concile - ou plus exactement une assembl6e consultative."

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 37 consecutus fuero, quod pollicitus es, maximos tibi honores retribuam. Maleficusvero et divinusait ad eum: lube mox generalemscribere epis- tolam,quatinus omnis imaginaria pictura deleatur in omnibusChristianorum ecclesiissive in parietibussive in vasis sacriset in vestibusaltarium, et non solumhaec, sed quae in civitatumplateis sunt adornatae. Quod audiensper- fidusille tyrannuspraecepit omni praefecturae in cunctislocis ecclesiarum imagineset ceterassimilitudines abolere et ita exornavitecclesias Dei. Ab- hincenim caeperunt corruptores imaginum inveniri. Sed ipse tyrannusanno alteromortuus est, et imaginesin pristinumstatum restitutae cum honore et cetera.38

SYRIAC SOURCES If we turnto the Orientalevidence, we findthat the Syriacsources are interestingfor our study,first because theyindicate that the executionof the edict was entrustedto the brotherof the Caliph, an Arab general, Maslamas,who had laid unsuccessfulsiege to Constantinoplein 717, second because theyemphasize that Leo III opened his iconoclasticpolicy following Yazid's example. In the ninthcentury the so-called Chronicleof Pseudo-Dionysusre- veals thatin the year 1035, accordingto the Seleucid era (723-724), Yazid orderedall theimages to be torndown in all theplaces theycould be found, eitherin the temples,or in the churches,or in the (private) houses. There- forehe sentthe workmen to destroythe images wherever they were found.3" Then theanonymous Chronicon ad annumDomini 819 pertinensrecords that Yazid orderedthat all images and likenessesof bronze,wood, stone, and pigmentsin his dominionsbe destroyed.41 " Concilium Parisiense, 825, mense Novembri. MGH, Legum Sectio III. Concilia. Tomus Concilia aevi II. Karolini,I, ed. A. Werminghoff,pars II (Hanover and Leipzig, 1908) 519- 520. Also Mansi, XIV, 460. In Mansi, at the end of this text we read: Hic desunt nonnulla. As we in the Libellus of the see, Synod of Paris, only John'sconcluding statementis missing. It is not to be forgottenthat the West had a very imperfecttranslation of the Acts of the Second Council of Nicaea. " Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahre. QuatriBme partie, publi e et traduite par J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895) 17. On this anonymouschronicle, erroneously attributed to Dionysius of F. Tell-Mahr6, see Haase, "Untersuchungenzur Chronik des Pseudo-Dionysios von Tell- Mahr6," Oriens Christianus,VI (1916) 65-90; 240-270. A. A. Vasiliev, Justinthe First (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1950) 32. A special monograph of R. Abramowski,"Dionysios von Tellmahre, jakobitischerPatriarch von 818-845. Zur Geschichte der Kirche unter dem Islam," Abhandlungen die Kunde des XXV, 1 " fiir Morgenlandes, (Leipzig, 1940). Chronicon Anonymumad A.D. 819 pertinens. Interpretatusest I.-B. Chabot, CSCO, ScriptoresSyri, ser. 3, versio,t. XIV (Louvain, 1937) 11. The text of this chroniclehas been reproduced by the anonymousauthor of the Chroniconad annum Domini 846 pertinens,ed. and transl.by E. W. Brooks, in the Zeitschriftder deutschen morgenliindischenGesellschaft, LI (1897) 584; transl.by Chabot, CSCO, ScriptoresSyri, ser. 3, versio,t. IV (1904) 178.

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In the twelfthcentury, Michael the Syrian,evidently relying on two differentsources, writes twice about Yazid's decree. In the firstpassage he saysthat "Yazid, King of the Arabs [Taiyaye],commanded to teardown and breakin pieces thepaintings and statuesof everythingthat lives and moves, fromtemples and buildings,from walls, from beams and stones;the images whichwere foundin the books were lacerated."41 A littlefurther on, after the above recorddealing exclusivelywith the Caliph, Michael reproduces anothertext wherein he speaksabout theiconoclastic policy of Leo III, and connectsit withthe decree of Yazid. He says: "At thattime the Emperor ofthe Romans, Leo, followingthe example of the King of the Arabs, ordered imagesto be tornfrom the walls,and he destroyedthe imageswhich were in the churchesand in thehouses; thoseof the saintsas well as thoseof the emperorsand others. For thisreason there was a revolutionin the empire of the Romans,and manyprotests of the Romans arose against the Em- 42 peror." In the thirteenthcentury the SyrianJacobite Catholicos, Gregory Abul- Faraj, commonlyknown as Bar Hebraeus, also writes that Yazid commanded,and the images of everyliving being were obliteratedfrom the temples,and fromwalls and wooden panels, and fromstones and from books. And Leo, King of the Romans,also acted in thismanner.43 We learn a new detail fromthe anonymouschronicle known as Chron- iconanonymum ad annumChristi 1234 pertinens,which carries events from thecreation down to A.D. 1234. We read in theChronicle: "In thefollowing year [102 H = 720-721], Maslamas,on the orderof his brother,the King [Yazid], commandedthat all imagesshould be destroyedeither in temples, or on walls,or in [private]houses, as well as in books. And whereverwas founda statueor an image,or a stoneor a piece of wood, or ebony,they

" Chronique de Michel le Syrien,6d. et traduitepar J.-B.Chabot, XI, 19, II (Paris, 1904) 489. 491. On this see a remarkof Andr6 Grabar, "4Idem, XI, 19, II, p. passage very interesting L'Empereur dans l'art byzantin (Paris, 1936) 166-167. Grabar mentionsa fact that occurred in the sixthcentury when some Oriental monkshad torn a portraitof an emperor,which was in their monastery,without giving to this act of vandalism any character of a manifestation against the person of a specificsovereign. They seem to have acted ratheras enemies of any to them image with figures,so that the similarattitude of the iconoclasticemperors appeared Grabar quite natural. Then, after reproducingthe above passage from Michael the Syrian, remarks: "Writingfar fromByzantium, Michael attributedto the iconoclastic emperorswho Semite were sympatheticto him, the acts which he himselfwould have committedas a good and MonophysiteChristian." " Gregorii Abulpharagii sive Bar-Hebraei Chronicon Syriacum, ed. and transl. by P. J. Bruns and G. G. Kirsch. Translation (Leipzig, 1789) 124. Gregorius Bar-Hebraeus, The sources Chronography,transl. by E. A. W. Budge, I (London, 1932) 109. One of his basic was the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 39 brokeit." "4 Fromthis chronicle we learnthat Maslamas was commissioned to carrythe edict intoeffect.

ARAB SOURCES The Arab Moslem writerswho recordedthe edict of Yazid II lived in the tenthand fifteenthcenturies and wrotein Egypt. The historianMuhammad ibn-Yusufal-Kindi, who flourishedunder the short-liveddynasty of the Ikhshidids(935-969) and died at al-Fustat in 961,wrote: "Yazid, son of 'Abd-al-Malik,wrote in A.H. 104 [A.D. 722- 723] orderingthe statuesto be broken;and all of themwere broken,and the likenesseswere obliterated.Among them, was brokena statuein the bath of Zabban-ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz..." 45 From the tenthcentury, we mustturn to the fifteenth.The mostemi- nent historianunder the Mamluk dynasty(1250-1517), the last dynasty in Egyptbefore the conquest of thatcountry by theOttoman Turks in 1517, was Taqi-al-Din Ahmadal-Maqrizi (1364-1442). In his fundamentalwork Al-Khitat(meaning "The Quartersof a Town") or, "A Historicaland Top- ographicalDescription of Egypt,"Maqrizi writes: "Then churcheswere destroyed;crosses were broken; likenesseswere obliterated. All statues weredestroyed - and theywere many - in the year A.H. 104 [A.D. 722- 723]. At thattime, the caliph was Yazid, son of 'Abd-al-Malik.And after Hisham-ibn-'Abd-al-Malikhad become caliph,he wroteto Egypt thatthe Christiansmight follow their customs, and thatthey should not thereafter be disturbed."46 " ChroniconAnonymum ad annum Christi1234 pertinens.Interpretatus est J.-B. Chabot, CSCO, Scr. Syri,ser. 3, versio,t. XIV (1937) 240. On this chroniclesee A. Vasiliev, Justinthe First,28-29. The year A.H. 102 = July12, 720-June 20, 721. " "The Governorsand Judgesof Egyptor Kitdbel-Umard' (el-Wuldh) wa Kitdbel-Quddh of el-Kindi," ed. by Rhuvon Guest (Leiden-London, 1912) 71-72, E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Series, XIX. There are a few verses on Zabban's bath. The mostrecent bibliography on al-Kindi in A. Vasiliev-M. Canard, Byzance et les Arabes, II, 2 (Brussels, 1950) 44. Zabban was Yazid's cousin. See T. W. Arnold, in Islam (Oxford, 1928) 85. 4 Painting Here I am using the two-volumeBulaq edition (1270 = 1852), Al-Khitat,II, 493. In his French translationof this part of Al-Khitat,Paul Casanova gives a much shortertext: "Yazid ibn 'Abd-al-Malikgave orders,in 104, to break idols and statues; all of themwere broken and statuesdisappeared." Memoires publics par les membresde l'Institutfrangais d'archdologie orientale du Caire, III (Cairo, 1906) 168. A new critical edition of Al-Khitatby G. Wiet, which was begun in Cairo in 1911, has not yet been completed; the last part of Wiet's edition which I saw, is the firstfascicle of the fifthvolume published in 1927. It deals with the of conquest Egypt by the Arabs. See the warningagainst Casanova's translationby J. Sauvaget, Introductiond lhistoirede lOrient musulman,82. The above Arabic text of Maqrizi, and its German translationhave been published also by F. Wiistenfeld,"Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriftenzu Gotha und Wien mit tbersetzung und Anmerkungenvon F. W.," Abhandlungender K. Gesellschaftder Wissenschaftenzu Giittingen,III (1847), in Arabic, p. 22, lines 7-10; in German,55-56.

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The otherEgyptian historian, of Mamlukorigin himself, Abu-l-Mahasin ibn-Tagribardi(1411-1469), wrotea historyof Egypt fromthe Arab conquest down to 1453. He devotedthree lines of his textto the edictof Yazid. We read: "Then came to the governorof Egypt a letterfrom the Caliph Yazid-ibn-'Abd-al-Malik-ibn-Marwan[commanding] statues and pictures to be destroyed.All the statues,in his time,were broken,and the pictures in thehouses of Misrand of otherplaces were obliterated."47 Afterwe have discussedthe informationabout Yazid's edict given by the two above-mentionedArab historians,it is rathersurprising to read a statementthat no Arab authormentions the edict.48 Of verygreat interest to this studyis the workof the EgyptianCopt, Severus ibn-al-Muqaffa,who was a contemporaryof the Alexandrian PatriarchPhilotheos (979-1003), and who wrotein Arabica historyof the AlexandrianPatriarchs beginning with St. Mark. He was the firstamong the Coptic Christiansto introducethe Arabic language into churchlitera- ture.49 In his workwe do nothave a merereference to the edict of Yazid II, as it is givenin the chroniclescited above. As a Christian,Severus describes the iconoclasticand otheranti-Christian events which took place in Egypt withfierce indignation and deep hatredagainst the violatorsand offenders of the Christianfaith in general. Severus'records are of greatimportance because theyreveal that the religious life within Egypt, under Moslem rule, had been fullof trialsand tribulationsbefore the edict of Yazid; the edict may thereforebe regarded as the culminatingpoint of the preceding troublesomeperiod, which came to a close afterYazid's death in 724, when his successorHisham (724-743) revokedthe edict. Several recordsfrom Severus'history may be interestingfor our study. The firstrefers to the end of the seventhcentury, to the timeof the Caliph 'Abd-al-Malik(685-705) and to the timeof the PatriarchIsaac, A.D. 686-689. The governor(Emir) of Egypt"ordered the destructionof all the crosseswhich were in the land " Abu-l-Mahasin ibn Tagribardi Annales, ed. T. G. J. Juynbolland B. F. Matthes, I (Leiden, 1855) 278, lines 3-4. See A. Vasiliev-M. Canard, op. cit., II, 2, 269. C. Brockelmann, Geschichteder arabischenLiteratur, 2nd ed., II (1949) 51-52. 48 R. de Vaux, O. P., "Une mosaique byzantine t Ma'in (Transjordanie)," Revue biblique, XLVII (1938) 256. 4' For a detailed discussion of Severus' historicalwork see Georg Graf, Geschichte der christlichenarabischen Literatur,II (Cittai del Vaticano, 1947) 300-306. On the manuscript traditionand the continuationof the work see the preface of Chr. F. Seybold to his edition of the oldest manuscript:Severus ibn-al-Muqaffa, Alexandrinische Patriarchen Geschichte von S. Marcus bis Michael I, 61-767. Nach der diltesten1266 geschriebenenHamburger Handschrift,im arabischen Urtextherausgegeben von ChristianFriedrich Seybold (Hamburg, 1912) p. V-IX. Veriffentlichungenaus der Hamburger Stadtbibliothek.Band 3. I will refer to this editionas Seybold.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 41 of Egypt, even the crossesof gold and silver. And the Christiansin the land of Egypt were troubled. Moreover,he wrotecertain inscriptions and placed themon the doorsof the churchesat Misr and in the Delta, saying in them: 'Muhammadis the greatApostle of God, and Jesusalso is the 50 Apostleof God. But verilyGod is not begottenand does not beget.'" The secondrecord I wishto citehere refers to thelast year of the Caliph 'Abd-al-Malik,i.e. 705, and to the patriarchateof AlexanderII, A.D. 705- 730. Here is the story: "'Abd-al-'Aziz,the governorof Egypt,had a son,the eldestof his sons, called . . . He made him ruler over the whole al-Asbagh. country... Al-Asbaghwas a haterof the Christians,a shedderof blood, a wickedman, like a fiercelion. . . . On the Saturdayof Light (i.e. the Saturdaybefore Easter), al-Asbaghentered into the monasteryof Hulwin, and looked at a picturewhich was adornedaccording to law."5 It was a pictureof our Pure Lady Maryand of the Lord Christin her lap; so whenhe looked at it and considered,he said to the bishops and to several people who were with him,'Who is representedin thispicture?' They answered,'This is Mary, the motherof Christ.' Then he was moved with hatredagainst her, and filledhis mouthwith saliva, and spat in herface, saying, 'If I findan oppor- tunity,I will rootout the Christiansfrom this land. Who is Christthat you " 52 worshiphim like a God?' The storyends withthe miserabledeath of al-Asbagh,upon whomGod sent down vengeance,and withthe death also of his fatherwho died forty days later.It is knownthat 'Abd-al-'Aziz, brother of 'Abd-al-Malik,died as governorof Egypt on May 12, 705," and thatthe Caliph himselfdied the same year. Then, accordingto Caetani,in the yearA.H. 95 = September26, 713- September15, 714, new troublesoccurred within the Egyptianchurch. As Severuswrites: "A wicked edictwas issued thatthe coloredpillars and the marblewhich were in the churchesshould be takenaway, and theywere all

" lines 24-122. Seybold, 121, B. Evetts, "Historyof the Patriarchsof the Coptic Church of III. Arabic text Alexandria," added, translatedand annotated. Patrologia Orientalis,V (1947) 25 See (279). Caetani, ChronographiaIslamica, 826 (21) (in the year A.H. 70 = June25, 689- June 14, 690). G. Wiet, Precis de l'histoired'Egypte, II (Cairo, 1932) 133. " Evetts translates these words: "being carried in procession, according to the rule." (P.O.,V, 52 [306]). 62 Seybold, 134, lines 9-24. Evetts, 52 (306) - 54 (308). " See G. Wiet, Precis de l'histoire d'Egypte (Cairo, 1932) 133, and G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la nation egyptienne,IV, I'Egypte arabe, by G. Wiet (Paris, 1937) 44. The order in cited given by 'Abd-al-Malik 689-694, by G. Wiet, Precis,loc. cit., referredonly to religious emblems outside the churches.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 42 A. A. VASILIEV carriedoff. And the Father Patriarch(i.e. AlexanderII) was sad forthe sake of his church.""5 Later, accordingto Caetani, in the year A.H. 99 = August 14, 717- August2, 718, the Caliph 'Omar II set the churchesand bishopsfree from taxes,so that"the Christianswere secureand prosperous,and so were the churches."But afterthat, continues Severus, 'Omar "began to do evil, for he wrotea letter,charged with sadness, to Egypt,in whichwere written the followingwords: 'Omar commands,saying, those who wish to remainas theyare, and in theirown country,must follow the religionof Muhammad as I do; but let thosewho do notwish to do so go forthfrom my dominions.' And the Christianswere oppressedby the governorsand local authorities and by the Muslimsin everyplace, the old and the young,the sick and the poor amongthem; and 'Omar commandedthat a poll-taxshould be levied fromall menwho would notbecome Muslims.""5 Then,in anotherrecord which belongs also to the timeof the Patriarch AlexanderII, but whichdeals withthe reignof Yazid II, Severusdoes not limithimself to thefact of theissue of theedict only, but also triesto sketch a pictureof Yazid's generaladministration which was veryharmful to the Christians,and unjust. Severusrelates: "Then Yazid reignedafter him, but we have no wish to relate or describewhat happened in his days, on ac- count of the miseriesand trials;for he walked in the path of Satan, and deviated fromthe path of God. As soon as he undertookto govern,he restoredthe taxes of which 'Omar had relievedthe churches and bishopsfor one year; and he requiredgreat sums of moneyfrom the people, so that everyonein his dominionswas distressed.And he was not satisfiedonly withthis, but even issued ordersthat the crossesshould be brokenin every place, and the pictureswhich were in the churchesshould be wiped out. This he commanded,but theLord Christdestroyed him for this reason, and took his soul afterhe had endured,before death, many sufferings.He reignedtwo years and fourmonths. And afterhim reignedHisham, his brother,who was a God-fearingman accordingto the law of Islam, and loved all men,and became the delivererof the orthodox."56" The last record I wish to discuss belongs to the latterperiod of the patriarchateof MichaelI, A.D.744-768. It completesthe picture of a certain uneasinessand animosityin the relationsbetween Christians and Moslems underthe Arab dominationin Egypt,even afterthe repeal of Yazid's edict.

" Seybold, 141. Evetts, 67 (321). See Caetani, ChronographiaIslamica, 1164, 24. ' Seybold, 143-144. Evetts, 71-72 (325-326). Caetani, op. cit., 1226, 32. " Seybold, 144, lines 9-17. Evetts, 72-73 (326-327). See Caetani, op. cit., 1265 (in the year A.H. 101 - July24, 719 -July 11, 720).

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 43 This time the iconoclasticepisode, of ratherlegendary character, takes place in Alexandria.Severus narrates: "And on a certainday the governor of Alexandriadesired to launchthe shipsof the fleeton the sea. And there was a congregationof the orthodox- about ten thousandpersons - in the churchof our Lady Mary. And a youngman of the Moslem saw, painted on thewall, a pictureof theLord Christupon theCross while a soldierwith a spearpierced his side. So he said to the Christians,tempting them, 'What is thisman upon the cross?' They answered,'This is the sign of our God Christ,who died upon the crossfor the salvationof the world.' Thereupon the youngman tooka rod, and mountedto the upper gallery,and pierced the pictureon the otherside, namely the left,mocking and blasphemingat the Christians'words." The storyends withthe youth'smiraculous punish- ment,which led him to confessionof the Christianfaith; he departedto a monasteryand was baptized there.57

ARMENIAN SOURCES The Armeniansources are not devoid of interestfor our study. Firstto be discussedhere is the historicalwork of the vardapetGhevond entitled "A Historyof the Wars and Conquests of the Arabs in Armenia." The author,who lived in the secondhalf of theeighth century and at thebegin- of the is almosta ning ninth, contemporarysource. He relates:58 "After the death of 'Omar,Yazid II [in the textYezdegerd] ascended the throne and reignedsix years."5This man of cruel character,guided by fanaticism, signalizedhis accessionwith a deplorablepersecution of Christians.On his orders which were impregnatedwith a sort of diabolic frenzy,pictures representingthe trueincarnation of our Lord and Saviourwere brokenand destroyed,also theimages of His disciples,as well as the crosseswhich had been erectedin certainplaces so that the faithfulmight venerate before them the consubstantialTrinity. Still more excitedby fanaticism,he at- " Seybold, 179, lines 15-24; 180, lines 1-4. Evetts, V, 149-150 (403-404). SHistoiredes et des des Arabesen guerres conquetes Armnniepar l'6minentGhevond, vardabed arm6nien 6crivain du huitieme siecle, traduite par Garabed V. Chahnazarian et enrichiede notes nombreuses (Paris, 1856) 98-99. See Manook Abeghyan,History of Ancient Armenian I 363-369 Literature, (Erevan, 1948) (in Russian). In 1944, A. Jefferywrote that the date of is somewhat difficultto Ghevond determine,the latter half of the ninthcentury or even the of the tenth beginning century; the latter half of the tenth centurywould suit much better some of the Islamic referencesin the text. A. Jeffery,"Ghevond's Text of the Correspondencebetween 'Umar II and Leo III," The Harvard Theological Review, XXXVII 275-276. In H. Thorossian (October, 1944) 1951, wrote that Ghevond very probably lived in the second half of the eighth century (720-790?). Histoire de la litt6raturearmenienne. Des nos fours 108-109. originesjusqu'd (Paris, 1951) Thorossian is not familiarwith Jeffery's study. " This is an error: Yazid ruled 720-724, i.e., four years.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 44 A. A. VASILIEV temptedto attackthe unshakable rock (Christ and His Church),and, being unable to subjugateit, he himselfwas brokenagainst it. Reachingthe height of his frenzy,he declared war on herbivorousand impureswine, and ex- terminateda greatnumber of themthroughout his dominions.It was the frenzyof Satan whichdrew him into this work of extermination.A suffocat- ing illness,produced by Satan's frenzy,miserably destroyed him: a worthy chastisementinflicted, because of his crimes,by our Lord." This piouslywritten story of Ghevond confirmsonce more the fact of the edict itself,without supplying us with any new material. But another textby the same source allows us to state almostwith certaintythat the iconoclasticmovement under Yazid II was very severe. Describing the Arab campaignagainst Constantinoplein 717-719, whichwas conducted by Yazid's brother,Maslamas, Ghevond permits the latterto make a rather long speech to Leo III. I includehere one passage fromit whichpictures theambitious and aggressivecharacter of theArab general. He is supposed to have said: "Know thatif thourefusest to become subjectto our power, I declareto thee thatI have committedmyself by oath not to returnto my nativecountry before I have brokenthy empire, pulled down the fortifica- tionsof this capital in which thou puttestall thytrust, made, out of the place of thycult, the basilica of Saint Sophia, a bathhousefor my troops, and brokenupon thyhead the wood of the crosswhich thou adorest."60 If we take into considerationthe information,found in the Syriac Chroniconanonymum ad annum Christi1234 pertinensdiscussed above, thatthe same Maslamas,Yazid's brother,was laterentrusted with carrying theedict into effect, we may concludethat the man, who had threatenedto make out of Saint Sophia a bathhousefor his troopsand to breakthe cross upon Leo's head, musthave been a violentexecutor of Yazid's edict;and we know,according to the Arabo-Copticchronicle of Severusibn-al-Muqaffa, thatthe iconoclasticpersecution in Egyptwas unusuallysevere. A historianof theeleventh century, Stephen Asoghik of Taron (Daron), his reproduces,in a very abridged form,the textof Ghevond,including erroneoussix years of Yazid's rule.6' In his turnVardan (Vartan), historian of the thirteenthcentury, summarizes in one phrase the brief storyof Asoghik." " Op. cit., 104. the German translationof H. Gelzer and A. Burckhardt,Des von L Here I use Stephanos Taron,Armenische Geschichte, aus dem altarmenischeniibersetzt (Leipzig, 1907), 94 (Izit). Asoghig completed his historyin 1004. See Manook Abeghyan,History of Ancient Armenian Literature,I (Erevan, 1948) 437-442 (in Russian). , I use La dominationarabe en Armenieextrait de l'histoireuniverselle de Vardan,traduit et annot6 (Louvain-Paris, 1927) 104 (Izit). de l'armenien par J. Muyldermans

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 45 If we now turnto the secondarysources referring to the edict of Yazid II, we see that,with very few exceptions,the historianswho deal withhis edictconsider it a firmlyestablished historical fact. Theydisagree, however, as to the problemof its connectionwith the iconoclasticpolicy of Leo III, as well as to whetheror notthis decree was carriedinto effect in the dominions of the Caliph, and whetherthe authorof the decree was Yazid II, or 'OmarII, or Yazid I.63 " The doubtsexpressed by Wellhausen and Musil,"6regarding the exis- tenceof thedecree of Yazid II and thestory told by Theophanes,have been refutedby Creswell."6 In 1938, J.Crowfoot wrote: "The fruitsof Yazid's decree have been foundin manyplaces in Palestine,Transjordan and Egypt. In Gerasa [in Transjordan]the orderwas executedwith the mostpunctilious discrimina- tion. Inscriptions,decorative patterns, and pictures of buildings were spared,but all representationsof living creatures were ruthlesslydestroyed. The sorryway in which the mutilations,including mosaics, were repaired and patched up afterthe iconoclasticoutbreak in Yazid's reign,shows the wretchedplight of the Christians,though it provesalso thatthe community survivedand stillused the churches."67 The archaeologistJ. E. Quibell attributedto the time of Yazid II the mutilationof the paintingsand sculpturesfound during his excavations,in 1908-1910,at the Monasteryof Apa Jeremiasat Sakkara,in Egypt.68

THE YEAR OF THE EDICT As to the time of the issue of the edict, the sourcesare at variance. Yazid died, at the age of 35-38 years,on January27, A.D. 724 (Sha'ban 25, " who attributethe Among the authors iconoclastic edict to 'Omar II, are H. Leclercq. See K. Hefele-H. Leclercq, Histoire des Conciles, III, 2 (Paris, 1910) 627, n. 3, 630, n. 1. H. Leclercq, "Images (Culte et querelle des images)," Dictionnaire d'archeologie chrietienne et de liturgie,VII (Paris, 1926) col. 231. Of those who have confused Yazid II with Yazid I, we may cite Finlay, Hergenrother,Bury. Finlay, A Historyof Greece, ed. by H. F. Tozer, II (Oxford, 1877) 26. J. Hergenrbther,Photius, I (Regensburg, 1867) 227-228. J. B. Bury, A Historyof the Later RomanEmpire from Arcadius to Irene,II (London, n. 2. " 1889) 388, J. Wellhausen, Das arabische Reich und sein Sturz (Berlin, 1902) 202-203; in English, The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall, transl. by Margaret Graham (Calcutta, 1927) 824-325. Againsthim, C. H. Becker,Islamstudien. Vom Werdenund Wesen der islamischenWelt, I (Leipzig, 1924) 446. ' A. Musil, 'Amra,I, Textband (Vienna, 1907) 155. " Kusejr K. A. C. Creswell, "The Lawfulness of Painting in Early Islam," Ars Islamica, XI-XII (1946) 163, n. 27. "7J. W. Crowfoot,"The ChristianChurches [at Gerasa]" in Gerasa, City of the Decapolis, ed. by Carl H. Kraeling (New Haven, 1938) 172; ibidem, Kraeling,History of Gerasa, 69: he mentionsCrowfoot's above Creswell, n. 28. " suggestion. op. cit., 163, Creswell,op. cit.,1683, n. 28. J.E. Quibell,Excavations at Saqqara (1908-9, 1909-10). The Monasteryof Apa Jeremias(Cairo, 1912) iv.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 46 A. A. VASILIEV A.H. 105), afterabout fouryears of rule. In his reportat the Council of 787 Johnof Jerusalem stated that Yazid died two and a halfyears after the issue of the edict. It shouldnot be forgottenthat his reportis the earliestdocu- mentindicating the timeof the edict,which had been compiledevidently beforethe year of the Council,perhaps in 764, as B. Melioranskyinfers."6 Then, Johnhimself, as the formerSyncellus of the Patriarchof Antioch, had come fromSyria - in otherwords, from the territoryof the Caliphate - and reportedthe eventswhich had takenplace in his own regionnot so manyyears before,so that his informationmust have been correct.The same two-and-one-half-yearperiod is indicatedby thePatriarch Nicephorus, in the earlypart of the ninthcentury.7" Following the statementsof these two writers,and takinginto considerationthe exact date of Yazid's death, January27, 724, the date of the edict shouldbe July,A.D. 721. For further confirmationof thisdate, we mayrefer to theEgyptian historian of the end of the tenthcentury, Severus ibn-al-Muqaffa, who writes,as we have seen above, thatthe edictwas issued as soon as Yazid tookover the government. The Syriacsource, known as Chroniconanonymum ad annumChristi 1234 pertinens,which we have mentionedabove, relying on earliersources, dates the edict in A.H. 102, i.e. July12, 720-June30, 721."7 GeorgiusMonachus, as well as Cedrenus and Zonaras,both of whom followedhim, say that Yazid died beforeeven a year had passed followingthe issuance of the edict,i.e. in 723. The Arab sources,al-Kindi and al-Maqrizi,also attribute " the edictto theyear 722/723 (A.H. 104 = June12, 722-June9, 723). Theophanesdefines the yearof Yazid's edict by fivechronological com- putations.According to him,the edictwas issuedin theyear 6215 fromthe creationof the world. Since he uses here the so-called Alexandrianera, whichstarted in 5492 B.c., the year forthe issuanceof the edict shouldbe the 723.7' Then Theophanes says that it was issued the seventhyear of " o' wyVo See Mansi,XIII, 200: 'tauuv XPvygpfxluua' Melioransky,George rir0ave. of Cyprusand Johnof Jerusalem, TrAdmw98. 7 Migne, P.G., C, 529-532. The textis given above. 71CSCO, Scr. Syri,ser. 3, versio,t. XIV (1937) 240. " Georgius Monachus, ed. Muralt, 629; de Boor, II, 736: o;VT yap EivLavrov7rXApwOEvTro; in Old-Slavonic, Istrin, I, 468. Cedrenus, I, 788. Zonaras, XV, 3, 3; Bonn, III, 258. For referencesto the Arab writerssee above. 1 Theophanes, ed. de Boor, 401. On the very complicated problem of the eras used by Theophanes see G. Ostrogorsky,Geschichte des byzantinischenStaates, 2 ed. (Munich, 1952) 72-73, where the respectiveliterature is indicated. Scholars vary in theiropinions as to whether the Alexandrian era starts fromthe firstof September or from the twenty-fifthof March. If I am not mistaken,the West-European scholars are not familiarwith the Russian Place study by D. Lebedev, "The So-Called Byzantine Era fromthe Creation of the World. and Time of its Origin," Vizantiskoe Obozrenie, III, 1-2 (Yuryev, 1917) 1-52. See also, A. Vasiliev, "Medieval Ideas of the End of the World: West and East," Byzantion,XVI, 2 (1942- 1943) 467-468.

This content downloaded from 213.175.166.202 on Sun, 9 Mar 2014 10:59:25 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ICONOCLASTIC EDICT OF CALIPH YAZID 47 EmperorLeo III (717-741), i.e. in 724; in the fourthyear of Yazid (720- 724), i.e. in 724; in the ninthyear of the ConstantinopolitanPatriarch Germanus(715-730), i.e. in 724; and in theeighteenth year of the Patriarch ofJerusalem, John, or JohnV (707-745), i.e. in 724. Since Yazid II died on January27, 724, all the data of Theophanes should mean that the edict was issued in 723, at the end of his rule. The SyriacChronicle of Pseudo- Dionysius of Tell-Mahr6attributes the issuance of the edict to the year 1035,according to the Seleucid era,which starts on thefirst of October,312 B.C.,i.e. to theyear A.D. 723.74 The decisive source for determiningthe year of Yazid's edict is the report,read at the Council of 787 by Johnof Jerusalem,who lived in the same eighthcentury, in the territoryof the Caliphate,where the edict had been promulgated.As we have pointedout above, the period of two and one halfyears which, according to the report,elapsed fromthe momentof the issuance of the edict to Yazid's death on January27, 724, suppliesus, forthe timeof the edict,the monthof July,A.D. 721. This yearis the exact date of issue ofthe decree,which is confirmedby thePatriarch Nicephorus, by Severusibn-al-Muqaffa, and by the late Syriac chronicle.Almost im- mediatelyon his accession Yazid promulgatedthe edict, which was vio- lentlycarried into effect. The statementof thosesources that his edictwas hardlyknown among the people, and thathe did not have enoughtime to see his decree executed,should be dismissed.75 " Chroniquede Denysde Tell-Mahrd,publi6e et traduitepar J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895) 7. " The 721 is indicated Caetaniin year by his ChronographiaIslamica, 1284 (19), and by n. 32 end Creswell,op. cit.,164, (the of JulyA.D. 721). Ed. Muralt,Essai de chronographie byzantine,I (St. Petersburg,1855) 340.

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