VINEYARD BIODIVERSITY and INSECT INTERACTIONS! ! - Establishing and Monitoring Insectariums! !

! VINEYARD BIODIVERSITY AND INSECT INTERACTIONS! ! - Establishing and monitoring insectariums! !

Prepared for : GWRDC Regional - SA Central (Adelaide Hills, Currency Creek, Kangaroo Island, Langhorne Creek, McLaren Vale and Southern Fleurieu Wine Regions)

By : Mary Retallack

Date : August 2011

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viticulture COVER CROPS

Mid-row crop management options to improve vineyard performance and profitability

By Tony Hoare Hoare Consulting, PO Box 1106, McLaren Flat 5171 South Australia. Email: [email protected]

id-row management can have a significant influence on the yield and quality of winegrapes. The Mmid-row can be a useful tool to improve vineyard performance and profitability. Mid-row management can have a direct benefit to irrigation, pest and disease control, yield, nutrition and the overall profitability of a vineyard. Vineyard mid-row management can be a useful tool for reducing the following: • water usage • pest and disease pressure • weed pressure and reliance on chemical herbicides • fertiliser requirements • slashing • soil compaction • soil erosion. Traditionally, cereal and some broadleaf crops have been cultivated for benefits such as improved organic matter, soil water retention, biofumigation of soil- borne pests and diseases, under-vine weed suppression and erosion control. Mid-row crops are also a great tool to Figure 1. A rolled crop of oats and triticale in McLaren Vale, South Australia. manipulate vine vigour and yield and, therefore, improve overall vine balance. I Application of a starter fertiliser have implemented the following options aids rapid growth and assists in the for mid-row management in recent years production of as much bulk as possible in for targeted areas of vineyard improvement the crop. The thicker the crop, the better in profitability and productivity. the matting effect once rolled and the crop residual benefits can last for more Rolled covercrops than one season. The crop can be rolled at any time Cereal crops of oats, triticale and some when you are satisfied with the growth broadleaf crops, such as faba beans and and can work it into your schedule. There mustards, can be used for this technique is no critical time for rolling, however, either on their own or preferably in allowing the crop to reach seed maturity a mixture. The use of rolled crops is can provide seed and avoids the need to particularly good in sandier soils that cultivate and sow the following season. have good winter rainfall and little of no The crop can be sprayed out with a summer rainfall. This technique seems herbicide prior to or during rolling, to work best on sandier soils that are however, many crops will die off naturally less prone to soil structure damage from after rolling. Rolled cover crops are very annual cultivation compared with heavier useful for increasing vine vigour in low soils with a high clay content. vigour situations. They can be used as a Autumn sowing is the best time while part of precision viticulture management the soil is dry and workable; there is still for low vigour sections of vineyards that warmth in the soil for seed germination maybe compromised by neighbouring and season-breaking rains help rapid trees, shallow soils, etc. establishment before bird damage and reduced seed viability. Spring sowing Rolled crops versus slashing can also achieve good growth, however, rainfall is not as predictable and the soil The benefits of rolling a cover crop maybe more difficult to work after winter far outweigh those of slashing a cover Figure 2. A freshly rolled covercrop in rains. crop. Slashing the covercrop breaks the McLaren Vale, South Australia.

44 www.winebiz.com.au Wine & Viticulture Journal MAY/JUNE 2011 V26N3 viticulture COVER CROPS

crop into smaller pieces that are then • Improved soil health White alyssum (Lobularia maritima) quickly lost in windy weather or broken This occurs through increased levels down early in the season. The stubble of organic matter, earthworm and White alyssum is an exotic perennial that remains after slashing allows weed other invertebrate activity, reduced from southern Europe that has been growth and soil moisture to escape. In compaction and lesser risks of wind found by Australian researchers to be a valuable nectar source for Trichogramma contrast, rolling a crop will provide a thick and water erosion. carverae, a known parasitoid of the ground cover that suppresses weeds and • Savings in under-vine herbicides grapevine pest lightbrown apple moth holds soil moisture. The rolled crop is A reduced weed seed bank in the not affected by wind as the roots are still (LBAM). The Trichogramma wasp uses mid-row reduces the likelihood of weed attached to the stem and the residual can the white alyssum flowers as a pollen seed spreading and germinating under- last for more than one season. source. Planting white alyssum in every vine. Noxious weeds, such as caltrop, The main benefits of a rolled crop are: tenth vine mid-row has been estimated • Savings in tractor time and labour three-cornered jack and innocent weed, by Bernard et al. (2007) to provide a No seasonal maintenance of the mid- are effectively suppressed by rolled pollen source that will attract and sustain row with slashing or herbiciding. This covercrops. a population of Trichogramma sp. in is a benefit during the busiest time of • Aesthetically very pleasing a vineyard. It is thought that another year when other vineyard jobs can take predator of LBAM, the brown lacewing, Characteristics of vineyards precedence. is also attracted to white alyssum as a • Water savings that suit rolled covercrops pollen source. The timing of flowering Mulch from the rolled crop in the for the alyssum is important to attract • Sandy soils mid-row reduces soil moisture loss and the wasps and the other beneficial insect • Soils in which it is difficult to eliminates competition from weeds for predators prior to the larval stage of the establish permanent swards soil moisture. It cools soil temperatures LBAM lifecycle. and lowers the risk of leaf/bunch scorch • Low vigour vineyards White alyssum seeds are tiny and in heatwaves from reflective soils. Soil • Where water supply is limited/ really need to be mixed in with sand or structure is improved and it allows greater expensive another media when sowing. The best moisture infiltration through a better- • New vineyard plantings time for sowing is in the warmer months drained soil surface. Soil moisture is also • Noxious weed pressure, especially of autumn, spring or early summer. Soil retained through improved soil moisture creeping weeds such as caltrop, moisture will be required to germinate resulting from a higher organic matter three-cornered jack and innocent seeds; after establishment it can survive content. weed. with periodic rainfall. Subsurface

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46 www.winebiz.com.au Wine & Viticulture Journal MAY/JUNE 2011 V26N3 COVER CROPS viticulture

irrigation was installed at Kangarilla Road Wines, in McLaren Vale, to assist in establishing alyssum in the mid-rows of every tenth row. At Kangarilla Road, the mid-rows were hand seeded with a fairly patchy result initially (see Figure 3). Ultimately, this was not a big issue as the alyssum spread fairly quickly and was able to out-compete most weeds whilst becoming established.

Vineyard suitability of white alyssum • Suits most soil types • Vineyards with a history of lightbrown apple moth activity, including those with susceptible varieties Figure 3. The results of hand seeding of white alyssum at Kangailla Road Wines, to lightbrown apple moth, e.g., McLaren Vale, after germination. Chardonnay, Riesling, Semillon. • Where weed suppression is required

Saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata and Enchylaena tomentosa)

Native prostrate saltbush species are a potential mid-row management tool with multiple benefits. I stumbled across a ruby saltbush growing naturally in a vineyard in McLaren Vale. It had established itself in a mid-row that had not been worked for a number of seasons (figure 5). Dr Chris Penfold, from The University of Adelaide, has been researching the use of saltbush as a mid- row crop and has found some interesting results. Saltbush is well suited to most soil types and are salt tolerant. It is thought that saltbush could also have the potential to export salt from soil in vineyards with the aid of a fodder- harvesting machine. Sheep will graze saltbush without it being removed completely, so it is well suited to organic and biodynamic vineyards where livestock are, in some instances, used for winter weed management. Saltbush is easy to establish, however was found by Penfold to have a competitive effect with vines for water and nutrients which was thought to reduce yield. Therefore, saltbush is more suited to a situation where vine vigour and yields are excessive. Saltbush is a perennial plant and will continue to grow all year round if given a Figure 4. Newly-germinated white alyssum (top) and their fragrant blooms (bottom). light trimming with a slasher. A slasher predation of lightbrown apple moth eggs • Difficulty in establishing other set high will keep the saltbush low to where saltbush was planted compared swards and mid-row crops the ground. Under-vine creeping can • Livestock grazing be controlled with discs and/or under- with grass and ryegrass. The berries • Weed suppression required vine herbiciding. When using systemic produced by the ruby saltbush are also considered a good source of bush tucker. herbicides undervine, care is needed to Chickory avoid any drift and off-target damage If weed suppression is also required onto parts of the saltbush. then this is a well-suited mid-row crop. Chickory is a broad-leafed perennial The prostrate forms of saltbush form that has a deep taproot. The benefits a thick mat on the soil surface that Vineyard suitability of saltbush of chickory for mid-row management provides ideal conditions for earthworm • High vigour vines are in high-vigour sites where vigour and invertebrate activity. Also observed • Good water supply cannot be controlled by other methods. in the Penfold trial was a much higher • Saline soils/irrigation water From my experience, chickory is easy to

V26N3 Wine & Viticulture Journal MAY/JUNE 2011 www.winebiz.com.au 47 viticulture COVER CROPS

establish, however, I have spoken with vineyard managers who found it more difficult, especially in dry conditions. While slow to establish, chickory provides excellent weed suppression once it reaches full maturity. Once at full maturity, chickory has a taproot that will penetrate hard-packed soils and help improve soil drainage and aeration. The leaves of chickory can be used for salads although they can be very bitter.

Vineyard suitability of chickory • High vigour vineyards/varieties • Heavy soils with high clay content • Compacted soils • Waterlogged soils • Summer rainfall regions • Highly fertile soils with high excessive nitrogen.

Conclusion

Post-harvest weather conditions are Figure 5. Ruby saltbush (Enchylaena tomentosa) in McLaren Vale, South usually the best time for soil preparation Australia, found growing naturally in the mid-row of a vineyard. and establishing a mid-row strategy. A well-researched and implemented mid-row management strategy can yield a benefit in the following season and for many seasons to follow. While initial establishment is an expense, the cost can be amortised over the expected lifespan of the crop, which can be many seasons. When considering mid-row management options there are many different crops with specific requirements for climate and rainfall to maximise growth. The examples provided in this article have all worked well in the McLaren Vale region of South Australia and local advice should be sought prior to planting to ensure their suitability to your regional and site conditions. Dr Chris Penfold will be releasing a weblink on the website of the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (www. gwrdc.com.au) in the near future as a reference guide for the selection and suitability of mid-row cover crop options.

References

Begum, M; Gurr, G.M.; Wratten, S.D.; Hedberg, P. and Nicol, H.I. (2006) Using selective food plants to maximise biological control of vineyard pests. J. Appl. Ecol. 43:547-554. Bernard, M.; Horne, P.A.; Papacek, D.; Jacometti, M.A.; Wratten, S.D.; Evans, K.J.; Herbert, K.S.; Powell K. S.; Rakimov, A.; Weppler, R.; Kourmouzis, T. and Yen, A.L. (2007) Guidelines for environmentally sustainable wine grape production in Australia: IPM adoption self-assessment guide for growers. The Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker 518:26-36. Penfold, C. (2010) Should I try saltbush for a covercrop? The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker 552:16-18. Figure 6. The leafy bulk of chickory after one growing season (top) and an Penfold, C. (2011) University of Adelaide – pers. attractive chickory flower (bottom). conversation.

48 www.winebiz.com.au Wine & Viticulture Journal MAY/JUNE 2011 V26N3 grapegrowing Cost benefit analysis of shelterbelt establishment: Natural enemies can add real value to shelterbelts

Linda J Thomson Ary A Hoffmann Centre for Environmental Stress Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research (CESAR) and Adaptation Research (CESAR) Zoology Department Zoology Department University of Melbourne University of Melbourne Parkville, Victoria Parkville, Victoria [email protected]

It is well established that woody vegetation length of associated fencing. We outline some existing remnant vegetation in which seeds immediately adjacent to vines can enhance common factors to consider in estimating can germinate and grow, and the exclusion natural enemies and their contribution to costs and then calculate the likely costs of of grazing (usually by constructing fencing) pest control (Thomson and Hoffmann, establishing a shelterbelt under two scenarios. which might otherwise destroy new growth. 2009; 2010). In vineyards there are many We also estimate the potential benefit to 2. Revegetation by direct seeding in opportunities to add vegetation – on land production in contributing to pest control which sites are seeded and fenced to achieve requiring restoration such as riparian zones within a vineyard. Comparison of costs and revegetation. along waterways and eroded areas, or on land benefits reveals a substantial gain over the life Revegetation using seedlings in which unsuitable for productive grapegrowing due of the vegetation. seedlings are first grown in nurseries and then to salinity, water logging or requirements for transplanted to the revegetation site. wastewater disposal. There will always be a Costs associated with Common costs incurred in revegetation cost to the establishment of such vegetation, establishing vegetation projects under these options may include and in this article we present an analysis of Three methods of revegetation are project planning and management, transport the likely costs incurred and the potential commonly used: costs for machinery/seeds/ seedlings/personnel, benefit this may bring in terms of increased Assisted natural regeneration in which mechanical and chemical site preparation, abundance of natural enemies. The analysis is no seed or seedlings are added to the site, but fencing, weed control, seed and direct seeding based on extensive surveys of vegetation, and seed stores from remnant trees and shrubs, costs or seedlings and seedling establishment abundance and diversity of natural enemies in and/or seed stores already present in the soil costs, and tree guards/stakes. Several types of the adjacent vineyards in Victoria and South are encouraged to germinate. Assisted natural costs decrease on a per hectare basis as the size of Australia (Thomson and Hoffmann, 2006, regeneration relies on having adequate seed the revegetation project increases. These include 2008). Across these sites, shelterbelts adjacent stores available either in remaining trees, shrubs fencing, site preparation, line/boom spraying of to vineyards are typically in the range of and grasses in the area, or in the soil of the herbicides, and direct seeding, most of which 4 to 10 metres in width. Costs are variable area being regenerated (Casey and Chalmers, can be attributed to a fixed cost per project for depending on whether the grower undertakes 1993). The primary factor affecting success of mobilisation and transport of equipment. Other the revegetation or contracts the work to an assisted natural regeneration is the preparation cost components including seedlings, seed and outside agency, and also depending on the of an adequate receptive seedbed around tree guards are more likely to be independent of

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38 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2010 – Issue 554 grapegrowing the size of the project, i.e. their cost per hectare does not change with project size, except for the bulk buying of components. Site preparation usually involves two elements: weed control and soil disturbance. Both aim to allow seed or seedlings to grow more easily. A range of mechanical site preparation techniques is available – commonly deep ripping alone or associated with cultivation. The average cost per hectare by a contractor is A$60 for deep ripping only (tractor and ripper) or $140 for deep ripping and cultivation. Costs will be reduced for projects undertaken with a large in-kind contribution by growers, or undertaken using machinery owned by organisations such as landcare groups or Greening Australia. For a grower using their own ripper and tractor, it is estimated that deep ripping would cost 1.2 hours labour per hectare plus a set-up time of 30 minutes to 1.5 hours labour. Pre-planting weed control is commonly undertaken with boom spraying, and post- establishment weed control by spot spraying. Weed control prior to establishment of new plants will reduce competition for nutrients, Tree guards and stakes are often put in place when planting seedlings for protection from rabbits and water and light, and usually uses a knockdown other small browsing fauna, or to enhance growth due to the ‘greenhouse effect’. herbicide only, most commonly glyphosate, or Photo courtesy of Greening Australia less commonly a combination of knockdown and residual herbicide, with simazine the boomline sprayer, either on site or through although direct seeders are made available most commonly used residual herbicide. With a local Landcare organisation. Machinery by interested commercial enterprises such as labour, equipment hire and herbicides, the owned by a grower or local organisation will Alcoa (the Alcoa Machinery Loan Scheme) at cost of boomline spraying in preparation to clearly significantly reduce costs compared about $30 per day (Greening Australia, 2009). planting by a contractor is estimated at about with either hire of machinery or contracting If seedlings are used rather than direct seeding, $90 per application, and three applications are this component of revegetation. the recommended rate of planting is 1000/ha common. However, if the grower has access to Vegetation may be put in place by direct and the cost of these depends on the size of the machinery (as is commonly the case) the cost seeding or planting seedlings of various sizes. seedlings and the size of the order. We estimate will clearly be reduced. Chemical costs, at For direct drilling and planting seeds, the major costs using smaller seedlings bought in quantity $15-$30 per application of glyphosate or other variable is whether the grower is undertaking (80 cents/seedling for purchases of more than knockdown chemical applied at 1-2 litres/ha, the revegetation or employing a contractor. 1000), but more advanced seedlings will cost up will depend on the number of applications Seed is available for $250/ha compared with to $6 each (200-300 millimetre pots). Seedlings required to achieve control. Again, we have a rate charged by contractors of about $400/ may be planted by hand or by a mechanised not considered machinery costs as they are ha plus labour costs. The cost of hiring a planter. There will be greater labour costs with too variable – depending on access to tractor/ direct seeder will contribute to grower costs, the former (contractor: 50c/plant, labour and

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hire of hand planter) and greater machinery costs with the latter (commercial hire of mechanised planter may be $100/hr, although VINE again some are available through community organisations or similar for $20/hr or even free). The labour costs vary widely with the skill of the planters, with three to four labour hours per 100 seedlings quoted for contractors, six to 20 hours for experienced farmers/volunteers, and 20-96 hours for inexperienced volunteers. And then there is protection for the revegetation, fencing for TALK the whole area, and individual tree guards. Tree guards and stakes are often put in place when planting seedlings for protection from rabbits and other small browsing fauna, or to enhance growth due to the ‘greenhouse effect’. There is a range of practices here – they may be made ‘at home’ with materials such as cartons or cut-down plastic bottles to cost as little as 17c, but if purchased with the seedling they may add as much as $1 to the cost of each plant. Fencing is a major cost of any revegetation project. Fencing is generally included to exclude livestock and native/feral animal species, but it may not be considered essential for vineyards where there are generally no grazing animals and the cost of rabbit proof fencing may be difficult to justify. A range of fencing is possible with the extremes being a plain wire fence ($1100 per kilometre) and a rabbit proof fence (one barbed, four plain wire, rabbit mesh, 90 centimetres high plus 15cm buried – 105cm total, cost: $3550/ km) with additional labour costs. We used the cost of a plain wire five stranded fence and compared this with no fencing. Obviously fencing costs depend on the shape of the revegetated area. The common configuration seen in vineyards is lineal, along roads, between blocks, along water ways, and around sheds. The cost of fencing is greatly increased for lineal configurations. A ‘square’ hectare requires 400m of fencing, but a hectare of shelterbelt 4m wide would require 5km of fencing if fenced on all sides. We detail the cost of establishing 1ha of shelterbelt 4m wide (2500m long) and 10m wide (1000m long) by a contractor and a grower, with and without fencing (Table 1), and use this to calculate the cost per 100m of shelterbelt for comparison (Table 2). We use the cost of revegetation with seedlings as this appears to be the most common approach in vineyards (pers obs, Greening Australia), although this is more expensive than assisted natural regeneration and seeding. However, there is little hard data on the relative success of the different methods in regions and on different sites. Without a better understanding of the success of different methods, it is not possible to assess whether a method that is cheaper at the establishment phase is really the most cost effective revegetation option available.

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40 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2010 – Issue 554 grapegrowing

Table 1. An example of the cost of establishment of a shelterbelt (4 metres and 10m wide) by a contractor or grower using seedlings, with and without the most economical fence (five stranded wire). 1 The smallest used. Tubestock, the most commonly used, range from $1-1.30 each. Contractor Grower Cost description Cost/ha for vineyard shelterbelt ($) Cost description Cost/ha for vineyard shelterbelt ($) a 4m (4m x 2500m) a 4m (4m x 2500m) b 10m (10m x 1000m) b 10m (10m x 1000m) With fencing Without fencing With fencing Without fencing Site preparation using 60 60 Site preparation deep 15 15 contractor deep ripping ripping. No machinery cost, in-kind labour at $15/hr Fencing materials @ $1100 a 5508 Fencing materials @ a 5508 per kilometer (plain wire) b 2461 $1100/km b 2461 Fencing labour @ 44 hours a 7512 Fencing labour, in-kind, a 3305 labour/km = $1500/km b 3357 labour cost estimated at b 1477 Labour cost estimated at $15/hr $660/km $34/hr Boom spraying three 267 267 Boom spraying three times 90 90 times @ chemical cost only $89/ha/application 1Seedings 80c/seedling 800 800 Seedlings 80c/seedling 800 800 Plastic guards plus stakes 1000 1000 Grower supplied milk 170 170 carton or similar guards and stakes Mechanised planting @ 500 500 Mechanised planting hire 100 100 50c/plant labour and planter @ $100/hr planter hire Total cost per ha a 15710 2607 Total cost per ha grower a 9992 1175 contractor b 7877 b 5113

Estimation of benefit of natural for purchase – we use the value of these light brown apple moth control and Aphytis enemies provided by presence of in our calculation. With the exception of for scale control), several ladybird beetles vegetation adjacent to a vineyard Trichogramma, these are used as examples as including Chilocorus for scale control and We estimate the value of vegetation to there is an amazingly diverse range of natural Cryptolaemus (‘mealybug destroyer’) for pest control by calculating the value of the enemies present in vineyards, far beyond mealybug control, a staphylinid or rove natural enemies provided if these animals the species that are commercially available. beetle, Dalotia coriaria (Kraatz) and several were purchased from commercial suppliers. The commercially available natural enemies predatory mites, and generalist predator green There is a limited number of species available include: two parasitoids (Trichogramma for lacewings, Mallada signata (Schneider). Note

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42 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2010 – Issue 554 grapegrowing

that not all of these are identified as relevant Table 2. Cost per 100 metres of establishing shelterbelts of common widths in vineyards in Victoria and to vineyard pest control.The existence of South Australia. vegetation adjacent to a vineyard increased Established by With fencing Without fencing Cost/ha Cost/100m for a. 4m Cost/ha Cost/100m for a. 4m the abundance of a range of natural enemies a. 4m x 2500m x 2500m a. 4m x 2500m x 2500m in the vine canopy (Table 3). The value of b. 10m x 1000m b. 10m x 1000m b. 10m x 1000m b. 10m x 1000m adjacent vegetation to the grower is at least ($) ($) ($) ($) Contractor 15,710 628 2607 104 $516-$696 per year for each 100m of native 7877 788 216 vegetation shelterbelt of 4-10m width. It is Grower 9992 400 1175 47 also important to emphasise that in this we 5113 510 88 have only considered a small number of the Table 3. Natural enemies increased by adjacent vegetation in vineyards in Victoria and South Australia, diverse range of natural enemies enhanced by and the value of these calculated based on price from commercial suppliers. vegetation. If a value could be put on all these, Natural enemy Examples from what is Price/unit Increase in Value/100 m commercially available ($/unit) abundance/ha shelterbelt ($) the overall value is likely to be much higher. Parasitoids Trichogramma 0.0009 5673 5.00 The cost of establishing a typical 4m (10m) Aphytis 0.0044 wide shelterbelt, as commonly found associated Ladybird beetles Chilocorus, Cryptolaemus 0.40 1200 480-660 0.28 with vineyards in Vic and SA, ranges from $628 Staphylinid beetles Dalotia 0.06 520 31.00 ($788) per 100m for fenced shelterbelt put in Total value for 100m vegetation 516-696 place by a contractor to $47 ($88) for an unfenced Table 4. Summary of overall benefit cost for 100 metres of vegetation 4m or 10m wide with a lifetime of shelterbelt put in place entirely through grower 20 years. provided labour and machinery. The minimum Established by Fenced/ Width(m) Cost Benefit /year Net gain first Net gain over benefit derived from 100m of shelterbelt is $516- unfenced ($) ($)1 productive 20 years2 $596. Based on the costs and benefits estimated year1 ($) Contractor Fenced 4 628 550 -78 7622 here, there will be a net gain for every year except 10 788 550 -238 7462 the first year for a fenced shelterbelt installed by Unfenced 4 104 550 446 8146 10 216 550 334 8034 a contractor. For a shelterbelt lifetime of 20 Grower Fenced 4 400 550 150 7850 years, with benefit in terms of natural enemies 10 510 550 40 7740 being derived from conservatively the fifth year, Unfenced 4 47 550 503 8203 10 88 550 462 8162 this represents a net gain ranging from $7462 for the most expensive option (fenced 10m 1 Mean value based on our measurements in vineyards with shelterbelt widths 4-10m. It is possible that shelterbelt installed by a contractor) to $8203 natural enemy abundance will vary with width. for an unfenced 4m shelterbelt installed by the 2 Assuming production of natural enemies at the rate assessed in our studies for five to 20 years post grower (Summarised in Table 4). establishment, with a single establishment cost.

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March 2010 – Issue 554 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 43 grapegrowing

Other issues when However, revegetation is generally designed to be integrated with computing costs and benefits block boundaries to allow maximum production to continue, such We account only for the benefits and costs of the project to the as plantings along fence boundaries, and small block plantings in grower – effects of establishment/increase of vegetation may be gully and waterlogged areas. There are also potential tax deductions broader through social, environmental and employment effects. associated with introduction of vegetation. If land is either retained The latter includes social or environmental benefits that may as remnant or revegetated and a covenant is placed on the land enhance the position/image of the industry and/or limit potential so that future development is not possible, a tax deduction for the negative effects of viticultural activities. Vegetation may make it value of the land may be allowable. Some municipalities provide easier to continue to farm near residential boundaries. This might rate exemptions for this portion of the land. However, there is too include attributes such as protection from spray drift, noise, or the much variation in these factors to include them in our cost/benefit visual impact of farm sheds or processing plants, and also more calculations. We have also not considered other costs which may esoteric attributes such as visual amenity of the area, contribution be incurred, such as site specific costs due to slope, rocks, fertiliser to tourism through encouraging visitors, and cellar door sales. application or watering, erosion control matting, the use of mulch or While these benefits are not included here, they may nevertheless straw to suppress weeds, reduced water loss, or further spraying to be substantial and help growers offset costs. Although communities continue weed control. might benefit from revegetation projects without contributing to Finally, we re-emphasise that the estimated direct benefits in costs, they may contribute labour and funding in some instances. terms of pest control come from a consideration of only five natural Our assessment also excludes the benefits or costs of currently non- enemies that can be valued commercially. In a typical vineyard there marketed commodities such as potential future carbon accounting are at least 20 different major classes of natural enemies whose value and contribution to pollution remediation. cannot be computed but which is nevertheless providing important We also do not consider the value of the land. There are two ecosystem services to growers. ሁ aspects to this – imputed lost value and imputed gained value. If the land given over to revegetation could have otherwise been Acknowledgements used for grapegrowing, there has been potential income lost. This research was supported by the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation with support from Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers through their investment body. Infrastructure support for this research was provided by the Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research and a Federation Fellowship funded by the Australian Research Council. Cost estimates derived from Greening Australia data can be accessed at www.greeningaustralia.org.au. References Casey, MF and Chalmers, IT, 1993. Tree Tops: the tree planting book for farmers. Kondinin Group, Western Australia. Greening Australia. Cost effective shelterbelt management.www.greeningaustralia. org.au/uploads Our Resources - pdfs/VIC_Footprints5.pdf Schirmer, J and Field, J, 2001. The Cost of Revegetation. Australian National University, Australia. Final report for Greening Australia. Thomson, LJ and Hoffmann, AA, 2006. The influence of adjacent vegetation on the abundance and distribution of natural enemies in vineyards. Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 514, 36-42. Thomson, LJ and Hoffmann, AA, 2008. Vegetation increases abundance of natural enemies of common pests in vineyards. Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 37th Annual Technical Issue, 34-37. Thomson, LJ and Hoffmann, AA, 2009. Vegetation increases the abundance of natural enemies in vineyards. Biological Control, 49 259–269. Thomson, LJ, Hoffmann, A.A., 2010. Natural enemy responses and pest control: importance of local vegetation. Biological Control 52, 160–166.

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44 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2010 – Issue 554 grapegrowing Vegetation increases abundance of natural enemies of common pests in vineyards

Linda J. Thomson Ary A. Hoffmann Centre for Environmental Stress and Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research, Adaptation Research, Zoology Department, University of Melbourne, Zoology Department, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia Parkville 3010, Australia

Vegetation exists adjacent to vineyards for a variety of reasons. It Many natural enemies like spiders, brown and green lacewings, may be remnant or planted to provide protection from chemical drift, ladybird beetles and predatory bugs are familiar and visible in corridors for wildlife, shelter for stock, treatment of soil salinity, vineyards (Buchanan and Amos, 1992; Thomson et al. 2007). These revegetation to rehabilitate waterways or removal of waste water by can all make an important contribution to pest control, but there are providing a soak with associated transpiration. Previous research many other much smaller but important natural enemies, predatory has shown a variety of natural enemies including parasitoids, mites and parasitoids. Predatory mites contribute to control of spiders, beetles and predatory mites can increase in crops adjacent hard to reach eriophyoid mites. Parasitoids, commonly wasps but to vegetation (Tsitsilas et al. 2006), and this is supported by our sometimes flies, these insects, often tiny (including the smallest research at one vineyard in the Yarra Valley reported in GGWM known), lay their eggs inside eggs, larvae or pupae of LBAM, scale, (Thomson and Hoffmann, 2006a). We asked are these effects of mealybugs and even weevils or other pest beetles and instead of vegetation adjacent to vineyards on the natural enemies of vineyard the emergence of a pest to do more damage, another generation of pests consistent across a range of vineyards with remnant and parasitoids emerges to parasitise more hosts. The range of parasitoids shelterbelt vegetation? Here we report results from seven vineyards known to attack vineyard pests (Thomson et al. 2007) is constantly in Victoria and are currently analysing data from a further 30 sites expanding (eg Paull and Austin 2006). across Victoria and SA. The best known parasitoid in vineyards is Trichogramma (Figure 1) active in control of LBAM in all vineyards (Buchanan, 1977; Role of natural enemies in controlling vineyard pests Danthanarayana, 1980; Glenn and Hoffmann, 1997; Thomson et A range of vineyard pests can impact on grape production: the most al. 2003). A single female will parasitise an entire raft of light widespread are caterpillars or larvae of light brown apple moth (LBAM). brown apple moth eggs and instead of 20-70 light brown caterpillars Less frequently, or less widespread in any given season, are mealybugs hatching, 20-70 Trichogramma emerge to parasitise more eggs (particularly long-tailed mealybugs), scale, weevils, Rutherglen bug, (Figure 1). A single female may parasitise as many as 40 eggs in two fig longicorn, larvae of pink cutworm, thrips, caterpillars of grapevine moths and wingless grasshoppers. For all these pests there is enormous potential for natural enemies to make a significant contribution to their control. Natural enemies are always there ready to respond to pest invasions, they can access hard to reach pests like LBAM protected in webbing in grape bunches or leaf rolls, mites in leaf buds, mealybugs under bark or in trellis pole gaps, adult scale protected by a hard protective cover and weevil larvae in vine canes. Synthesis bird netting Drape-over nets: Side nets: • Vinenet • Vineside • Multivine • Vineside EZ-10 • Polytape Sidenetting For full specifications and FREE samples please contact your Synthesis representative.

Fig. 1. (Top) Trichogramma carverae (female) on LBAM egg mass from Ph: 1800 331 521 laboratory colony (laid on plastic cup) and (bottom) LBAM egg mass, synthesisfabrics.com fully parasitised. Holes in each LBAM egg are emergence holes for adult

BCA/GPL744A Trichogramma.

34 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au Annual Technical Issue 2008 grapegrowing

Table 1. Description of remnant (existing prior to vineyard) and shelterbelt (planted after vineyard) vegetation. There is understory at each site consisting of predominantly exotic grasses: Yorkshire fog Holcus lanatus L., phalaris Phalaris aquatica L., browntop bent Agrostis capillaries L., brome Bromus diandris. L., perennial rye grass Lolium perene L., couch grass Cynodon dactylon, L. with milk thistle, Sonchus oleraceus L. (F. Asteraceae), plantain medic Plantago lanceolata L. (F. Plantaginaceae), white clover Trifolium repens L. (F. Papilionaceae) and a saltbush, fat hen Chenopodium album L. (F. Chenopodiaceae).

Category/ Site Trees and shrubs common name scientific name (Family) red flowered paperbark, Melaleuca hypericifolia (Myrtacea), heath tea-tree Leptospermum myrsinoides (Myrtacea), black wattle Acacia mearnsii SB1 (Fabaceae ), Spanish heath Erica lusitanica (Ericaceae), swamp gum Eucalyptus ovata (Myrtaceae), blue gum E. globulus (Myrtaceae) SB2 red flowered paperbark, heath tea-tree, black wattle, Spanish heath, swamp gum , blue gum, Burgan Leptospermum phylicoides Myrtaceae Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon (Fabaceae/Mimosaceae), prickly tea-tree Leptospermum continentale (Myrtaceae), prickly Moses Acacia verticillata SB3 (Fabaceae/Mimosaceae), Eucalyptus sp. (Myrtaceae), manna gum Eucalyptus viminalis (Myrtaceae) Eucalyptus sp.( Myrtaceae), swamp paperbark Melaleuca ericifolia (Myrtaceae), blackwood, tea-tree Leptospermum sp. (Myrtaceae), Callistemon SB4 linearis Myrtaceae, wooly tea-tree Leptospermum lanigerum Myrtaceae Swamp gum, river bottlebrush Callistemon sieberi (Myrtaceae), Furze Hakea Hakea ulicina Proteaceae, Burgan Leptospermum phylicoides SB5 (Myrtaceae), honey bracelet myrtle Melaleuca armillaris (Myrtaceae) Flinders Range Wattle Acacia iteaphylla (Fabaceae/Mimosaceae) Flinders Rangewattle, crimson bottlebrush Callistemon citrinus (Myrtaceae), Howitt’s wattle Acacia howittii (Fabaceae/Mimosaceae), Ovens wattle SB6 Acacia pravissima (Fabaceae/Mimosaceae), honey bracelet myrtle, messmate Eucalyptus oblique (Myrtaceae), common heath Epacris impressa (Epacridaceae), Hazel Pomaderris aspera (Rhamnaceae), Clematis REM1 Clematis aristata (Ranunculaceae) REM2 Messmate, common heath, Hazel, days or 120 eggs in her lifetime. In addition We repeated sampling at both the shelterbelt trellis system so the lower margin was 1m to Trichogramma, there are about 26 other (SB1) and remnant (REM1) margins of the above the ground. Sampling was repeated 4 known parasitoids of eggs, caterpillars and vineyard reported in the earlier analysis times over 4 months (November-February). pupae LBAM (Paull and Austin 2006) all (Thomson and Hoffmann, 2006a) and at 6 Results show that vegetation adjacent to of which will kill the host. We have found additional sites, with sampling points at the a vineyard influenced the abundance and over 50 different parasitoids in surveys in margin of the vegetation and in the vines distribution of natural enemies but also vineyards throughout south eastern Australia, 5m and 50m from adjacent shelterbelts (SB demonstrates the complexity of these effects. the role of all is not known but they include 2-6) and adjacent remnant vegetation (REM No site showed consistently high or low control agents of scale, mealybugs and even 2). Vegetation at each site is given in Table numbers of all groups. Vines adjacent to the Rutherglen bugs and weevils. 1. Under-vine and inter-row management vegetation had higher numbers of parasitoids, practices were similar: soil under the vines was staphylinids and predatory thrips (at 8 of Vegetation can support natural enemies bare earth following application of herbicides 8 sites), and spiders, Trichogramma and and provide a source of pest control in the (Roundup and Basta®), and between the vines coccinellids (5 of 8) in the canopy assessed vineyard was mown grass. Only chemicals of low with yellow sticky traps and higher numbers The vineyard environment can be a bit hard toxicity to beneficials (based on IOBC ratings of spiders, predatory mites and parasitoids at on natural enemies, and adjacent vegetation - http://www.koppert.nl – and related data ground level assessed with pitfall traps (see provides reservoirs for new invasions, – see Thomson & Hoffmann 2006b) were Fig 2.). Changes in the relative abundance of after winter when the canopy is returning used at all sites, including sulphur (Thiovit®) beneficials extended well into the vineyards: or following the application of chemicals (at 200g/100L) and tebufenozide (Mimic®). for the parasitoids from pitfall traps, for or other vineyard activities. By providing At each sampling point we placed a pitfall instance, numbers were still higher 100m away resources such as shelter, overwintering sites trap to sample invertebrates at ground level from the shelterbelt. Similarly, for ground and food sources, adjacent vegetation can and a yellow sticky trap to sample canopy spiders, differences were detected 50m away influence natural enemies present not only in invertebrates. Pitfall traps consisted of an from the remnant vegetation. These results the vegetation itself, but also in the vineyard. outer plastic sleeve, 22mm diameter x 150mm suggest that vegetation can exert effects on A number of natural enemies of LBAM, deep with a glass test tube 20mm diameter numbers of natural enemies well away from scale, mealybugs and pest mites are thought inserted so that the top of the trap was the vegetation itself. ▲ to benefit from food sources and shelter flush with the soil surface. The sticky traps available in remnants and shelterbelts. These were commercially available yellow sheets include parasitoids, lacewings, predatory (240mm x 100mm) (Agrisense) which are LANGE mites, predatory bugs and spiders. At the sticky on both sides. These were suspended same time, there are reports of vegetation from the lower wire of a vertical two-wire VINTNERS increasing pests (Coventry et al 2004), so it (Australia) PTY LTD is important to determine that there are no increases in pests associated with vegetation Leading Sampling with yellow sticky traps (in the THE ONE METRE canopy) and with pitfall traps (at ground level) “DIG STICK” Grape & Wine at 8 sites at vineyards with adjacent remnant or shelterbelt vegetation in the Yarra Valley An easy to use tool in the evaluation of soil profile for root depth and moisture, etc. Marketers shows that a range of vegetation will increase Just drive into ground, twist and withdraw. Put a professional in charge a range of natural enemies both in the vine The ‘DIG STICK’ is tapered to aid withdrawal of your grape & wine canopy and on the ground. We use the terms and has an open face, which gives instant marketing this season remnant and shelterbelt to refer to origin of access to the core content. Fax email or call with your vegetation: remnant vegetation was present Manufactured (in Adelaide) from high-grade grape and wine availability now prior to vineyard establishment and shelterbelt 30mm solid steel rod, heat-treated for durability. & for the 2009 vintage refers to vegetation planted subsequent to Spurr Soil Probes vineyard establishment but reference to the 65 Francis Street Contact Jan Wilkie M. 0427 714 718 P. 08 86 632 220 table listing vegetation at each site shows Brighton North Phone 08 8296 4138 SA 5048 Fax 08 8296 4386 F. 08 86632 223 considerable overlap (Table 1). E. [email protected]

Annual Technical Issue 2008 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 35 grapegrowing

staphylinid beetles Trichogramma

coccinellids parasitoids Mean abundance/trap

Distance from vegetation (m) Fig. 2. Mean number of natural enemies for groups which decrease with distance: collected per trap with yellow sticky traps in the vegetation (V), at the vineyard edge (5m) and 50m into the vineyard. Solid lines represent sites with adjacent remnant and dashed lines adjacent shelterbelts. Error bars represent standard errors.

FRUIT ZONE NETTING

Fig. 3. The percent of lightbrown apple moth eggs taken by predators at the • Wide range of fruit zone [side] netting margin of the vegetation and in the vineyard canopy 5 m and 50 m from the available. vegetation at one site (SB1) in 2006 and 2007 and at 6 sites in 2007.

• Coloured netting available to reduce visual We also investigated natural predation of LBAM eggs so as to pollution. directly assess the impact of vegetation on pest control. We placed LBAM eggs, taken from our colony at University of Melbourne • Apply and remove with the Netline Netting where LBAM lay eggs on plastic cups which are cut up to give a Machine - no tractor or hydraulics required. plastic card with 2-3 egg masses on each. Egg cards were placed • Minimise soil compaction, access rows at each of the 15 sampling points (5 vegetation, 5 each at 5m and 50m) at each of the 6 shelterbelt sites and were left for 5 days in after netting. the vine canopy and then collected. Cards were scored for missing • Less than half area of netting required egg masses and the percentage of egg masses lost to predation was calculated for each sampling point. On collection, 40% of egg compared with drape nets. masses were missing (assumed to be due to predation). Predation of • Reduce OH&S issues [reduce hand and eggs was positively associated with nearness to vegetation at 4 of the 6 shelterbelt sites (Figure 3). Predation of LBAM associated with the back injuries] vegetation gives direct evidence for a positive effect of vegetation on • Discounts on netting available. LBAM control. The relatively higher predation rate near vegetation and positive correlation between predation and numbers of natural enemies suggests that high numbers of natural enemies have positive www.netlinenetting.com.au effects on pest control. On average, at sampling points close to the Contact Perc O’Brien on 0458 545 502 vegetation, the number of LBAM larvae would have been reduced from 1000 to 400 by the action of natural enemies.

36 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au Annual Technical Issue 2008 grapegrowing

The taxa increased by adjacent vegetation-predatory mites, spiders, encourage environmentally sensitive and targeted crop protection staphylinids, lacewings, predatory flies (Tachinidae, Cecidomyiidae, measures. Complex vegetation can provide ecosystem services for Syrphidae) and a wide range of parasitoids including species of a vineyard. Trichogramma - all have a potential role as natural enemies in vineyards. In addition to their importance as generalist predators (see Acknowledgements Michaels 2006), our collection of staphylinids included several species This research was supported by the Grape and Wine Research of Aleocharine staphylinids (genus Oligota) which are known to be and Development Corporation with support from Australia’s predators of phytophagous mites (eg bud, blister and rust important grapegrowers and winemakers through their investment body. in vineyards) (Paoletti and Lorenzoni, 1989). Spiders have wide host Infrastructure support for this research was provided by the Centre ranges (Memmott et al. 2000) allowing adaptation to fluctuations for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research and a Federation in host availability (Nyffeler et al. 1992) and they are likely to be Fellowship funded by the Australian Research Council. predators of multivoltine pests like LBAM. Lacewings are voracious predators of mites, mealybugs and LBAM eggs. A multispecies References complex of parasitoids such as that seen here can improve control Buchanan, G. A. (1977) The seasonal abundance and control of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Australian Journal of Agricultural of a range of pests (Rodriguez and Hawkins, 2000) and a range of Research, 28, 125-132. parasitoids attack vineyard pests (Thomson & Hoffmann 2006a) Buchanan, G. A. & Amos, T. G. (1992) Grape pests. Viticulture. Volume 2 Practices (eds B. G. including LBAM. Predatory mites contribute to control of eriophyoid Coombe & P. R. Dry), pp. 209-231. Winetitles, Adelaide. mites, tachinids parasitise LBAM, some syrphids also eat caterpillars Danthanarayana, W. (1980) Parasitism of the light brown apple moth, Ephiphyas postvittana (Walker), by its larval ectoparasite, Goniozus jacintae Farrugia (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), in and may eat LBAM, Cecidomyiidae parasitise mealybugs and natural populations in Victoria. Australian Journal of Zoology, 28, 685-692. possibly scale (Waterhouse and Sands, 2001). Glenn, D. C. & Hoffmann, A. A. (1997) Developing a commercially viable system for biological Vegetation in the vineyards tested here not only included many control of light brown apple moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in grapes using endemic Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 90, pollen and nectar producing plants, but were multistoried with 370-382. grasses, shrubs and tall trees. Why did vegetation influence some Memmott, J., Martinez, N. D. & Cohen, J. E. (2000) Predators, parasitoids and pathogens: groups? Vineyards can be recolonized from perennial habitats by the species richness, trophic generality and body sizes in a natural food web. Journal of Animal Ecology, 69, 1-15. groups represented here: spiders, syrphids, staphylinids, parasitoids, Nyffeler, M., Dean, D. A. & Sterling, W. L. (1992) Diets, feeding specialization and predatory role predatory mites. Many spider species colonize crops by drifting of two lynx spiders, Oxyopes salticus and Peucetia viridans (Araneae: Oxyopidae) in a Texas through the air on threads of spider silk (ballooning), staphylinids cotton agroecosystem. Environmental Entomology, 21, 1457-1465. possess a high movement rate (through flight or passive wind Paoletti, M. G. & Lorenzoni, G. G. (1989) Agroecology patterns in northeastern Italy. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 27, 139-154. dispersal). Nectars are significant sources of nutrition for most adult Rodriguez, M. A. & Hawkins, B. A. (2000) Diversity, function and stability in parasitoid predatory mites, lacewings, parasitoids, predatory and parasitic flies communities. Ecology Letters, 3, 35-40. and staphylinids. Adjacent flowering plants have frequently been Thomson, L. J., Bennett, D. M., Glenn, D. C. & Hoffmann, A. A. (2003) Developing Trichogramma as a pest management tool. Predators and Parasitoids (eds O. Koul & G. S. Dhaliwal), pp. 65-85. shown to increase natural enemies and biological control in a range Taylor and Francis, London. of crops including vineyards (Williams and Martinson, 2000) and Thomson, L. J. & Hoffmann, A. A. (2006a) The influence of adjacent vegetation on the the results for LBAM egg cards reinforced the notion that increased abundance and distribution of natural enemies in vineyards. Australian and New Zealand control can occur adjacent to vegetation. Grapegrower and Winemaker, 514, 36-42. Thomson, L. J. & Hoffmann, A. A. (2006b) Field validation of laboratory-derived IOBC toxicity The shelterbelts and remnant stands had a range of vegetation ratings for natural enemies in commercial vineyards. Biological Control, 39, 507-515. but the common theme was complexity. Trees, shrubs and grasses Thomson, L. J., Sharley, D. J. & Hoffmann, A. A. (2007) Beneficial organisms as bioindicators support more abundant and diverse natural enemy populations. for environmental sustainability in the grape industry. Australian Journal of Experimental The data collected here suggests that existing vegetation and Agriculture, 47, 404-411. Tsitsilas, A., Stuckey, S., Hoffmann, A. A., Weeks , A. R. & Thomson, L. J. (2006) Shelterbelts revegetation can contribute to pest control by natural enemies in agricultural landscapes suppress invertebrate pests. Australian Journal of Experimental with the potential to reduce chemical applications, contributing to Agriculture, 46, 1379-1388. both increased economic and environmental sustainability in the Waterhouse, D. F. & Sands, D. P. A. (2001) Classical Biological Control of Arthropods in ■ viticulture industry. This work represents a step along the way to Australia. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra.

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Annual Technical Issue 2008 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 37 grapegrowing Guidelines for environmentally sustainable winegrape production in Australia: IPM adoption self-assessment guide for growers

Martina Bernard Paul A. Horne Dan Papacek Department of Zoology IPM Technologies, Pty Ltd Bugs for Bugs, ‘CESAR’ PO Box 560 Hurstbridge Integrated Pest The University of Victoria 3099 Management Pty Ltd Melbourne Mundubbera, Qld 4626 Parkville, Victoria 3010

[email protected]. au, tel.+61 0409 936503

Marco A. Jacometti Stephen D. Wratten Katherine J. Evans National Centre for Advanced Bio-Protection Technologies National Centre for Advanced Bio-Protection Technologies Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural Research PO Box 84, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand PO Box 84, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand University of Tasmania, 13 St Johns Ave, New Town Tasmania 7008

Karen S. Herbert Kevin S. Powell Adrian Rakimov Department of Zoology -‘CESAR’ DPI, Primary Industries Research Victoria Department of Zoology -‘CESAR’ The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010 Rutherglen Centre, RMB 1145 The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010 Victoria 3685 DPI, Primary Industries Research Victoria, Mildura Centre PO Box 905, Victoria 3502

Rob Weppler Tony Kourmouzis Alan L. Yen Riverina IPM Pty Ltd Red Earth Ag Company Pty Ltd DPI, Primary Industries Research Victoria PO Box 1946 Griffith, NSW 2680 Swan Hill, Victoria 3585 Knoxfield Centre, Private Bag 15, Ferntree Gully DC Victoria 3156

Introduction another. For example, by avoiding situations where a fungicide Integrated Pest Management (IPM) or Total System Approach[1] achieves control of a pathogen, yet is highly toxic to predatory forms a substantial part of sustainable grape production, and has mites and disrupts the natural biological control of a pest. This long been recognised as the only rational way to manage pests[2], was the case where mancozeb killed predatory mites in Australian because it usually results in significant reductions in pesticide use vineyards [6,7]. Pesticides are chosen to minimise toxicity to naturally in the agricultural environment. For example, growers who produce occurring bio-control agents. By using IPM, growers can achieve the 80% of Queensland citrus have achieved a 90% pesticide reduction required crop quality and yield, while reducing farming inputs, and (equivalent to an average annual savings of AUD$2 million over environmental and human health risks. To appreciate the potential 2000ha of mature trees) in orchards where IPM is fully implemented of IPM, it is worth noting that the majority of all potential crop [3,4]. Clear guidelines setting minimum standards for sustainable pests are controlled biologically[8], and that this “free-of-charge” grape production were developed by the IOBC (International ecosystem service is conservatively estimated to contribute US$100 Organisation for Biological and Integrated Control)[5] (www.iobc.ch/ billion to the world economy each year[9,10]. IOBCGrapes.pdf). Other certification schemes for vineyards founded To build healthy thriving populations of vineyard predators and on IPM principles and practices have also been developed and parasitoids[11-13], and to enhance the service they provide, a range of adopted; for example, the Lodi Rules for Sustainable Winegrowing steps can be adopted, progressively moving from simple to fully in California (Lodi Woodridge Wine Commission: www.lodirules. integrated IPM. Here we provide a technical summary of wine grape com) certified by Protected Harvest, Oregon LIVE (Low Input IPM. We list steps I-V along the IPM-adoption spectrum, and give Viticulture and Enology: www.liveinc.org) certified by the IOBC, control options for each pest and disease (Tables 1-8) for growers to schemes in Switzerland (www.vitiswiss.ch), France (www.tyflo.org), refer to when evaluating their IPM adoption, and choosing the next South Africa (www.ipw.co.za), and Sustainable Winegrowing New feasible step. Most potential vineyard pests in Australia are listed, Zealand (www.nzwine.com/swnz/). The Australasian Biological but none requires regular annual treatment in IPM vineyards, and Control (ABC: www.goodbugs.org.au/IPMlogo.htm) certifies IPM- practically no vineyard has all of these pests. This is thus a reference consultants and growers who implemented IPM, and trademarks manual, and growers need not be familiar with contents of all tables IPM-accredited produce (including grapes) in Australia. in order to begin IPM of the key pests (Tables 1-2). We anticipate IPM gives priority to ecologically-based pest management it will serve as a technical reference and a starting point for a methods and prevention, and aims to maximise the contribution of practical, sustainable wine grape production certification scheme in biological control to overall pest control. To this end, it harmonises Australia. We hope innovative industry leaders will use it to realise pest control methods (cultural, chemical, biological, ecological environmental, cost saving, and marketing benefits from genuinely engineering) to prevent one control cancelling out the benefits of sustainably-produced grapes and wine.

24 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2007 grapegrowing

Stepwise guide to IPM adoption by employing an IPM service. Disease/pest/beneficial monitoring Practical IPM adoption is a range of steps, which progressively is ideally combined into one service. Commercial IPM pest and moves the vineyard to more integrated, lower input production. Over beneficial monitoring is outlined in Tables 1-2, and pest species- time, we reduce our reliance on insecticides as the main means specific methods (Tables 1-7). of pest control, and reduce pesticides to minimum requirements. l Spray thresholds. Meaningful action thresholds for most pests Naturally occurring bio-control agents are a “free service” provided and beneficials cannot be set at present, because they are subject by the ecosystem; this service improves with each year of adoption. to complex interactions involving many species and factors that vary between vineyards, seasons, and years. To compensate, Step I: Minimise sprays that are toxic to beneficials, and monitor spray thresholds tend to be set very low, disregard beneficials, pests and diseases and have little meaning in vineyards where bio-control is utilised. The first step is to minimise the use of insecticides and fungicides Sound thresholds that incorporate natural enemies are beyond the toxic to natural enemies of pests. As a result, sprays applied for one scope of simple linear mathematical models currently available, pest/disease do not lead to pesticide-induced outbreaks of another but may be accurately estimated by mathematical algorithms pest, and the cost of such secondary outbreaks is eliminated. To in the future. At present, interpretation of pest and beneficial achieve this we need to: monitoring data therefore relies on site and region-specific expert (a) use insecticides that cause as little damage to natural enemies as IPM knowledge, data collection (including life-stages) every 7-10 [7,14-16] possible, instead of toxic broad-spectrum sprays days over the growing season, and past monitoring records. (b) substitute safer fungicides for more toxic ones registered for the [6,7] same target disease Step III: Steps I-II and encourage beneficials inside the vineyard (c) monitor pests, and use insecticides only at key times when Beneficial insects and predatory mites can be encouraged by monitoring indicates a spray is economically justified. inter-row and under vine management. The emphasis is on providing For example, for chemical control of lightbrown apple moth a supplementary food source in the form of high quality, easily (LBAM, Epiphyas postvittana) this means using tebufenozide (e.g. accessible nectar and pollen, shelter from summer heat and low Mimic 700 WP) or BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) formulations (e.g. humidity, and over-wintering habitats. Steps II-III may be adopted at Dipel DF) in place of other registered products, where possible the same time, but Step III should only be used once Step I is fully (Table 1). Further laboratory testing of novel LBAM insecticides and implemented. validating results in the field on key Australian and New Zealand l Alternate row mowing (allowing grass swards to flower) provides natural enemies is needed, but at present, it is wise to use safer, pollen for predatory mites[17], and habitat/shelter for insect effective alternatives where possible. Newly registered high label predators and spiders living and reproducing in long grass, such rates of wettable sulphur also require such testing. It is especially as brown lacewings and damsel bugs[11], but its use can be limited important to minimise toxic sprays early in the season, as damage by frost or drought. to bio-control at this time has the most significant consequences, l Under-vine mulching (composted/fermented marc, shredded which may last for the rest of the season. Cultural controls such office paper, or mowing grass with side-throw slashers to as increasing canopy aeration, and infection period or monitoring- place grass under vines) reduces water evaporation and runoff, based (rather than calendar-based) fungicide use are also important improves soil structure and water-holding capacity, and increases here, because they generally result in reduced spray frequency soil microbial activity. Latest research also shows that mulching and lower overall toxic exposure of natural enemies. At present, breaks Botrytis cinerea life cycle by soil microbial activity, Step I pest and disease monitoring is offered by chemical re- while the pathogen over-winters on the vineyard floor, leading sellers, independent viticulture consultants, and Cropwatch® in some to significant reductions in B. cinerea primary inoculum and regions, but systematic reduction of pesticides toxic to beneficials bunch infections the following season[18-20]. Results of a three- and bio-control integration can be variable, and often limited. year study in Australia also indicated that some composted marc formulations were associated with reduced phylloxera populations Step II: Step I and monitor beneficials emerging above-ground, and hence reduced quarantine risks[21]. Pests and beneficials are monitored every 7-10 days over the However, green waste was associated with increased phylloxera growing season. Results are used to decide when to spray, and when emergence[22] and further research is needed before making not to spray. This often leads to significant reduction in insecticide recommendations on phylloxera management and mulching. use. Insecticides play a valuable support role, but by Step II this is l Providing nectar for beneficials. In some New Zealand more defined and targeted: pest control is achieved by natural bio- vineyards, flowering buckwheat (Polygonum fagopyrum) in every control as far as possible, and insecticides only assist in reducing 10th mid-row (25m) reduced LBAM and other leafrollers below pest numbers, by regulating pest populations down to levels where economic thresholds without a need to spray (Table 1; AgNote: beneficials can again take over and maintain pests below economic www.phylloxera.com.au), by providing supplementary food for damage. Insecticides are spot-sprayed where applicable. Pest and a parasitoid wasp of LBAM larvae (Dolichogenidea tasmanica); beneficial monitoring and guidance in full IPM-adoption are at the most abundant LBAM parasitoid found in Australian and present generally offered only by IPM specialists (www.goodbugs. New Zealand vineyards to date[12,13,23,24]. Buckwheat nectar org.au/suppliers.htm). Vineyards receive Step II monitoring service, significantly increased D. tasmanica lifespan, egg load, and data interpretation, advice on all aspects of IPM adoption, and parasitism compared to water controls in extensive New Zealand successfully prevent (and cure) mealybug, weevil, and mite outbreaks. studies[25-30]. The spacing was carefully worked out by rubidium- But these services have a limited capacity, and the Australian wine marking nectar-feeding wasps and studying their movement, industry and other horticultural sectors face a skills shortage in this and abundance away from the nectar source[31]. Parasitoids of area at present. Monitoring can be done by growers, employees, or mealybugs and scale insects, and some predators whose adult external services, but adequate training must be undertaken and stages feed on nectar (e.g. hoverflies, green lacewing-Mallada time allocated to carry out monitoring at set intervals over the signatus) may also be enhanced. Sugar composition of nectar season[14]. Where pest control requires decisions on ≥2 pests and their determines its utility to beneficials, and only nectars with specific associated beneficials, it is estimated that two-year full-time on-the- sugar-signatures are proving suitable. Besides buckwheat, Phacelia job specialist training is needed for full IPM proficiency and data (Phacelia tanacetofolia) has suitable nectar, but its utility is not interpretation (D. Papacek, pers.com). Growers may therefore benefit ▲ as high as that of buckwheat, and latest Australian research

March 2007 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 25 grapegrowing

identified white alyssum (Lobularia maritima) as a valuable grapes (using Mallada signatus), of scales in citrus (using parasitic nectar source for Trichogramma carverae [32]. wasps), heliothis (Helicoverpa) caterpillars in corn and macadamia l Australian native plants as a source of nectar. The promising nut borer in macadamia (using Trichogramma sp.), and pest mite nectar potential of native plants is being studied in New Zealand, control in strawberries and glasshouse crops (using predatory mites and needs to be studied in Australia. Combining Landcare and Phytoseiulus persimilis or Galendromus occidentalis). In many Greening Australia re-vegetation projects with research on vineyards however, Step IV may not be needed at all, and where enhancement of key beneficial species could provide significant releases are made they are often not needed on ongoing basis. Only a benefits to growers. Future measures may include native few species are available for release, successful vineyard and orchard windbreak, headland, erosion and salinity control plantings with IPM thus relies, in the first instance, on systematic enhancement nectar and pollen utility to beneficials. But pollen, nectar and of naturally present species (Steps I-III). Step IV is recommended other plant features must not enhance pests. Future research on only when required, based on monitoring and IPM-specialist advice relative benefits of native flowers must therefore carefully screen once Steps I-III are adopted, or to introduce a key beneficial species this. Some Australian native pests (e.g. LBAM, vine moth, vine absent from a vineyard or a region, or in other crops (such as citrus), weevil) would almost certainly be favored by some native plant for short 4-6 week periods to achieve high levels of parasitism species. at key times. Latest research clearly shows increased longevity and parasitism by wasps parasitising LBAM (D. tasmanica and Step IV: Steps I-III and release beneficials (if required) T. carverae) when they have access to specific nectar. Therefore it Further benefit may be achieved in some vineyards by augmenting may be prudent to provide such a nectar source in vineyards prior to low numbers of key beneficials by releases. This is most likely to considering release, firstly for naturally present wasps, and secondly be effective where releases are made in the early stages of pest to maximise the benefits of potential releases. infestation (or even preventatively) into crops which have a history of recurrent problems with a particular pest. For example, in Step V: Steps I-IV and encourage beneficials at a regional level Australia releases achieved significant control of mealybugs in table This step consists of improving the wider landscape in order to ▲

Table 1. Options for LBAM and VINE MOTH management (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM- incompatible) IPM monitoring method (suitable for commercial monitoring) of pests, beneficial insects, and spiders in the vine canopy: Weekly monitoring of whole vine shoots by direct observation: scan shoots from tips to base, both sides of leaves, and a 10cm cordon section below each shoot. This method was chosen for its utility to pests (LBAM and vine moth larvae and eggs), and key beneficials (green lacewing activity is best sampled by egg counts [35, 36]). It can be used together with canopy checks using beating trays (using large cloth or plastic funnels) to best sample predator larvae, spiders, and some predatory mites. The strength of monitoring is in the ability to compare results week to week and season to season, and in a fast response to infestations (within a time it takes LBAM eggs and mealybugs to develop into early instars). 14-day monitoring of vine canopy is usually not recommended, as it results in up to 3-wk delay in response to infestations. Where alternate row mowing is practiced, growers can check beneficials in long grass mid-rows by suction sampling randomly chosen 1m2 units of long grass (for ≥ 60 sec), using a reverse vacuum suction leaf-blower every two weeks. The suction tube is fitted with a nylon bag to collect the catch. Catch is examined in a large white tray, and immobilised with a fine spray of water. It is not commercially viable to monitor every block in great detail. Monitoring thus relies on the assumption that random examination of a limited number of shoots corresponds to overall vineyard situation. Where pesticides toxic to beneficials are used, many patchy pest flares can develop, and uniformity cannot be assumed. Success and reliability of commercially viable IPM monitoring thus depend on implementing Step I, and on expert data interpretation.

Bio-control Cultural control Bio-control Monitoring Chemical control Naturally Ecological engineering for release present Weekly monitoring of larvae, scanning Tebufenozide (e.g. Mimic 700 WP), and Parasitoids of Weed-free grass Tricho- LBAM 100 shoot-replicates from tip to base, BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) formulations LBAM see [12], swards reduce LBAM gramma Lightbrown is used to decide if to spray. Egg- (e.g. Dipel DF) are used based on were extensively host plants. carverae [14, apple moth masses are also scored, but are not monitoring, in preference to other evaluated Alternate row mowing 37] Epiphyas the main target, because the highest insecticides. Spray diary minimises use in Australia allows grass to flower in Release only p o s t v i t t a n a mortality occurs at egg-stage and 1st of sprays toxic to beneficials. (Limestone every 2nd row to provide if naturally instar larva and egg-mass counts seldom Indoxacarb (e.g. Avatar®), emamectin Coast) only pollen food source, and present Other correspond to larvae in the vine canopy (e.g. Proclaim®), spinosad (e.g. Entrust recently by shelter from heat and low bio-control leafroller [38, 39] (Bernard, Horne unpublished Naturalyte®) may be used within an IPM University of humidity for beneficials. enhanced species data). Delta traps may be used to indicate strategy. But each kills some beneficial Adelaide [13], by nectar adult flights, but not to decide when to and in a smaller Flowering buckwheat species, and so the decision on which strips (1 in every 10 resources spray, as peaks in male numbers in traps to use and when is based on monitoring study by the is not able do not correspond to peaks in larvae, or authors (Yarra rows) provide high of beneficial species and numbers (i.e. quality nectar for to achieve damage at harvest [23] (Bernard, Horne, spinosad is quite safe to many predatory Valley) [12]; control. unpublished data). most common parasitoids, and for species, but is harmful to parasitoid wasps, predators whose adult Infrequent (≤ fortnightly) monitoring; causing direct mortality and sub-lethal parasitoid to date is D. life stages feed on nectar quick checks only; monitoring of LBAM effects such as reduced longevity and and pollen (studied on egg-masses only. egg-lay; indoxacarb is toxic to both a key tasmanica, but many species D. tasmanica at Lincoln Monitoring LBAM by delta traps and predator, the green lacewing (Mallada Uni, New Zealand [25- signatus),and a key LBAM parasitoid make up the pheromone lures; using male counts beneficial 30]), and reduced LBAM to decide when to spray. This results (Dolichogenidea tasmanica) [15, 40]. damage below economic These insecticides are thus used only complex of in unnecessary insecticide use, as male LBAM, including thresholds in some trap counts can be very high (esp. early when high pest numbers are present New Zealand vineyards, outside the tebufenozide spray window. parasitoids of in the season), even though canopy larvae, and without a need to spray. larval infestations are negligible. These Calendar-based use of any of the above parasitoids Other nectar resource unnecessary early season sprays can insecticides regardless of pest and of eggs plants evaluated on damage beneficials, found in high numbers beneficial numbers. Use of carbaryl (e.g. (Trichogramma LBAM parasitoids are: at this time [11]. Carbaryl 500) or chlorpyrifos (e.g. Lorsban sp). Phacelia (P. tanacetifolia), Broadcasts of ‘regional LBAM alerts’ 500 EC) in place of any of the above and white alyssum insecticides. Generalist (Lobularia maritima) [32]. used to decide when to spray. This predators disregards the large variations in LBAM Use nectar resources feeding on LBAM only once IPM Step I is larvae in vines from vineyard to vineyard, see [11]. and leads to unnecessary spray use. implemented. Grapevine A pest of minor economic importance (causing occasional leaf damage in young vines). Overview of No need to moth It has a very high fecundity but is generally successfully controlled by naturally present natural enemies release Phalaenoides bio-control agents [41], except if present in high numbers near harvest. Presence in and photos [11, glycinae harvest bins can lead to down-grading of crops by wineries, but BT sprays prior to 12, 41]. harvest are very effective. Monitoring and sprays as above.

26 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2007 grapegrowing

Table 2. Options for MEALYBUG management (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM-incompatible) Alternative 1: Bio-control and minimal insecticide use Mealybug outbreaks in wine grapes in Australia are only very recent (c. from 2000-01), yet the pest (longtail mealybug) is considered native to Australia, and has been found in very low numbers in vineyards without causing economic damage for many years (controlled by beneficials). By contrast, it has been a major pest in table grapes for many decades, where bio-control is disrupted by frequent use of many broad-spectrum insecticides. Number of sprays can exceed 5-10 per season, often without achieving control. Yet some table grape growers successfully practice IPM, reducing their insecticide use against mealybug to 0-(2) sprays of buprofezin (e.g. Applaud®) per season, repeatedly showing that mealybugs can be successfully controlled by: (1) Relying on natural bio-control as far as is possible from early Spring into the season (2) Controlling ant species that interfere with bio-control by an IPM-compatible method (Papacek; Horne & Kourmouzis; Altmann & Weppler, unpublished data). (3) Monitoring mealybugs and beneficials throughout the growing season, and spraying only if required late in the season, when beneficial numbers decline. Alternative II: Insecticides as the sole means of control Outbreaks of longtail mealybug (e.g. in WA vineyards) can have severe economic effects (direct damage, crop rejection due to sooty mould wine taint, and vine collapse due to vine leaf-roll virus transmitted by 1-2 instar longtail mealybugs [42]). As a result some growers and their advisers quickly reach for broad-spectrum insecticides; often from early in the season and for only minor infestations. Broad spectrum insecticides are also used as a butt-drench in WA, in an attempt to control weevils. In these ways, the best window of opportunity for bio-control (when mealybug numbers are low) is lost. Bio-control agents are killed by insecticides, and growers become locked into repeated pesticide use. Mealybug numbers increase quickly in the absence of beneficials and several sprays may be used by capfall. Even where mealybug control is achieved this way, it can be quickly lost soon after capfall, as no insecticides against mealybugs are registered for use in wine grapes after 80% capfall. Growers then face the dual problem of having (a) no sprays available against mealybug, and (b) no natural bio-control left. As a result, mealybug numbers often soar at c. mid March (e.g. Pinot Noir harvest), and crops may be rejected. This in turn prompts pre-budburst, and early season applications of broad-spectrum insecticides the next Spring, and the pesticide treadmill is repeated. Other pest outbreaks can follow: rust mite, two spotted mite (TSM), or even other tetranychid mites as recently reported from WA (Table 4). Chances of vine leaf-roll virus transmission by mealybugs increase with the severity of ongoing infestations; vine collapse can eventually result (recently reported from WA and Hawke’s Bay, NZ). Ongoing insecticide use also increases the chances of exceeding MRLs. This scenario is completely environmentally and economically unsustainable. Yet, the initial per ha cost of broad-spectrum insecticides is low and often prompts their use.

Bio-control Cultural control Bio-control for Monitoring Chemical control Naturally present Eco- engineering release Longtail Mealybug distribution (1) Reliance on natural bio-control from early Parasitoids - many Alternate row mowing Green mealybug is usually clustered spring as far as possible, based on monitoring (this species are recorded creates habitat lacewing Pseudococcus unless large infestations is usually possible for the entire season under IPM, from Australia; some for predators and M. signatus longispinus occurred for several sometimes a spray may be needed) were exported to parasitoids. (not found in (main pest) years. Monitor pest and (2) Targeted spot-baiting of honeydew-feeding ants USA, Israel, New Flowering buckwheat, New Zealand); beneficials as (Table 1). (not all ant species!) that protect mealybugs from Zealand, earlier in Phacelia as per Citrophilous 20th century. Despite The citrus Mealybug-specific predation and parasitism, based on monitoring (Table 1) may also mealybug mealybug methods (see also Table 3). Baits, sticky bands, or baited spot this, a quantitative enhance parasitoids P. calceorariae evaluation of the predator (1) Weekly checks of chemical treatments are widely used by IPM specialists of mealybug and vine Cryptolaemus (less common) in many crops to improve bio-control. parasitoid species scale, and nectar sheltered leaves at vine complex has mountrouzieri crowns on both sides of (3) Buprofezin (e.g. Applaud®) timed to emergence feeding adult life stages [14, 44] is Obscure never been done of key predators e.g. mealybug leaves [43], 4-5 leaves of high crawler numbers; after steps 1-2 and if in Australia, nor available, but per vine crown, c.30 monitoring indicates spray is needed (beneficial M. signatus, by the release results P. viburni has field predation same mechanisms (only in QLD) randomly chosen vines. numbers are low and unable to contain the been quantitatively in vineyards (2) If mealybug is found, pest). This is best done based on expert long-term that enhance LBAM to date have evaluated. Both parasitoids. But to tag vines and check experience, in consultation with IPM specialists. are needed to been variable weekly to evaluate date nectar evaluation and differed (4) Dormant winter oil spray (e.g. Biopest) (based on solve recent major on parasitoids of changes in pest monitoring and IPM specialist advice), if pest numbers outbreaks. in regions, numbers, development, mealybugs or scale suggesting were high late the previous season and steps (1-2) did Predators has not been done and presence of not achieve control (see also Table 3). a possible beneficials. (Many noted feeding on in Australia. Such preference for green lacewing eggs Buprofezin (e.g. Applaud®) used on calendar basis. mealybugs: green research has a citrus (see also and larvae are found on Broad-spectrum insecticides such as methidathion and brown lacewings great potential to aid Table 3). mealybug-infested vines Warning! S7 Poison (e.g. Suprathion 400 EC) and (Mallada signatus; mealybug control and in IPM-vineyards). Use maldison (e.g. Maldison 500), or other registered Micromus tasmaniae). prevention. of pheromones is in products timed to crawler emergence or on development in the USA calendar basis, including as spot-sprays. and New Zealand. NOTE: Buprofezin and methidathion are registered only against longtail mealybug.

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Table 3. Options for management of SCALE (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM-incompatible)

Soft Scales Monitoring Chemical control Bio-control Cultural control Bio-control for Naturally present Ecological release engineering Grapevine scale Grapevine scale. This species Enhancing naturally occurring bio- Evaluation of the Pruning Green Parthenolecanium is relatively common, it occurs control by minimal use of sprays toxic to beneficial species Pruning can lacewing persicae in clumps, difficult to detect at beneficials. complex is underway remove many Mallada low densities. Infested vines Spot-baiting (not broad-scale use of bait) GWRDC Project scales from the signatus usually have ants moving up of ant species that protect scales from DNR03/01. vine, and minimal (as above) the trunk, and scales are best pruning can natural enemies (Table 2) can improve bio- Parasitoids. Some Ladybirds: detected by looking for ant control of scale. Target only ants that tend six species of favor population activity. Leaves or bark on increase. C. montrou-zieri scales and harvest honeydew, by applying parasitoid wasps [14]; netting with infested vines may glisten with minute amounts of bait mixed with insecticide are recorded from P. Pruning prior to honeydew, or be black with dormant spray nylon cloth over to vines where ant tending is observed. persicae in Australia release spots sooty mould. One generation No insecticides are registered as baits in so far, Metaphycus application [45] occurs per year. Scales mature helps increase for 2 weeks grapes in Australia, and many ant species maculipennis and after release in Spring, becoming very convex, are beneficial, so baiting must be absolutely Coccophagus lycimnia spray coverage. brown to reddish-brown, and Consider may improve minimal and precisely targeted. Baits, appear to be the most bio-control, but are usually found near the bases sticky bands, barrier glue, or baited spot important (Rakimov, mulching cane of canes and under the bark prunings, to kill this does not chemical treatments are widely use by IPM unpublished data). necessarily lead of cordons. Cream eggs are specialists in many crops to limit ant access scales which may deposited under adult females Predators. Ladybird otherwise move to establish- to honeydew-producing pests and improve beetles, including ment in October - November. Crawlers (≤ bio-control [44]. back onto vines. 0.5mm) hatch c. early November. Cryptolaemus vineyards. Spot-spraying clumped infestations with montrouzieri, and Alternate row Crawler emergence can be mowing is a monitored using double-sided summer oil, if beneficials and baiting alone caterpillars of a did not achieve control, and scale numbers predatory moth practice known sticky bands on canes above to provide shelter adult infestations. Clear to yellow are high. Tag scale clusters and monitor Mataeomera dubia are crawler emergence to time sprays, targeting important predators and pollen for crawlers (darkened with age) are beneficials. found on underside of leaves in undersides of canes and cordons where most [46, 47], but may not Summer, along leaf veins (inspect scales are found. Pruning prior to sprays can be naturally present in Provision of high with 20x magnification). They increase spray coverage. Summer oils are some regions. Larvae quality nectar for move from leaves to canes and phytotoxic to vines, and care must be taken to of the green lacewing beneficials using older wood in Autumn, to over- avoid vine damage. (Mallada signatus) buckwheat or winter. Spot-spraying infested vines with winter and brown lacewing phacelia (Tables Frosted scale oil (e.g. Bioclear) at dormancy. Winter oils (Micromus tasmaniae) 2-3) is expected Frosted scale. New research feed on soft scale eggs to also aid scale Parthenolecanium indicates this species is more are phytotoxic to vines and can only be used pruinosum during full dormancy. and crawlers [44]; both parasitoids, but common in vineyards, than is species are common research specific generally assumed (Rakimov, Spot-spraying broad-spectrum throughout Australia. to these wasps unpublished data). Lifecycle and insecticides such as methidathion Warning! Other ladybird beetles has not yet been monitoring as per grapevine S7 Poison (e.g. Suprathion 400 EC), maldison also feed on scales [44], done. scale. Immature life stages (e.g. Maldison 500) optimally timed to crawler including Rhizobius Moderating are similar in appearance to emergence (based on monitoring) if beneficial sp. Predatory whirli-gig grapevine scale. Eggs are white, numbers are low, can reduce crawler nitrogen Other species mite (Anystis baccarum; fertilizer and and adults are covered in a white numbers. Tag scale clusters and monitor 1 -1.5 mm in size) rarely found in waxy powder. crawler emergence to time sprays. irrigation if vineyards abundant in Limestone infestations are Other species. These are rare in Broad-scale use of the above insecticides Coast and King Valley high, may reduce Coccus vineyards, but can be common over whole vine block/s at crawler emergence, vineyards and present scale population hesperidum in other crops. Their biology has or on a calendar basis, or as dormant sprays. elsewhere, was also growth. Parasaissetia been worked out for other crops Broad-scale use of chlorpyrifos (e.g. Cyren noted to feed on eggs nigra such as citrus and olives, but 500 EC) or chlorpyrifos/ winter oil mixture and crawlers. Saissetia oleae may vary in vineyards. in dormant vines. Only some chlorpyrifos Monitoring (as above) products are registered for use in dormant vines and only against grapevine scale. enhance biological control. Such initiatives follow on from long- snail (Helix aspersa), small pointed snails (Cochlicella barbara), and term overseas studies (e.g. on lacewings and parasitoids) and their minor localised occasional insect pests (e.g. common auger, spring, or movements, and are undertaken in recognition of the large spatial fig longicorn beetles), is not included; consult IPM specialists in your scale on which populations of many pests and beneficials operate. area. Disease management in viticulture to date combines cultural Overseas studies show that native vegetation reserves, including controls with calendar-based or infection period-based fungicide roadside verges and headlands are a source of beneficials, and use. These practices are summarised here, but growers should that generally, the more complex the landscape and the larger the consult detailed management information and disease monitoring vegetation remnant, the higher the utility to bio-control[33,34]. To details elsewhere. With the exception of Botrytis, IPM presented best aid natural bio-control, regional landscape modifications need here only seeks to modify fungicide use by substituting sprays toxic be based on research and give specific benefits to key beneficials. to beneficial insects and mites, with safer products. But disease One such region-wide ecological restoration scheme is underway in management using natural grapevine defenses, and antagonistic New Zealand (using Steps I-V) (www.waiparawine.co.nz/index.cfm/ micro-organisms (Table 8), is a key future step in IPM. Herbicide research/greening_waipara.html, www.lincoln.ac.nz/story13772. reduction occurs via under-vine and mid-row management methods html). It aims to provide environmental, cost saving and marketing listed here, but it is not otherwise addressed. Pesticide safety to benefits to growers, and help differentiate the region in domestic and humans is also not addressed. This guide is subject to limitations international wine markets. in current knowledge (mid-2006) on pesticide safety to native Australian beneficial species outlined below, and may change when Limitations of this guide new rigorous Australian data become publicly available. This guide is not intended as a complete account of control and monitoring practices. For further information see references Limitations - pesticide safety to beneficial invertebrates provided, contact the authors, or IPM specialists in your area. Most data on pesticide safety to beneficials are not generated on For pesticides, always read labels (http://services.apvma.gov.au/ Australian species, and extrapolating from one beneficial species to PubcrisWebClient/welcome.do), check withholding periods and another is not reliable. The Australian regulator (APVMA) requires MRL requirements (www.awri.com.au), and consult the winery no data on beneficial invertebrate safety (except for honeybees prior to use. Management of mollusks such as the brown garden and earthworms) for pesticide registration, and sets no other

28 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2007 grapegrowing

Table 4. Options for management of MITE PESTS (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM-incompatible)

Monitoring Chemical control Bio-control Cultural Bio-control Naturally control available for present Ecological release engineering Rust mite To diagnose presence: Minimise use of sprays toxic to predatory Predatory Alternate E. victoriensis Calepitrimerus Early spring rust mite damage is also called mites to achieve a lasting prevention of all mites (Acari: row mowing G. vitis RSG due to rust mite in Australia, for details pest mite outbreaks, without the need to Phytoseiidae) provides grass occidentalis and photos see [54-56]; rust mite and bud mite spray each year [6, 56]. provide pollen as a Only release Restricted are the only proven causal agents of RSG to If a spray is needed against rust mite long-term supplementary where Spring date [56]. Record spring damage when it is (i.e. leaf bronzing occurred the previous preventative food source predatory Growth (RSG) most pronounced: up to c.5-8 separated leaves. season), ‘woolly bud spray’ timed to rust control of rust for predatory mites at c. due to Late summer damage: Record severity of mite migration from winter shelters is used. mite, bud mite, mites [12, 17] flowering are rust mite leaf bronzing (mid January to early March). If Wettable sulphur (e.g. Thiovit Jet) is effective, and other Nursery stock absent/ very bronzing is moderate to severe spraying at IF spray volume saturates thick bark of vine mite pests. hot water low. Assess woolly bud the next Spring will prevent RSG cordons. For precise spray requirements, Key species treatment naturally due to rust mite. If no/very low bronzing, there windows for different vine varieties, and other in Australian of dormant present is no need to spray. This is reliable unless options see [54, 57]. Temperature ≥ 15 ºC vineyards: cuttings (52°C numbers predatory mites were disrupted late in the during spraying improves wettable sulphur Typhlodromus for 60 min) prior to season. action [58]. dossei, T. eliminates rust release on ≥ 4 doreenae, Species ID: D. Knihinicki (DPI NSW-Yanco), or Annual ‘woolly bud’ spray regardless of and bud mites x 25 randomly Euseius [52] collected DPI Knoxfield). bronzing damage victoriensis, Infested, leaves; by Late season and post-harvest WS sprays Galendromus counting have little effect; over-wintering females are occidentalis pruned canes do not lead to under protected from c.late January[59] [48-50], microscope (Bernard, rust mite re- Lime sulphur at dormancy: is highly toxic to infesting vines (6-12x most beneficials and can compromise IPM for unpublished magnification), data) the following the entire season. Spring [53] or scoring % Bud mite To diagnose presence: Wettable sulphur spray (no oil!) immediately Predatory leaves with Colomerus vitis (i) Locate clustered damage spots and tag; after node-1 bud-burst (at node-2 rosette, thrips predatory damage photos see [49], [56]-contact authors 1-2 wks after node-2 burst) [55, 60]. Diagnose Haplothrips mites. /OR RSG for a copy. bud mite prior to spraying and do not spray on victoriensis Release also feeds on due to (ii) Collect healthy-looking un-burst buds routine annual basis. Spray volume to run-off, without prior bud mite c.0.5 L per vine is suggested by [61]. Reduced rust mite and assessment (normal-looking buds as if in bud-swell) soon TSM [11, 51]. after node-1 bud burst and up to c. mid-late damage symptoms will not be evident until next if broad- October. Do not collect damaged buds with Spring, because damage was caused before spectrum bleached, exposed hairs. These are long-dead, sprays were applied. ‘Woolly bud’ spray against pesticides rotten inside and past the point when the cause rust mite does not work against bud mite, as were used can be diagnosed [56]. bud mite (unlike rust mite) is protected deep in previous inside buds at woolly bud. years. (iii) Species ID: D. Knihinicki (DPI NSW-Yanco, DPI Knoxfield). Lime sulphur (as above), and no effect on bud mite (Hurst & Hoffmann, unpublished data), which is deep inside winter buds. Two-spotted To diagnose presence: Not common in wine grapes in Australia. Black ladybird Alternate row G. mite (i) Locate damage symptoms by fast scanning But where it is present very major economic beetles mowing (as occidentalis (TSM) upper leaf blades first; once damage symptoms damage can occur, if vineyard is not IPM- Stethorus sp. above) Tetranychus are found, confirm infestation on the underside managed. Outbreaks indicate disruption of [11, 67], Release urticae of leaf by examination through at least a 10x natural predators [17, 62-66]. Currently where G. occidentalis usually not hand-lens, and resistant populations occur, only two pesticides is naturalised required in (ii) confirm species ID. Examine leaves for are effective against TSM, both are extremely in some IPM vineyards presence of predators at the same time. expensive and not registered in wine grapes in vineyards, in Australia. Australia. H. victoriensis Six-spotted A new pest in WA vineyards (same family as Little known in vineyards, but recorded in WA Predatory groups (as above) but native species mite TSM) native to America first recorded in WA in orchards. It is worth establishing whether it has of predatory mites in WA vineyards are yet to Eotetranychus 1986 [68]. Diagnose presence (as above). been induced by broad-spectrum sprays used be identified, and are likely to be different to the sexmaculatus in WA for the control of other pests. eastern States. Bunch mite To diagnose presence: slightly raised black Minor pest in wine grapes in Australia; sprays (as above) Alternate row Release Brevipalpus spots at base of canes can be visible from usually not required in IPM vineyards in Australia mowing (as usually not lewisi November if infestations are high; dark brown above) required (as scaring forms later on bunch and berry stems, above) berries may shrivel and fall [69]. Confirm species ID: D. Knihinicki (DPI NSW, Yanco), or DPI Victoria, Knoxfield). Leaf This species is in the process of being renamed, based on molecular work which separated it into a distinct species from that of bud mite [70]. blister mite Practically, this means that it is not associated with the damage caused by bud mite, its damage (blister-like erinea on leaves) is cosmetic, and not Colomerus vitis economically significant. Natural enemies (as above). testing standards. Data on Australian beneficials are thus few, and established. They are less toxic to natural enemies than the highly obtained from tests of varying methodology and rigor. Moreover, toxic pyrethroid, organophosphate, and carbamate insecticides, but data generated by pesticide manufacturers are usually marketed in domestic and overseas results to date indicate varied toxicity to a Australia in promotional material, without the disclosure of testing range of species, and it remains to be proven that they do not disrupt methods. This information is difficult to interpret, because it is bio-control by native Australian mealybug parasitoids, LBAM a well-established fact that testing methods influence the results. parasitoids, or common predators such as green and brown lacewings To solve these problems, near “worst-case scenario” laboratory (Mallada signatus, Micromus tasmaniae), predatory bugs (Nabis testing standards and standardised field tests[102,103] on key beneficial kinbergii, Oechalia schellenbergii), or ladybird beetles. We hope species are required by law in the EU for pesticide registration. that manufacturers of these products publish refereed scientific data But in Australia, there is little research on pesticide safety to key on safety to Australian beneficial species, on the basis of which this native species to such rigor. We thus take a cautious approach IPM guide may be confidently amended. and suggest that some recently registered insecticides (and new label rates of wettable sulphur against powdery mildew) require Cost -benefit analysis further testing before their place in IPM in Australia can be fully Per hectare cost of pesticide product and application is often the ▲

March 2007 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 29 grapegrowing

Table 5. Options for WEEVIL management in established vineyards (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM incompatible)

Monitoring Chemical control Bio-control Cultural control Bio-control Naturally Ecological engineering for release present Weevils Species (1-7): Species (1-7): GWRDC Species (1-5): To target causing damage in Bud damage, typical “shot- Target adults by spot- Project To target juveniles, time mid-row juveniles of Australian vineyards: hole” leaf feeding damage, and spraying damage patches RT04/17-4 is cultivation to desiccate pupae [71]. This species (2): canopy defoliation in young and in early Spring when underway. method can be very effective in reducing the Nematode (1) garden weevil established vines can be very adults emerge; not Ground- pest population, which is difficult to achieve soil drench Phlyctinus callosus dramatic, but it is often localised to broad-scale spray use, to dwelling by spraying alone, because immature stages is available patches within a block. Berries can minimise damage to bio- predators are protected in the soil. Soft vulnerable against (2) black be damaged later in the season. control. Indoxacarb (e.g. can attack weevil pupae in the soil are exposed to drying. sp. (2), vine weevil Avatar®) is registered for Optimal timing to c. 70% pupae. Actual time Monitoring (Table 1) also scouts for adults on suggested Otiorhynchus use against garden weevil in emergence differs per each species, and can also differ use is after sulcatus adults and damage in the canopy. Spring, alpha-cypermethrin site to site, and year to year. Wax-dipped corrugated cardboard from soil, cultivation (e.g. Crop Care Dominex and on their Species (1-7): see [14] and (3) white- bands (20 per block, placed Duo) against garden weevil around vine trunks, and checked walk to the To target adults, habitat provision (under- consult the fringed weevil in non-bearing vines. Both vine canopy. supplier, Naupactus weekly) are recommended are toxic to beneficials, vine mulching, beetle banks, alternate row (Agriculture WA). They can mowing) aid ground-dwelling predators, such EcoGrow leucoloma but indoxacarb is less be aided Locate damage patches from toxic. Mealybug outbreaks as staphylinid and carabid beetles, spiders, by habitat brown lacewing larvae, earwigs, etc.) to attack (4) Fuller’s early September, tag and (Table 2) can be induced provision. rose weevil inspect over the season to by broad-spectrum sprays adult pests on emergence from soil. Asynonychus target spot sprays and cultural killing natural bio-control. Physical exclusion barriers (sp. 1-5): cervinus controls. Obtain sp. ID to use This risk is far too great, Barrier glue or grease bands placed around specific cultural and bio- controls. and far outweighs any vine trunks can reduce the number of adults (5) Ecrizothis boviei Species (1-5): minor labor savings gained entering the vine canopy, and canopy native sp., no by not locating weevil damage. This need be combined with common name Monitor also by exploratory patches. practices that reduce weevil populations. soil digging in vine patches Wood-boring Broad-scale canopy Large-scale use of barriers is labor-intensive, tagged the previous season. Dig and may not be economical. species at regular time intervals from applications, or butt early Spring to monitor juvenile drenching of vine blocks Host plant species (sp. 1-7): weevils (6) vine weevil development into pupae, and to with insecticides in early feed on roots and foliage of many plants. Orthorhinus klugi target mid-row cultivation to c. Spring, and on annual Comprehensive identification of host plants 70% pupae [71]. This controls the basis. and effects of eliminating these from mid-rows (7) elephant weevil part of the pest population found in remain to be fully investigated. Orthorhinus the soil in vine mid-rows. Species (6): Removal, composting, or fine cylindrirostis mulching of pruned canes. Further information may be obtained from the garden-weevil-watch web site of DAFWA (www.agric.wa.gov.au), but not all information provided is IPM-compatible. GWRDC Project RT 04/17-4 in the Yarra Valley and a garden weevil management project in Western Australia are underway. Kaolin clay foliar sprays are proving effective in research field trials, they are registered for use in a number of horticultural crops in Australia but not in grapevines [72].

Table 6. Options for management of GRAPEVINE PHYLLOXERA in established vineyards (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM- incompatible)

Monitoring Chemical control Bio-control Cultural control Bio-control Naturally Ecological engineering available for present release Grapevine A new molecular No IPM-compatible Many Quarantine and hygiene regulations and resistant No bio-control phylloxera diagnostic technique insecticides are registered generalist rootstocks are the primary form of phylloxera agents are Daktulosphaira for detecting phylloxera in grapes in Australia. ground- management (www.phylloxera.com.au), and are available vitifoliae DNA by a genetic PCR No IPM-incompatible dwelling the most commonly used long-term management for release probe that will allow highly pesticides are registered predators options. commercially, sensitive low level detection, in grapes in Australia may feed on An ideal IPM strategy for phylloxera would also but research quantification of pest including the systemic phylloxera include habitat provision for ground-dwelling success was infestations, and efficient nicotinoid imidacloprid (e.g. juveniles. generalist predators, such as alternate row reported with screening of many samples, Confidor®). This pesticide But to date mowing, and beetle banks (permanent strips of entomopatho- has been partly developed has been tested in laboratory no studies unmoved grass, a reservoir of ground-dwelling genic fungi [76] (CRCV Project 2.2.3a), and glasshouse trials in have been predators from which they disperse into crops). Metarhizium and requires further Australia [73], but not under conducted This aids predator populations and increases control anisopliae, development. field conditions. It has an in Australia of soil and litter-dwelling pests in other crops [85, Beauvaria Aerial survey detection by extremely long half-live in the to quantify 86]. Similarly, ground-dwelling predators can attack bassiana, GPS and remote sensing soil (365 days) and very high this phylloxera during the vulnerable stage, when phylloxera Paecilomyces of low vigor areas. These water solubility [73, 81] that predation. juveniles emerge from soil, and may reduce the spread farinosus, are targeted by ground render it very environmentally of phylloxera within and between vineyards. To date and with surveys inspecting root hazardous. It is toxic to a there has been no research on this important aspect entomopatho- systems and emergence common, important predator of phylloxera control in Australia. Yet this predation genic traps Nov-March [77, 78] found in Australia and New concept is well-demonstrated for other soil-dwelling nematodes. (www.phylloxera.com.au) Zealand, the brown lacewing pests and is topical, given some recent rootstock [73-75] Chemical and spectral Micromus tasmaniae [16, failures in Europe, and the detection in late 2006, of studies also show potential 82], and its long persistence phylloxera in the Yarra Valley, Victoria. for phylloxera detection, predicts that such ability to Some composted marc mulches reduced phylloxera based on changes in disrupt naturally present bio- populations emerging from the soil [21], but choice vine physiology following control is likely to be long- of compost may be important, as green waste was infestation [79, 80] lasting. There is an indication associated with increased phylloxera numbers during of pesticide resistance in the summer months [22]. Further work is needed some pests [83, 84]. before recommendations on phylloxera management and mulching can be made. key consideration when choosing pesticides. This can lead to the use more selective product. When short and long-term economic benefits of cheap broad-spectrum sprays highly toxic to beneficials, damage of pest prevention (for example [3]), and environmental benefits, are to naturally present bio-control, and escalating pesticide use as bio- considered, IPM and bio-control are consistently the better economic control services diminish. Use of cheap pesticides can often have option. Use of IPM over many years results in significant benefits expensive consequences, if it induces secondary pests or leads to in reduced environmental degradation and human exposure to on-going pest problems that would otherwise be avoided by using a pesticides, in preventing mealybug, rust mite, and two-spotted mite

30 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au March 2007 grapegrowing

Table 7. Options for management of other pests (IPM-compatible; text in blue IPM-transition; text in red IPM-incompatible)

Monitoring Chemical control Bio-control Cultural Bio-control naturally control available for p r e s e n t release African Turf and pasture pest introduced to Australia Pre-planting broad-spectrum insecticide spray is Some Cereal or Nematode black beetle from South Africa in the early 1900s. It is only sometimes applied in an attempt to prevent damage generalist canola crop soil drench Heteronychus a pest in vineyards during first few years of during vineyard establishment. ground- rotations (EcoGrow, arator vineyard establishment, owing to conversion Broad-spectrum insecticide use after planting dwelling for up to Australia) from pasture. Tolerating such temporary is often followed by severe rust mite outbreaks predators two years targeting young damage is preferable, but may not always in the young plantings and associated drift-areas may feed on prior to vine larvae, generally be realistic, due to instances of considerable (M. Bernard, pers. comm.), due to suppression of this pest. planting may present c. damage in some regions in the first year of predatory mites, which control rust mite (Table 4). be used to November, is vineyard establishment (replanting, additional Where planting stock may have contained bud mite, overcome effective [14]. trellis training, and a delay in production). Thus risk of severe bud mite damage in the young vineyard these pest For precise at times a pre-planting treatment has been is also increased. Damage to bio-control agents of problems application used. Pest numbers prior to planting and other pests also occurs, and can lead to further pest without contact the spraying can be evaluated with pitfall traps. outbreaks, outweighing initial control benefits gained the use of supplier. by spraying for African black beetle. insecticides. European Monitoring and IPM strategy: Scanning vines in first few weeks after bud burst, during routine monitoring for pests and beneficials (Table 1). Traps earwig of corrugated cardboard, or black plastic sleeves containing diet bait, can be placed around vine posts to monitor numbers, and are used in studies Forficula on this species [87]. Accepting minor damage is part of an IPM strategy, especially since this species has now been identified as a key predator of auricularia LBAM larvae in vineyards at night. European earwigs can aestivate in hot Australian Summer conditions. Damage symptoms: Localised damage (nibbled vine shoots) in early Spring has been attributed to European earwigs. But damage is difficult to separate from early Spring LBAM damage to buds and leaf rosettes, and so may be easily overestimated. The species causes no damage to vines later in the season. Feeding damage is also reported in apple varieties in Australia, where it was recently evaluated, indicating negligible damage (<2.5%) in only some apple varieties and some times, and only in the absence of prey [88]. Direct damage to stone fruit can be considerable, but is successfully prevented in organic production by Teflon-banding tree trunks. Evidence of predator status: New research using video analysis of field predation shows this species to be a key, significant predator of LBAM larvae in the canopy, and on the vineyard floor at night [89]. It was also noted to feed on LBAM in extensive LBAM studies [39], and on pest mites in Australia [90]. It is recognised as an important generalist predator in European vineyards and orchards (of grape moth - Eupoecilia ambiguella, aphids, and psyllids) [91-96]. A superficially similar native predatory earwig (Labidura truncata) also occurs in Australia [97], and is present in vineyards. outbreaks, vine collapse due to vine-leaf roll virus (transmitted by Kent, UK), Dr Stewart Learmonth (DAFWA, Manjimup, WA), longtail mealybug), and primary bud necrosis (PBN) due to bud mite. Richard Llewellyn (BioResources, Samford, Qld), Dr Erika Winter Some risks associated with potentially exceeding MRLs may also be (GrapeLinks), Dr Cate Paull (SARDI-South Australian Research and reduced. Moreover, the full economic benefits of sustainable wine Development Institute), Gray Harrison (DPI, Biosecurity Victoria), grape production are yet to be realised by well-designed marketing Mark Walpole and Catherine Anderson (Brown Brothers), Mary of sustainably produced wines, and by aiding regional differentiation Retallack (Scholefield Robinson Horticultural Services), Max of wines in the international market in this way. All these benefits Arney (Limestone Coast Wine Industry Council), Tony Hoare need be evaluated by a comprehensive economic review beyond the (Hoare Consulting, McLaren Vale, SA), and Tom Ayers (Vineyard scope of this project. Management & Development Services, Balhannah, SA).

Acknowledgements Some other useful resources This work was funded by the GWRDC (as part of Project MU BioBest pesticide side-effects manual (overseas beneficial species LTU 04/01), and contains contributions from many co-authors only: http://www.biobest.org/); Environmental Management in funded by other organisations. We thank all these organisations for Australia (see AWIS Systems Map in www.WFA.org.au); Organic their support. We thank James Altmann (Biological Services and viticulture: an Australian manual (www.dpi.vic.gov.au). Fruit Doctors, Loxton, SA) for discussions on IPM, Dr Sally-Jean Bell (AWRI-Australian Wine Research Institute) for discussions Disclaimer on pesticide registration and use, and many other scientists and IPM-incompatible practices (text in red) are listed here only for comparative purposes and are not recommended by this guide. Information on the use of viticulturists who reviewed the manuscript and provided valuable pesticides herein are the professional view of the authors, and are based on comments: Dr John Charles (HortResearch, Auckland, New Zealand), current (2006) knowledge which will be updated as new information from tests on beneficial species is published. The advice provided in this publication is intended Dr Cliff Ohmart (Lodi Woodridge Wine Commission, California, as a source of information only, and readers are advised to seek guidance in ▲ USA), Leslie R. Wardlow (Horticultural Pest Advice, Ashford, the field from experienced IPM-specialists. Always read the label and consult grapegrowing

Table 8. Options for IPM-compatible management of GRAPEVINE DISEASES to conserve beneficial invertebrates. Biological organisms with known activity against pathogens not yet developed as viable commercial control options are also listed. The fungicide list is based on limited Australian and New Zealand data available to date and a literature review on overseas beneficial species. Many fungicides here have not been widely tested on native Australian species, and toxicity varies between species. This list may thus change as new data become available. Some fungicides here may have adverse effects on beneficials when used frequently, or as low volume sprays of concentrated tank mixes, or per higher than currently registered label rates.

Disease Fungicides with low toxicity to beneficials Biological control organisms with Cultural controls and potential future measures Chemical name and example of a product k n o w n a c t i v i t y a g a i n s t p a t h o g e n Not registered in Australia* Powdery ■ triadimefon – e.g. Accord 125 EC Filamentous fungi Disease management is aided by practices that reduce Mildew ■ azoxystrobin – e.g. Amistar WG Ampelomyces sp. (e.g. AQ10®; USA) canopy density, relative humidity, and pathogen Erysiphe ■ hexaconazole – e.g. Anvil Acremonium sp. inoculum levels, and also by site selection, row necator ■ triadimenol – e.g. Bayfidan 250 EC Cephalosporium sp. orientation, and by preventing vine shading (by adjusting ■ pyraclostrobin – e.g. Cabrio Cladosporium sp. distances between trees and first vine rows). Disease ■ trifloxystrobin – e.g. Flint 500 WG Gliocladium sp. ‘hot spots’ can also be reduced by preventing water ■ tebuconazole – e.g. Folicur 430 SC Fusarium sp pooling in wheel ruts. Use of tall cover crops or alternate ■ quinoxyfen – e.g. Legend Penicillium sp grass row mowing (outside frost danger time) have been ■ myclobutanil – e.g. Mycloss Tilletiopsis sp. suggested for trapping spores released from fungal ■ spiroxamine – e.g. Prosper 500 EC Trichothecium sp structures over-wintering in the soil. For bunch rot, ■ fenarimol – e.g. Rubigan 120 SC Bacteria Bacillus sp (e.g. Serenade®USA) minimise planting of susceptible varieties in low lying ■ pemcozole – e.g. Topas 100 EC Yeast and yeast-like fungi areas prone to frost and poor air drainage, or close to ■ wettable sulphur (WS) – e.g. Thiovit Jet Pseudozyma sp. (e.g.Sporodex®; Ireland) large water bodies where relative humidity is prolonged. Limited, lower concentration use of WS is Selective bunch tinning to reduce crop load and recommended to conserve beneficials; also by advance harvest date is an effective way to avoid severe IOBC Guidelines for Integrated Grape Production bunch rot in cool climate regions, where berry ripening [5]. may extend into periods of autumn rains. Downy ■ dimethomorph – e.g. Acrobat WG Filamentous fungi Canopy density/ humidity can be manipulated by Mildew ■ phosphorous acid – e.g. Agri-Fos 600 Fusarium sp row orientation, trellis design, pruning, trimming and Plasmopara ■ azoxystrobin – e.g. Amistar WG Trichoderma sp. leaf plucking techniques and through altering vine vigor viticola ■ chlorothalonil – e.g. Barrak 720 Bacteria by limiting irrigation and fertilizer use. Cover crops and ■ copper hydroxide – e.g. Blue Shield DF Bacillus sp. alternate row mowing can also reduce vine vigor by Phomopsis ■ copper oxycholride – e.g. Brycop Pseudomonas sp. competing with vines for resources. cane and ■ pyraclostrobin – e.g. Cabrio Phomopsis Type II diagnosis is essential Pathogen inoculum levels can be reduced by vineyard leaf spot ■ captan – e.g. Crop Care Captan WG prior to applying fungicides, given that sanitation. Vine prunings are mulched in situ, or are Phomopsis ■ dithianon – e.g. Delan 700 WG the similar-looking Phomopsis Type I removed from mid-rows and mulched, composted, viticola ■ trifloxystrobin – e.g. Flint 500 WG (re-named Diaporthe) is reported to have buried, or burned. Composting/fermenting are the ■ cuprous oxide – e.g. Flocop no negative impact on vines, and is not preferred options as composts can be applied to vines, ■ metalaxyl/ copper oxychloride or hydroxide considered a pathogen. Unnecessary to improve soil quality, water holding capacity, vine – e.g. Axion Plus, Ridomil Gold Plus** early season sprays (at bud burst, and 10- health and resistance to disease, and cycle carbon ■ metiram – e.g. Polyram DF (IPM-transition); 14 days later) may thus be prevented. fixed in organic molecules, instead of emitting CO2 by limited use is suggested due to some toxicity burning. New research also shows that mulches lead to some Australian predatory mite species [7]. to significant reduction in Botrytis cinerea primary inoculum and bunch infections by breaking pathogen Botrytis ■ azoxystrobin – e.g. Amistar WG Filamentous fungi life cycle via soil microbial activity during over-wintering bunch rot ■ chlorothalonil – e.g. Barrak 720 Trichoderma sp. (e.g. Vinevax®, Australia; on the vineyard floor [18-20]. Botrytis ■ captan – e.g. Crop Care Captan WG Sentinel®, New Zealand; Trichodex®, Temperature-based models of shoot growth cinerea ■ boscalid – e.g. Filan Israel) estimate the amount of new shoot tissue developed ■ Ulocadium sp. (e.g.Botryzen®, New H2O2, peroxyacetic acid – e.g. Peratec since last fungicide application, and underlie advice ■ pyrimethanil – e.g. Scala® 400 EC Zealand) provided by the weather service on timing protective ■ cyprodinil, fludioxonil – e.g. Switch Bacteria fungicide sprays in some EU countries. Similar models ■ procymidone – e.g. Sumisclex 500 Bacillus sp. (e.g. Serenade®, New are being developed in Tasmania [98]. Warning! S7 Poison Zealand) Aerated compost teas (watery extracts of compost ■ fenhexamid – e.g. Teldor 500 SC Pseudomonas sp. Yeasts - (e.g. Shemer®, Isreal) containing many microorganisms and nutrients) [99] show some disease suppression ability when applied to foliage and fruit [100, 101], but more research is required prior to their commercial use. * Organisms listed are not available as registered products in grapes in Australia (except for Trichoderma sp.) and their importation without a permit is illegal. Products registered in New Zealand, and elsewhere are listed. ** Do not confuse with similar brand name products containing metalaxyl and mancozeb (toxic to predatory mites). withholding periods and MTL requirements before using any of the products grapes. IOBC wprs Bulletin, Bulletin OILB srop, 1999. 22(8): p. 7-14. mentioned. The use of S7 poisons is not recommended by this guide. 6. Bernard, M., P.A. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Ecological Pest Management: The State of Victoria and its employees, and the GWRDC do not guarantee that this The effect of viticultural fungicides on beneficial predatory mites. The Australian publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker, 2004. 485a:p.7-12. purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence 7. Bernard, M.B., P.A. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Developing Eco-toxicological which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication. Testing Standard for Predatory Mites in Australia: Acute and Sub-lethal Effects of Fungicides on Euseius victoriensis and Galendromus occidentalis (Acarina: Agricultural Chemical Users Permit (ACUP): Victorian regulations require the Phytoseiidae). 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Acta Horticulturae, 2007: in press. of the Australian Entomological Society, 1995.34(1): 2003. 13(5): p.459-475. p.79-82. 22. Powell, K.S., et al. Influence of composted green 41. Cordingley, C.L., Factors causing mortality of 51. Bailey, P. and G. Caon, Predation on twospotted waste on the population dynamics and dispersal the grape vine moth, Phalaenoides glycine Lewin of grapevine phylloxera Daktulosphaira vitifoliae. mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae) (Lepidoptera: Agaristidae). Journal of the Australian by Haplothrips victoriensis Bagnall (Thysanoptera: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 2007. 119: Entomological Society, 1981. 20: p.33-38. p.33-38. Phlaeothripidae) and Stethorus nigripes Kapur 42. Petersen, C.L. and J.G. Charles, Transmission (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on seed lucerne crops in 23. Charles, J.G., J.T.S. Walker, and V. White, of grapevine leafroll-associated closteroviruses by South Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology, 1986. Leafroller phenology and parasitism in Hawkes Bay, 34(4): p.515-525. ▲ New Zealand, canefruit gardens. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1996. 24(2): p.123- 131. 24. Suckling, D.M., et al. Abundance of leafrollers and their parasitoids on selected host plants in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1998. 26(3): p.193-203. CCHRISHRIS GGROWROW 25. Berndt, L.A. and S.D. Wratten, Effects of alyssum flowers on the longevity, fecundity, and sex ratio of the leafroller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica. Biological Control, 2005. 32(1): p.65-69. 26. Berndt, L.A., S.D. Wratten, and S.L. Scarratt, The EENGINEERINGNGINEERING influence of floral resource subsidies on parasitism rates of leafrollers (Lepidoptera:Torticidae) in New Zealand vineyards. Biological Control. 37: 50-55. Forefrontal Unerring Innovation 2006. 27. Berndt, L.A., S.D. Wratten, and P.G. Hassan, Effects of buckwheat flowers on leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) parasitoids in a New Zealand vineyard. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 2002. 4(1): p.39- 45. 28. Irvin, N.A., et al. The effects of floral understoreys on parasitism of leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) on apples in New Zealand. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 2006. 8(1): p.25-34. 29. Irvin, N.A., S.D. Wratten, and C.M. Frampton, Understorey management for the enhancement of the leafroller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Cameron) in orchards at Canterbury, New Zealand, in Hymenoptera: evolution, biodiversity and biological control. 2000. p.396-403. 30. Irvin, N.A., et al. Effects of floral resources on fitness of the leafroller parasitoid (Dolichogenidea tasmanica) in apples. Proceedings of the Fifty Second New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Auckland ✦ Twin rotor cover crop vineyard mower Airport Centra, Auckland, New Zealand, 10-12 August, [email protected] 1999, 1999: p.84-88. Chris Grow Engineering Pty Ltd 31. Scarratt, S.L., S.D. Wratten, and P. Shishehbor, 1170 Greenhill Road, URAIDLA, South Australia 5142 Enhancing biological control of vineyard pests: how far do beneficial insects disperse from flowers? Ph + 61 8 8390 1759

The Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Email: Winemaker, 2007(No. 516): p.35-37. Fax +61 8 8390 1502 32. Begum, M., et al. Using selective food plants to Email [email protected] maximize biological control of vineyard pests. Journal of Applied Ecology, 2006. 43: p.547-554. Web www.chrisgrow.com.au

March 2007 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 33 grapegrowing

52. Szendrey, G., G. Dulinafka, and E. Szegedi, Elimination of mites from the 63. Hardman, J.M., et al. Performance of a pyrethroid-resistant strain of the buds of dormant grapevine cuttings by hot water treatment. Vitis, 1995. 34(1): predator mite Typhlodromus pyri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) under different insecticide p.65-66. regimes. Journal of Economic Entomology, 2000. 93(3): p.590-604. 53. Duffner, K., Untersuchungen zur Biologie, Morphologie und Bekämpfung der 64. Readshaw, J.L., The ecology of tetranychid mites in Australian orchards. Kräuselmilbe Calepitrimerus vitis NALEPA 1905 (Acari, Eriophyoidea). in Faculty Journal of Applied Ecology, 1975. 12: p.473-495. of Biology. 1999, Albert-Ludwigs University: Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany. 65. Hardman, J.M., et al. Insectary rearing and initial testing in Canada of an p.1-162. organophosphate/pyrethroid-resistant strain of the predator mite Typhlodromus 54. Bernard, M., A.P. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Preventing restricted spring pyri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) from New Zealand. Environmental Entomology, 1997. growth (RSG) in grapevines by successful rust mite control; spray application, 26(6): p.1424-1436. timing, and eliminating sprays harmful to rust mite predators are critical. The 66. Ingram, B.F. and P.R. Nimmo, Effects of some fungicides on populations of Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker, 2001. 452(16- 22). Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) and Panonychus ulmi (Koch) 55. Bernard, M., et al. Grapevine bud mite, RSG, and blister mite: an emerging (Acarina: Tetranychidae) on apple trees in the Stanthorpe district, Queensland. story. The Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker, 2002. 464: p.41-48. General and Applied Entomology, 1993. 25: p.7-14. 56. Bernard, M.B., P.A. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Eriophyoid mite damage in 67. Readshaw, J.L., Biological control of orchard mites in Australia with an Vitis vinifera (grapevine) in Australia: Calepitrimerus vitis and Colomerus vitis insecticide-resistant predator. Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural (Acarina: Eriophyidae) as the common cause of the widespread ‘Restricted spring Science, 1975. 41(3): p.213-214. growth’ syndrome (RSG). Experimental and Applied Acarology, 2005. 35(1-2): 68. Fisher, D. and S. Learmonth, Six-spotted mite - an old mite, but a new pest in p.83-109. grapevines. Australian Viticulture, 2006. 10 (4, July-August): p.41-45. 57. Bernard, M., A.A. Hoffmann, and D.C. Glenn. Grapevine rust mite, 69. Nicholas, P., P. Magarey, and M. Wachel, eds. Grape Production Series Calepitrimerus vitis (Nalepa)-Biology and integrated management in Australia - Number 1: Diseases and Pests. 1998, Winetitles: Adelaide. poster. in 5th International Symposium on Cool Climate Viticulture and Oenology. 2000. Melbourne, Australia: Victorian Wine Industry Association, Australian 70. Carew, M.E., M.A.D. Goodisman, and A.A. Hoffmann, Species status Society of Viticulture and Oenology Inc. and population structure of grapevine eriophyoid mites (Acari: Eriophyoidae). Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 2004. 111: p.87-96. 58. Herrmann, J.V. and H. Hofmann, Aktuelle Aspekte zur Bekampfung der Krauselmilben. Rebe & Wein, 1995. 4: p.125-126. 71. Horne, P.A., C.L. Edward, and J. Curtis, Control of garden weevil without insecticides. The Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker, 59. Bernard, M.B., Integrated pest management (IPM) in Australian wine grapes: 1997. Annual Technical Issue: p.109-110. Bionomics and integrated control of Calepitrimerus vitis (Nalepa) grape rust mite (Acarina: Eriophyidae): PhD Thesis in School of Molecular Sciences - Faculty of 72. Learmonth, S., M. Gibberd, and M. Stanaway, Garden weevil management- Science, Technology and Engineering. 2005, La Trobe University: Melbourne. progress on new research. Australian Viticulture, 2007. 10(6): p.36-46. p.186 73. Herbert, K.S., Hoffmann A. A. , and Powell K. S., Assaying the potential of two 60. Dennill, G.B., An ecological basis for timing control measures against the systemic insecticides for phylloxera suppression on grapevines. Crop Protection, grape vine bud mite Eriophyes vitis Pgst. Crop Protection, 1986. 5(1): p. 12-14. in press. 61. De Klerk, C.A., Chemical control of the Grape Vine Bud Mite, Eriophyes vitis 74. English-Loeb, G., et al. Use of entomopathogenic nematodes for control (Pagenstecher). South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 1985. 6(1): of grape phylloxera (Homoptera: Phylloxeridae): a laboratory evaluation. p.13-16. Environmental Entomology, 1999. 28 p.890-894. 62. Hardman, J.M., et al. Effect of pesticide applications on abundance 75. Goral, V.M., et al. Interrelations between root phylloxera and certain of European red mite (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Typhlodromus pyri (Acari: muscadine fungi. Zakhist Roslin, Institute Zakhistu Roslin, Kiev, Ukraine. 1975. Phytoseiidae) in Nova Scotian apple orchards. Journal of Economic Entomology, 22 p.30-36 1991. 84(2): p.570-580. 76. Herbert, K.S., et al. The development of a polymerase chain reaction method for the rapid identification of grape phylloxera in vineyard soil. Acta Horticulturae, in press. Rola Engineering SETTING A NEW STANDARD IN MECHANICAL PRUNING

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77. Herbert, K.S., et al. Early detection of phylloxera future directions The destructor (Tucker) (Acarina: Penthaleidae). Australian Journal of Entomology, Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 2003. 473a p.93-96. 1998. 37: p.183-185. 78. Renzullo, L., et al. Remote sensing phylloxera infestation: current capabilities 91. Hartfield, C.M., Aphid natural enemies in United Kingdom plum orchards. and future possibilities for early detection. The Australian & New Zealand Bulletin OILB/SROP, 1997. 20(6): p.87-92. Grapegrower & Winemaker 2004. 32nd Annual Technical Issue p.126-130. 92. Buchholz, U., S. Schmidt, and G. Schruft, The use of an immunological 79. Tucker, D.J., et al. Detection of Phylloxera Infestation in Grapevines by NMR technique in order to evaluate the predation on Eupoecilia ambiguella (Hbn.) Methods. Acta Horticulturae, 2007, in press. (Lepidoptera: Cochylidae) in vineyards. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 80. Blanchfield, A.L., et al. Phylloxera-infested grapevines have reduced 1994. 22(7): p.671-677. chlorophyll and increased photoprotective pigment content - Can leaf pigment 93. Buchholz, U.v. and G. Schruft, Predatory arthropods on flowers and fruits composition aid pest detection? Functional Plant Biology, 2006. 33: p.1-9. of the grapevine as antagonists of the grape moth, Eupoecilia ambiguella (Hbn.) 81. Zalom, F.G., N.C. Toscano, and F.J. Byrne, Managing reistance is critical to (Lep., Cochylidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 1994. 118(1): p.31-37. future use of pyrethroids and neonicotinoids. http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop. 94. Lenfant, C., et al. Potential of Forficula auricularia as a predator of the pear edu, 2005(January-March): p.11-15. psylla Cacopsylla pyri. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 1994. 73(1): 82. Walker, M.K., M.A.W. Stufkens, and A.R. Wallace. Indirect Non-target Effects p.51-60. of Aphicides on Tasmanian Brown Lacewing (Micromus tasmaniae): Impacts on 95. Sauphanor, B., et al. Regulation of populations of pear psyllid Cacopsylla pyri IPM. in Australian and New Zealand Entomological Societies Conference. 2006. (L.) by a generalist predator, Forficula auricularia L. Bulletin OILB/SROP, 1994. 24-27 September, University of Adelaide; p.53. 17(2): p.125-131. 83. Prabhaker, N., et al. Selection for imidacloprid resistance in silverleaf 96. Mueller, T.F., L.H.M. Blommers, and P.J.M. Mols, Earwig (Forficula auricularia) whiteflies from Imperial Valley and development of a hydroponic bioassay for predation on the woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum. Entomologia resistance monitoring. Pesticide Science, 1997. 51: p.419-428. Experimentalis et Applicata, 1988. 47(2): p.145-152. 84. Zhao, J.Z., B.A. Bishop, and E.J. Grafius, Inheritance and synergism 97. Horne, P.A., The phenology and food preferences of Labidura truncata of resistance to imidacloprid in the Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: (Dermaptera: Labiduridae) in western Vicotria. Journal of the Australian Chrysomelidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 2000. 93: p.1508-1514. Entomological Society, 1995. 34: p.101-104. 85. Stinner, B.R. and G.J. House, Arthropods and other invertebrates in 98. Evans, K.J. and A.M. Smith. Towards integrated and sustainable management conservation-tillage agriculture. Annual Review of Entomology, 1990. of grapevine powdery mildew in Tasmania in Proceedings of the Sixth International 86. MacLeod, A., et al. ‘Beetle banks’ as refuges for beneficial arthropods in Cool Climate Symposium for Viticulture and Oenology 2006. farmland: long-term changes in predator communities and habitat. Agricultural 99. Scheuerell, S. and W. Mahaffee, Compost tea: Principles and prospects for and Forest Entomology, 2004. 6(2): p.147-154. plant disease control. Compost Science and Utilisation 2002. 10 (4): p.313-348. 87. Suckling, D.M., et al. Frass sampling and baiting indicate European earwig 100. Palmer, A.K., K.J. Evans, and D.A. Metcalf. Aerated compost extract: (Forficula auricularia) foraging in orchards. Journal of Applied Entomology, 2006. standardising a new approach for integrated management of powdery mildew. 130(5): p.263-267. in Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Grapevine Downy and 88. Nicholas, A.H., R.N. Spooner-Hart, and R.A. Vickers, Susceptibility of eight Powdery Mildew 2006. apple varieties to damage by Forficula auricularia L. (Dermaptera: Forficulidae), 101. Palmer, A.K., K.J. Evans, and D.A. Metcalf, ACE: A potential new method for an effective predator of Eriosoma lanigerum Hausmann (Hemiptera: Aphididae). suppression of grapevine powdery mildew and Botrytis bunch rot. Australian & General and Applied Entomology, 2004. 33: p.21-24. New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 2006(515): p.40-42. 89. Frank, S.D., et al. The influence of habitat strata on predator diversity, activity 102. Candolfi, M.P., et al. eds. Guidelines to evaluate side effects of plant and predation of leafrollers in a vineyard. Basic and Applied Ecology, in press. protection products to non target arthropods. 2000, Iobc/Wprs: Gent; Belgium. 90. Weiss, M.J. and G. McDonald, European earwig, Forficula auricularia L. 103. Samsoe-Petersen, L., Sequences of standard methods to test effects of (Dermaptera: Forficulidae), as a predator of redlegged earth mite, Halotydeus chemicals on terrestrial arthropods. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 1990. 19: p.310-319. ■ Independent Horticultural and Viticultural Advice

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March 2007 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 35 grapegrowing AgNote: Enhancing beneficial insects and mites in vineyards: providing nectar, pollen, and shelter in vine rows

Martina Bernard Stephen D. Wratten Department of Zoology (CESAR) National Centre for Advanced Bio-Protection University of Melbourne Technologies Parkville, Vic 3010 P.O. Box 84 Lincoln University Canterbury, New Zealand

Alternate row mowing of mid-row grass needs be cut for these reasons, a minimum of beneficial for these wasps. Nectar chemical Alternate row mowing provides habitat, 10cm is best to preserve some habitat, grass analyses are followed by evaluations of shelter from low humidity and summer heat, roots and the ability of the grass to compete nectar on beneficial species (and pests) in and pollen as a food source for natural enemies. with broad-leaf weeds. Side-throw slashers the laboratory and in the field. In addition, Vineyard generalist predators, such as brown place cuttings under vines, creating a mulch flower shape must allow access to nectar deep lacewings (Micromus tasmaniae), damsel bugs layer that further improves beneficial habitat inside flowers, the plant (if annual) must be (Nabis kinbergii), ground-dwelling predatory and soil structure, reduces water evaporation, fast-growing and flower within a few weeks beetles and spiders, commonly found in mid- water run-off, and botrytis incidence on of sowing, and perennials should flower at row grass can be aided by habitat provision. grapes. times synchronous with the activity of natural Many predatory mite species supplement their enemies. Plants must be compatible with diet with pollen and some species can even Providing nectar vineyards in low water and nutrition needs, be reared on pollen alone in the laboratory. What makes a good nectar source? low weed potential, the nectar and other plant Providing grass pollen can help predatory Nectar is a vital food source for many features must not enhance pest damage. This mite populations to thrive even when numbers insects, including adult parasitoid wasps, takes years to establish! Research in this of prey are low, thereby increasing potential the larvae of which feed on LBAM larvae area is vital, and growers should only deploy predation[1]. The use of alternate row mowing and other pests. However, latest research nectar sources determined by research. Ten may be limited in some regions due to spring shows that only nectar with particular ‘sugar years of research in New Zealand (Lincoln frosts, and summer drought. Where grass signatures’ (sugar content and proportions) is University) and collaboration with Charles Sturt University in Australia established three non-native nectar sources suitable for vineyards so far. But new screening of The easy way to repair, anchor native plant nectars is indicating many more suitable candidates in New Zealand, and such research on Australian native plants has a or join wires… great potential to benefit Australian growers NO KNOTTING! NO SPECIAL WIRE in the future. JOINER TOOLS! USES LESS WIRE! Suitable nectar plants and benefits It’s so simple. Wire any fence or trellis, for any Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum purpose, using any commonly used plain wire. Fig.1a) is so far the best source of nectar for Just strain wire and slip on WIRELOCK. It vineyards. Phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia- automatically grabs and grips. Eliminates knot weakness. Keeps wire free of contact with chemically-treated posts and avoids the problem of wires ‘wrapped’ around posts, twisting and splitting them.

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a b c

Fig. 1. Nectar plants in one in every 10 rows: (a) buckwheat; (b) phacelia; (c) white alyssum under-vine strips (©Jean-Luc Dufour, Waipara Hills Vineyards, New Zealand).

Fig.1b) is also suitable but its utility is not as high as that of It adapts to drought by growing to low height (c.15cm) yet flowering buckwheat, and it self-seeds to a degree. Both were tested on the sufficiently to supply nectar, and grows knee-high, flowering most abundant LBAM parasitoid in Australian and New Zealand profusely, if more water is available. The only disadvantage is that vineyards, the Australian native wasp Dolichogenidea tasmanica[2-5] it is annual and needs re-sowing each year. This is necessary until parasitising LBAM larvae. Access to this nectar significantly research on Australian native plants finds suitable perennial nectar increased D. tasmanica lifespan, egg load, and LBAM parasitism plants. compared with water only in extensive New Zealand studies[6-11], and reduced LBAM and other leafrollers below economic thresholds Seed suppliers without a need to spray in vineyards where buckwheat was sown Australia: Buckwheat is grown in Australia for the soba noodle in every 10th mid-row. Buckwheat is now used by grape growers market, and local seed is available. Order by April to guarantee in Hawkes Bay, Waipara, Marlborough and Central Otago, showing stock. Highleaze Seeds, Smeaton, Victoria 3364; Lang Seeds that leafroller damage is reduced to below the economic spray Woodside, Adelaide Hills, SA 5244; Mirfak Pty Ltd, PO Box 38, threshold and saving up to NZ$250/ha/year. Benalla, Vic 3672; Organic Buckwheat supplier: Kialla Pure Foods White alyssum (Lobularia maritima Fig.1c), a drought tolerant M/S, 664B Greenmount, QLD 4359; approximate cost: A$1.25/kg. ▲ self-sowing annual, native to slopes and cliffs of the Mediterranean, is a good nectar source for the minute parasitoid of LBAM eggs Trichogramma carverae[12]. It is low-growing and well suited to under-vine planting. Beneficial species, such as parasitoids of mealybugs and scales, and predators whose adult stages feed on nectar (e.g. hoverflies and common green lacewings Mallada signatus) may also be enhanced by providing nectar, and this could help prevent mealybug outbreaks. But nectar has not yet been evaluated for these Australian species.

Use these practices once IPM-Step I is adopted: sprays toxic to beneficials are minimized and pests are monitored every 7- 10 days over the growing season[13].

Australian experience using buckwheat Buckwheat has been successfully trialed in 2006-07 in a 10ha Chardonnay block, Adelaide Hills, SA; contact the authors for more information.

How to use buckwheat Spacing. Nectar source in 1 of every 10 rows (25m) results in no decline in LBAM parasitism across rows. This was carefully worked out by rubidium marking nectar-feeding D. tasmanica wasps, and studying their movement, abundance, and parasitism rates away from the nectar source[14]. Spacing ideal for T. carverae is likely to be similar. Sowing and agronomy. Direct-drill (2cm deep) early November and up to twice more in off-set rows at three week intervals, at a rate of 45kg/ha (0.5kg/100m row). The cost of seed in New Zealand is about 67c/kg, this means 34c per 100m of row! Water-in after drilling (again if very dry), but the plant is otherwise drought tolerant. All cultivars are suitable. Buckwheat has exceptional agronomic qualities due to adaptation to its native habitat in the dry steppes of Asia that make it an excellent cover-crop. It takes only 5 weeks to flower (November planting), or 3 weeks (Jan/Feb planting).

April 2007 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 33 New Zealand: Midland Seeds, 393-405 10. Irvin, N.A., S.D. Wratten, and C.M. Frampton, Understorey management for the enhancement of +PVGTPCVKQPCN West St, PO Box 65, Ashburton, NZ; Ph +64 the leaf roller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica 33081265, Fax +64 33081266; email: office@ (Cameron) in orchards at Canterbury, New Zealand, midlands.co.nz, web www.midlands.co.nz. in Hymenoptera: evolution, biodiversity and biological control. 2000. p.396-403. %QUV'HHGEVKXG Buying seed directly from New Zealand may not be permitted in Australia. 11. Irvin, N.A., et al. Effects of floral resources on fitness of the leaf roller parasitoid (Dolichogenidea 6GUVKPI5GTXKEGU Please contact the authors if you wish to tasmanica) in apples. Proceedings of the Fifty Second try using nectar plants in your vineyard, or New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Auckland for further information. Martina Bernard Airport Centra, Auckland, New Zealand, 10-12 August, 1999: p.84-88. can be contacted on +61 0409 936503, [email protected] Stephen 12. Begum, M., et al. Using selective food plants to maximize biological control of vineyard pests. Journal Wratten can be contacted on +64 3325 of Applied Ecology, 2006. 43: p.547-554. .KPPCGWU 3838 ext 8221, [email protected] 13. Bernard, M., et al. Guidelines for Environmentally Sustainable Wine Grape Production in Australia: 0GY

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34 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au April 2007 Pest & Disease Management Beneficial insects and spiders in vineyards: Predators in South-East Australia The first study of generalist insect predators and their seasonal changes in Australian vineyards

Martina Bernard John Wainer Linda Semeraro CESAR- Dpt. of Zoology, DPI, Primary Industries Research Victoria, DPI, Primary Industries Research Victoria, University of Melbourne Knoxfield Centre Knoxfield Centre [email protected]; tel. 0409 936503 Vicki Carter Alan L. Yen CESAR- Dpt. of Zoology, DPI, Primary Industries Research Victoria, University of Melbourne Knoxfield Centre

Stephen D. Wratten National Centre for Advanced Bio-Protection Technologies, Lincoln University, New Zealand

Introduction greatly contributes to the control of potential pests, even in highly Modern viticulture and environmentally aware world markets modified agricultural landscapes, particularly where IPM or increasingly require that vineyard management be as environmentally organic farming practices are used [4, 5]. It is called an Ecosystem sound as possible. Most agree that this is a worthwhile undertaking. Service (ES): a key ecosystem function that arises from the sum There has been a tremendous ground-swell of interest in this topic, total of all interactions of all organisms (biodiversity) within the demonstrated by a demand for seminars, by the adoption of rust system, water, soil, and climatic factors. Together these make the mite IPM in Australia, reducing pesticide use toxic to predatory complex web of interdependent functions which eventually delivers mites [1-3], and by the greening of a whole wine region in New its individual components such as ladybird beetles, predatory Zealand (www.lincoln.ac.nz/story13772.html; www.waiparawine. mites, spiders, and lacewings to your vines. Other examples of ES co.nz/index.cfm/research/greening_waipara.html). It is clear that, crucial to human life are pollination, water filtration by forests, given a chance in the form of practical, economically feasible and fisheries, composting, soil mineralisation, and CO2 removal from agronomically well-considered guidelines, many growers and wine the atmosphere by photosynthesis [6]. companies choose to adopt IPM and bio-control. It is also clear that in Australia they face a problem in a lack of comprehensive, site- What are nature’s services (ES) worth to the economy? adapted advice on how to do this. Some growers go ahead regardless It is interesting to consider what can happen when an ES is obtaining information from many sources, including overseas (such disabled. For example, what would happen to the world food supply, as Yalumba, Brown Bros, or Agribusiness Research & Management if pollination by bees was impaired? What might be the flow-on P/L), or engage expert IPM services (IPM Technologies, Biological effects to other human enterprises? This is not as far-fetched as it Services, Bugs for Bugs). Other growers adopt alternate row may seem. For example, since 1990 outbreaks of a pest mite and mowing to provide shelter, pollen and nectar for beneficials (such as disease vector (Varroa destructor; not in Australia) of honeybees Riverland growers, based on Phylloxera and Grape Idustry Board of resulted in a major decline in bee colonies across the USA, reduced South Australia 2004-5 seminars). Others watch such developments agricultural pollination, and large crop losses [7]. The point is: we do with interest, waiting to see how the industry-leaders fare. This not usually put monetary value on nature’s services. We take them overview is for all these growers. It is a photo gallery of beneficials, for granted, and our accounting systems ignore their contribution with their seasonality in vineyards summarised based on research (except as harvested products) to national and world economies. across four vineyards in/near the Yarra Valley in 2003-05. We hope Such views come to us by force of habit from the 19th and earlier it will bring to life the terrific range of vineyard beneficials, and aid centuries. We simply assume that nature will go on as it always has, the understanding of vineyards as living agro-ecosystems, whose inexhaustible and plentiful, the way it seemed when our means to tremendous natural biological control potential can be harnessed for disrupt it were far more modest. Is this view still valid today, or is environmental, cost saving, and marketing benefits. it perhaps outdated? Recently, the global value of biodiversity was estimated at US $3 trillion per year, and of all ES combined [6] at Sustainability and bio-control a minimum of US $16-54 trillion per year, of which $100 billion Naturally occurring biological control of pests is an awesome per year was attributed to pest and disease suppression by natural force nature provides free of charge to human agriculture. It enemies in crops world-wide [8, 9]. Despite an inherent degree of ▲

September 2006 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 37 pest & disease management uncertainly, these valuations clearly indicate the importance of However, seasonal population changes of beneficials need be conserving ES. Preventing damage to natural biological control studied over a longer period, and in other regions; a task beyond and restoring ES of agricultural systems are therefore key aims of the funding scope of this project. In dynamic, living ecosystems, sustainable food and fiber production, increasingly recognized as numbers, peak times, and individual species can vary between critical to maintaining high-productivity agriculture into the long- sites, regions, and years. Full scientific data are being prepared for term future [10-12]. A vineyard level cost-benefit review of IPM & publication elsewhere. Predatory mites were not studied. bio-control will appear in the November issue. Brown lacewings (BLW) Beneficials in your vineyard Generalist (multi-feeding) insect predators, spiders, and parasitoids of LBAM and mealybugs are important providers of biological control ES in vineyards and orchards. This is their story. Here is what happened over two growing seasons in well- established IPM vineyards, situated near large blocks of remnant native vegetation (a landscape feature found to enhance beneficials overseas), using a basic on-site beneficial enhancement (alternate row mowing) in 2004-05. Sprays toxic to beneficials were eliminated for 3-5 yrs prior to this study. Wettable sulphur use in the study blocks did not exceed 300g/100L and 3kg/ha. Mimic®, BT, and one Success® spray per season in one site (2004) were the only insecticides used, except for an accidental Avatar® spray (2002) in one site prior to this research. Monitoring of pests and beneficials was used to decide when to spray & when not to spray. Longtail mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus) was found in one site (03-4), and in another (04-5). It was contained to a few vines Fig. 2. BLW in the vine canopy & vine inter-rows in 2004-05: average per 100 and controlled without pesticides by the next spring. We found a vine shoots (± S.E.), and per 1m2 of long grass vacumed for 60 s ( ± S.E.) succession in peak abundance of beneficial species over the season. This species complex (predators) is described here (for LBAM ab parasitoids - see October 2006 issue). We show that biological control of LBAM, vine moth and mealybugs is not delivered by a single key beneficial (an idea based on how pesticides work), but by a whole range of organisms that coincide, or succeed one another over the season, each contributing to the overall pest control to a greater or lesser degree (Fig.1).

Micromus tasmaniae (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae) (Fig. 2- 4) were found in very high numbers in the vine canopy, and in long grass inter-rows. Besides spiders, it was the most abundant beneficial species active early in spring, reflecting adaptation to Fig. 1. Approximate periods of high abundance of beneficials (predatory mites cold [13]. Adults co-occurred in high numbers in the canopy and not included) in the study sites; growing seasons 2003-05 long grass inter-rows from early spring until c. end of December. Thereafter numbers were low in both strata. Adult numbers peaked Sampling methods & limitations some weeks earlier in inter-rows than in the canopy (mid Nov- Two well-established methods were used alongside one another; mid Dec), when averages of 6.3 ± 1.12 per 100 shoots and 13.6 ± day-time only. 4.44 per 1m2 of long grass (Site I- Fig.2), and 6.5 ± 0.85 per 100 z Direct observation of the vine canopy: 100 random vine shoots shoots & 10.2 ± 1.56 per 1m2 of long grass (Site II) were recorded. replicated 4-6x (n=4-6), were examined from shoot tips, both Interactions between populations in inter-rows and the canopy sides of leaves, to 10 cm cordon section below each shoot; 400- indicate the importance of long grass habitat to canopy visits and 600 shoots were checked weekly from early spring to leaf fall egg-lay by adults. Eggs were laid in the canopy for c. 6 weeks from (7 Oct - 28 April). Only freshly laid lacewing eggs were counted 20 October-3 December (Pinot Noir: 6 leaves separated - flowering). (no emerged eggs), therefore numbers are an underestimate of Peak egg-lay occurred 3-12 November (PIN: 10 leaves), averaging eggs laid each week. 12.3 ± 2.39 eggs per 100 shoots (Site I), and 27.3 ± 2.69 (Site II). z Vacuum suction sampling of long inter-row grass: 8-11 randomly Larvae were also found in the canopy, and eggs in inter-rows, but chosen long grass sections (1m2 ea) were vacuumed for 60 sec sampling methods were not accurate for these life-stages. every 14 days (20 Oct-28 April); each catch was captured in a nylon bag attached to the suction tube, killed immediately Green lacewings (GLW) by ethyl acetate vapor, and sorted in the laboratory. Graphs Mallada signatus (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) (Fig.5-6) was here show trends found in all four IPM-sites over two growing the most abundant GLW species. Eggs were found in the vine seasons 2003-05. canopy from early October to late January (PIN 2-4 leaves-bunch ▲

38 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au September 2006 pest & disease management

a b c

Fig. 4. (a) BLW (M. tasmaniae) larva (final instar), (b) adult, (c) pupa (© Semeraro) closure), peaked late October-mid December (PIN: 7-9 leaves- turn lead to the wrong assumption that pesticides were safe to eggs flowering), and reappeared late March. Larvae were found in and larvae present in vines at spray application. canopy November-January, with the highest average abundance Brown and green lacewings are most studied as aphid predators at flowering; 12.5 ± 1.34 per 100 shoots (Site I), and 11.2 ± 1.11 in cereals and corn, but predation on other pests in many other (Site II- Fig.5). Few adults were found in the canopy, and no life- crops overseas is also well-established [14, 15]. Yet to date there is stages were found in long grass at any site for the entire season, no quantitative evaluation of BLW or GLW feeding in Australian indicating that: vineyards. BLW (M. tasmaniae) commonly occurs throughout [13, 16, 17] [18-20] z GLW (M. signatus) did not reproduce or reside in inter-row Australia , including in vegetables and cotton . Feeding [21, 22] [23] grass on longtail mealybug and LBAM larvae was recorded. [24-26] z egg-lay visits by adults to the vine canopy occurred at night GLW (M. signatus) is also common throughout Australia , and z adults migrated to lay eggs in vines from surrounding remnant is an important predator in grapes feeding on LBAM, mealybugs, vegetation or from shrubs and trees (not ground cover) within and vine scale (Horne & Altmann unpublished data), and in citrus [27-29] [21, 30] the site. and other crops . Feeding on longtail mealybug , and on LBAM eggs and larvae [23] was recorded. GLW species overseas This is supported by evidence of long nocturnal migratory feed on mealybugs [31-34]. M. signatus is available commercially in flights of overseas GLW species. GLW (M. signatus) is therefore Australia. GLW do not occur in New Zealand. less likely to be exposed to pesticides than BLW (resident in vine inter-rows), and may lay eggs in vines soon after broad-spectrum Pacific Damsel Bugs (PDB) pesticide use if abundant in the surrounding landscape. This may in Nabis kinbergii (Hemiptera: Nabidae) (Fig. 7) was resident and ▲

Fig. 5. GLW eggs & larvae in the vine canopy: average density (± S.E.) - Yarra Fig. 7. PDB adults and larvae in long grass inter-rows: average density per 1m2 Valley 2004-05 of long grass vacumed for 60 s ( ± S.E.) - Yarra Valley 2004-05

abc

Fig. 6. GLW (M. signatus) (a) egg (note typical stalk), (b) larva (note trash carried as camouflage) (© Semeraro & Bernard); (c) adult (© Bernard)

40 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au September 2006 pest & disease management reproducing in long grass inter-rows from 20 Oct (Site I) and 20 The numbers of beneficials were very high! To put this into Nov (Site II) (PIN 5-6 leaves, 12-15 leaves) until c. end of March. perspective, consider how many 100 shoot lots, and how many Peak abundance was recorded in both sites 10 Jan (PIN berries square meters of inter-rows there are in a vineyard. The picture that peppercorn-size): 13.9 adults and nymphs per 1m2 of grass (Site emerges is that of whole ‘armies’ of small, extraordinary creatures, II-Fig.7), and 3.6 (Site I). Very few PDB were found in the vine working for you in pest control night and day; with no overtime, canopy throughout the season during the day. This does not indicate health or environmental risk incurred. In many cases, all you have lack of interaction between inter-rows and vine canopy, as night to do is: insect activity (far greater than day activity) was not sampled. z not kill them by broad-spectrum sprays (harmonise pesticide use PDB is widespread in Australia and common in many vegetable with beneficial care) crops and cotton, feeding on soft-bodied adult insects, eggs and z manage vine inter-rows to enhance them; consistently over time. caterpillars [19, 20]. DB were the most abundant insect predators in Californian vineyards [35]. Ladybird Beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) Six species were found in the vine canopy. Ladybird beetles Spiders (Araneae) were found in much lower numbers (Fig.10) than the predators Spiders were the most abundant predators found in the vine above, except for Stethorus; the black, tiny pinhead-sized, mite- canopy. They were active already at budburst (webbing between eating ladybird (Fig. 11). Stethorus predation on two-spotted ▲ wires), before any other beneficials were found on the developing shoots. Their numbers increased over the season, peaking in the canopy when spiderlings emerged from egg-sacks (Site I-Fig 8). Different spiders were collected from the canopy, and from long grass inter-rows, suggesting that ground and canopy spider assemblages are quite separate, as in Californian vineyards [36, 37]. Ground spiders may thus have little relevance to vine canopy predation. Two most common species in the canopy were the well- known Eriophora biapicata (Family: Araneidae) (Fig. 9), building large webs spanning across vine rows, and Badumna sp. (Family: Desidae) (Fig. 9), building small tunnel-like webs between shoot tips, between large overlapping leaves, or inside bunches. Many spiders feed on LBAM larvae [23]. We found LBAM adults in webs on trellis wires very early in spring, suggesting an impact Fig. 10. Ladybird beetles (all species): average density per 100 vine shoots Yarra Valley 2004-05 on the first seasonal LBAM flight. Spiders are important in pest suppression in many crops, including cotton and cereals [38-40].

Fig. 11. Stethorus ladybird adult and larva (pin-head size) feeding on TSM (© Fig. 8. Spiders (all species): average density per 100 vine shoots (± S.E.), and DPI Knoxfield) per 1m2 of long grass vacumed for 60 s (± S.E.)

Fig. 9. Two most common spider species found in the vine canopy (Yarra Valley) Fig. 12. Diomus ladybird adult (sesame seed size); 20x mag. (© Semeraro & (a) Eriophora biapicata, (b) Badumna sp. (© Bernard) Bernard)

42 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au September 2006 pest & disease management mite (TSM, Tetranychus urticae) is well-documented in lucerne, & Weppler, unpublished data), and Hippodamia variegata (Fig.14) raspberry, pome and stone fruit in Australia [41-44]. Its numbers can recently introduced to Australia. be very high in late season in vineyards where TSM or other pest mites are present. In such vineyards, Stethorus ladybirds are an Other predators invaluable ally to growers, achieving TSM control together with ROVE BEETLE (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) adults of one predatory mites, but with the advantage of fast movement to TSM species were found in the vine canopy from early spring until c. patches by flight and extremely high feeding rates. This achieves mid-December in all four sites studied, and again in early March. control late in the current season (before TSM over-winters), Its feeding habits are not known, but other rove beetle species are and TSM-free vines the next spring. This is invaluable because predators in vegetables, and cereal crops. Other commonly found TSM is resistant to most miticides. The products that work are predators were HOVER FLIES (Diptera: Syrphidae) (Fig. 15) which extremely expensive, and are not registered for wine grapes in have predatory larvae feeding on aphids and young caterpillars, and Australia. Other species found in all sites were the native: Diomus ROBBER FLIES (Ascilidae) (Fig. 16) that catch insects prey in notescence, D. sydneyensis (Fig.12), Harmonia conformis (Fig.13), mid-flight. SHIELD BUGS Oechalia schellenbergii (Hemiptera: Coccinella transversalis (abundant in Riverland vineyards, Altmann

a b

Fig. 13. Harmonia (common spotted ladybird) (a) adult, (b) larva (© Semeraro Fig. 15. Hover fly adult (© B. Lockyer, University of Southampton, UK). Photo & Bernard) taken by Professor Steve Wratten’s associate as part of joint research.

a b

a b c

Fig. 17. Predatory shield bug (O. schellenbergii): (a) egg-raft (typical metallic-sheen) & newly emerged nymphs, (b) older nymph feeding on vine moth larva, (c) adult (© Bernard)

44 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au September 2006 pest & disease management

Pentatomidae) adults and juveniles (Fig. 17) Eggs are often laid under the outer scales of a feed on soft-bodied insects often many times dormant buds, where young larvae feed on their own size, sucking the contents of their rust mite. Very important predators of pest prey with needle-like mouthparts. They are mites are of course PREDATORY MITES found in the vine canopy and in long-grass (Phytoseiidae) (Fig. 19) [1]. inter-rows, and are abundant in Riverland & Sunraysia, feeding on vine moth and LBAM How much does each beneficial contribute larvae (Altmann & Weppler, unpublished to pest control? data). PREDATORY THRIPS Haplothrips We do not know exactly how much each victoriensis (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) beneficial species contributes to pest control (Fig. 18) is a tiny predator (2-3 mm) whose in Australian vineyards. No detailed feeding adults and larvae feed on grape rust mite and evaluation of vineyard predators (on vineyard TSM [41]. It over-winters in bark fissures on pests) has ever been done in Australia, except ▲ vine canes, and under the bark of older wood. for some work on predatory mites, and early

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"ASTA®ISA2EGISTERED4RADEMARKOF"AYER "AYER#ROP3CIENCE0TY,TD!". n4OORONGA2OAD%AST(AWTHORN 6)# 0H WWWBAYERCROPSCIENCECOMAU !LWAYSREADANDADHERETOLABELDIRECTIONSONTHEPRODUCTCONTAINER "(4(4 Fig. 19. Predatory mites (Phytoseiidae) ©Bernard

September 2006 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 45 pest & disease management studies in 1970-’80s [23, 41, 42]. The impact of mealybug parasitoids Acknowledgements was also not studied in Australia, nor were parasitoids of LBAM This work would not have been possible without Dr. Paul Horne (larvae & pupae) investigated except very recently [45], and in two (IPM Technologies) sharing his great practical knowledge of insect early studies [46, 47]. But the key role of the wasp Dolichogenidea ecology, and the generous in-kind support of growers and wine tasmanica in LBAM control is well established by New Zealand companies who participated in this study. Many thanks to Paul, research. Research in Australia has concentrated on the LBAM Craig Callec, Ray Guerin, and the Hardy Wine Company; Dr. Neil egg parasitoid Trichogramma sp. (>20 scientific papers published Roberts (Rising Vineyard); Stuart Sissins, Michael Brocksopp, and since 1990s), even tough species of Trichogramma can only control Tarrawarra Wines. Many thanks for discussions and guidance to LBAM eggs (not caterpillars or adults), and LBAM egg-masses Professors Ary Hoffmann (Melbourne Uni-Cesar) in design and are often not parasitised in high numbers until after harvest [48]. statistical analysis, and Tim New (La Trobe Uni) in all lacewing Furthermore, Trichogramma wasps are highly sensitive to wettable matters, to Drs Mali Malipatil (DPI Knoxfield) and Adam Slipinski sulphur [49], and parasitised egg-masses are subject to predation. (CSIRO) for generous assistance with nabid, mealybug and New scientific techniques (infra-red imaging) are making direct ladybird ID, and to James Altmann and Rob Weppler (Biological quantitative field studies on the impact of predators far easier Services) for valuable comments on the manuscript. This research and cheaper than ever before, and it is time for such assessments was funded by the GWRDC; Project MU LTU 02/01. in Australia; most urgently in relation to mealybugs. Yet, in conserving one beneficial species, we also conserve many others, References 1. Bernard, M., P.A. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Ecological Pest Management: The effect and so it is possible to implement IPM in vineyards, while research of viticultural fungicides on beneficial predatory mites, . The Australian & New Zealand to elucidate the exact role of key beneficials is underway. Grapegrower & Winemaker, 2004. 485a: p. 7-12. 2. Bernard, M.B., P.A. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Developing Eco-toxicological Testing Enhancing beneficials by inter-row management Standard for Predatory Mites in Australia: Acute and Sub-lethal Effects of Fungicides on Euseius victoriensis and Galendromus occidentalis (Acarina: Phytoseiidae). Journal of Alternate row mowing of grass inter-rows can be used to Economic Entomology, 2004. 97(3): p. 891-899. provide pollen and shelters for beneficials. More sophisticated, 3. Bernard, M., A.P. Horne, and A.A. Hoffmann, Preventing restricted spring growth (RSG) in yet cheap and simple to apply, direct-drilling of buckwheat strips grapevines by successful rust mite control; spray application, timing, and eliminating sprays in some inter-rows (Fig. 20) provides high quality nectar and harmful to rust mite predators are critical. The Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker, 2001. 452(16- 22). pollen for beneficials [50-53], and has been extensively researched in 4. de Bach, P., Biological control of natural enemies. 1974: Cambridge University Press, New Zealand vineyards. Results of this research are available to London. growers, so please contact us for precise information on how to do 5. Takatsuka, Y., et al. Values of ecosystem services on arable land and the role of organic this and for other IPM methods to enhance beneficials. farming. in New Zealand Agricultural Resource Economics Society (NZARES) 11th annual conference. 2005. Nelson, New Zealand. 6. Daily, C.G., et al., Ecosystem Services: benefits supplied to human societies by natural ecosystems. Issues in Ecology, 1997. 2: p.1-16. 7. Kearns, C.A., D.W. Inouye, and N.M. Waser, Endangered Mutualisms: The conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 1998. 29(83-112). 8. Pimentel, D., et al., Economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity. BioScience, 1997. 47(11): p. 747-757. 9. Costanza, R., et al., The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature (London), 1997. 387(6630): p. 253-260. 10. Tilman, D., et al., Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature (London), 2002. 418(6898): p. 671-677. 11. Matson, P.A., et al., Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science (Washington), 1997. 277(5325): p. 504-509. 12. Robertson, G.P. and S.M. Swinton, Reconciling agricultural productivity and environmental integrity: a grand challenge for agriculture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2005. 3(1): p. 38-46. 13. New, T.R., Comparative biology of some Australian Hemerobiidae, in Progress in World’s Neuropterology, J. Gepp, H. Aspock, and H. Holzel, Editors. 1984: Graz. p. 153-165. b 14. McEwen, P.K., T.R. New, and A.E. Whittington, Lacewings in the crop environment, in Lacewings in the crop environment. 2001. p. xviii + 546 pp. 15. New, T.R., The biology of Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera), with reference to their usage as biocontrol agents: a review. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society, 1975. 127(2): p. 115-140. 16. New, T.R., A revision of the Australian Hemerobiidae (Insecta: Neuroptera). Invertebrate Taxonomy, 1988. 2(3): p. 339-411. 17. Smithers, C.N., New records of Australian Hemerobiidae (Neuroptera). Australian Entomological Magazine, 1991. 18(4): p. 139-141. 18. Horne, P.A., P.M. Ridland, and T.R. New, Micromus tasmaniae: a key predator on aphids on field crops in Australasia?, in Lacewings in the Crop Environment, P.K. McEwen, T.R. New, and A.E. Whittington, Editors. 2001, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. p. 388-394. 19. Samson, P.R. and P.R.B. Blood, Voracity and searching ability of Chrysopa signata (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), Micromus tasmaniae (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae), and Tropiconabis capsiformis (Hemiptera: Nabidae). Australian Journal of Zoology, 1980. 28(4): p. 575-580. 20. Bishop, A.L. and P.R.B. Blood, A record of beneficial arthropods and insect diseases in southeast Queensland cotton. PANS (Pest.Artic.News.Summ.), 1977. 23(4): p. 384-386. 21. Furness, G.O., The dispersal, age-structure and natural enemies of the long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti) in relation to sampling and control. Australian Journal of Zoology, 1976. 24: p. 237-47. a 22. Charles, J.G., Distribution and life history of the longtailed mealy bug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), in Auckland vineyards. New Zealand Journal of Fig. 20. (a) Buckwheat, (b) Phacelia inter-row strips provide nectar & pollen Zoology, 1981. 8(2): p. 285-293. for parasitoids, and for predators (e.g. hover flies or some green lacewings) 23. MacLellan, C.R., Natural enemies of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, in whose adult life stages feed on nectar and pollen. (© J.Dufour, Waipara Hills the Australian Capital Territory. Canadian Entomologist, 1973. 105(5): p. 681-700. Vineyards, New Zealand). Photo taken by Professor Steve Wratten’s associates 24. as part of joint research. New, T.R., Zoogeography of the Australian Chrysopidae (Neuroptera). Neuroptera ▲ International, 1983. 2(3): p. 145-155.

46 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au September 2006 25. New, T.R., A revision of the Australian Chrysopidae (Insecta: Neuroptera), in Australian Journal of Zoology, Supplementary Series. 1980. p. 143pp. One bite 26. Smithers, C.N., New distribution records for Australian Chrysopidae (Neuroptera). Australian Entomological Magazine, 1988. 15(1): p. 35-38. 27. Horne, P.A., T.R. New, and D. Papacek, Preliminary notes on Mallada signatus (Chrysopidae) as a predator in field crops, in Lacewings in the Crop Environment, P.K. McEwen, T.R. New, and A.E. Whittington, Editors. 2001, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. p. 395-397. and it’s 28. Smith, D., G.A.C. Beattie, and R. Broadley, eds. Citrus pests and their natural enemies: Integrated pest management in Australia. Q197030. 1997, Department of Primary Industries Queensland, Horticultural Research and Development Corporation: Australia. 29. Llewellyn, R., ed. The Good Bug Book. 2 ed. 2002, Integrated Pest Management Pty. Ltd.: Mundubbera, Australia. 110. goodnight 30. Furness, G.O., Chemical and integrated control of the long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in the Riverland of South Australia. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 1977. 28(2): p. 319-332. 31. Doutt, R.L., Effect of codling moth sprays on natural control of the Baker mealybug. Journal of Economic Entomology, 1948. 41(1): p. 116-117. to grubs 32. Doutt, R.L. and K.S. Hagen, Periodic colonization of Chrysopa californica as a possible control of mealybugs. Journal of Economic Entomology, 1949. 42(3): p. 560-561. 33. Doutt, R.L. and K.S. Hagen, Biological control measures applied against Pseudococcus maritimus on pears. Journal of Economic Entomology, 1950. 43(1): p. 94-96. 34. De Bach, P., Population studies of the long-tailed mealybug and its natural enemies on citrus trees in Southern California. Ecology, 1949. 30(1): p. 14-25. 35. Costello, M.J. and K.M. Daane, Abundance of spiders and insect predators on grapes in central California. Journal of Arachnology, 1999. 27(2): p. 531-538. 36. Costello, M.J. and K.M. Daane, Spider (Araneae) species composition and seasonal abundance in San Joaquin Valley grape vineyards. Environmental Entomology, 1995. 24(4): p. 823-831. 37. Costello, M.J. and K.M. Daane, Influence of ground cover on spider populations in a table grape vineyard. Ecological Entomology, 1998. 23(1): p. 33-40. with 38. Bishop, A.L. and P.R.B. Blood, Interactions between natural populations of spiders and pests in cotton and their importance to cotton production in southeastern Queensland. ® General and Applied Entomology, 1981. 13: p. 98-104. 39. Pearce, S., et al., Spider fauna of soybean crops in south-east Queensland and their potential as predators of Helicoverpa spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Australian Journal of Delfin. Entomology, 2004. 43(1): p. 57-65. 40. Riechert, S.E., The hows and whys of successful pest suppression by spiders: insights from case studies. Journal of Arachnology, 1999. 27(1): p. 387-396. Delfin®, a biological insecticide, is the brand 41. Bailey, P. and G. Caon, Predation on twospotted mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae) by Haplothrips victoriensis Bagnall (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) and you can trust. When hungry grubs attack Stethorus nigripes Kapur (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on seed lucerne crops in South your vines, Delfin kills them off fast. Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology, 1986. 34(4): p. 515-525. One bite and they lose their appetite – 42. Readshaw, J.L., The ecology of tetranychid mites in Australian orchards. Journal of Applied Ecology, 1975. 12: p. 473-495. so it’s goodnight. 43. Charles, J.G., E. Collyer, and V. White, Integrated control of Tetranychus urticae with Delfin’s highly selective Bt chemistry is Phytoseiulus persimilis and Stethorus bifidus in commercial raspberry gardens. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 1985. 13(4): p. 385-393. an excellent tool for Integrated Pest 44. Field, R.P., Integrated pest control in Victorian peach orchards: the role of Stethorus spp. Management with minimal impact on (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 1979. 18(4): p. beneficial insects. Delfin can be used all 315-322. year round and has the added benefit of no 45. Paull, C. and A.D. Austin, The hymenopteran parasitoids of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Australia. Australian Journal of withholding period. Entomology, 2006. 45: p. 142-156. So don’t give grubs a chance – put them 46. Danthanarayana, W., Parasitism of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), by its larval ectoparasite, Goniozus jacintae Farrugia (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), in out of business fast with Delfin. natural populations in Victoria. Australian Journal of Zoology, 1980. 28(5/6): p. 685-692. 47. Danthanarayana, W., D. Farrugia, and I.D. Gauld, Studies on the biology and systematic position of a new species of ichneumonid parasitising the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in Australia. Bulletin of Entomological New Research, 1977. 67(4): p. 607-617. 48. Danthanarayana, W., Occurrence of Trichogramma funiculatum, an egg parasitoid of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, registration 1980. 28(3): p. 287-294. for vines 49. Thomson, L.J., D.C. Glenn, and A.A. Hoffmann, Effects of sulfur on Trichogramma egg parasitoids in vineyards: measuring toxic effects and establishing release windows. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 2000. 40(8): p. 1165-1171. 50. Berndt, L.A., S.D. Wratten, and S.L. Scarratt, The influence of floral resource subsidies on parasitism rates of leafrollers (Lepidoptera:Torticidae) in New Zealand vineyards. Biological Control. 37: 50-55. 2006. 51. Irvin, N.A., et al., The effects of floral understoreys on parasitism of leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) on apples in New Zealand. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 2006. 8(1): p. 25-34. 52. Irvin, N.A., S.D. Wratten, and C.M. Frampton, Understorey management for the Delfin. enhancement of the leafroller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Cameron) in orchards at Canterbury, New Zealand, in Hymenoptera: evolution, biodiversity and biological control. Stops hungry 2000. p. 396-403. grubs fast. 53. Irvin, N.A., et al., Effects of floral resources on fitness of the leafroller parasitoid (Dolichogenidea tasmanica) in apples. Proceedings of the Fifty Second New Zealand Plant ® Delfin is a registered trademark of Certis USA LLC. Chemtura Australia Pty Ltd CHA 5291 Protection Conference, Auckland Airport Centra, Auckland, New Zealand, 10-12 August, 1999, 1999: p. 84-88. ■

48 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au September 2006 Grapegrowing Beneficial insects in vineyards: Parasitoids of LBAM and grapevine moth in south-east Australia

Martina Bernard Linda Semeraro Department of DPI, Primary Industries Research Zoology-CESAR, Victoria University of Melbourne Knoxfield Centre [email protected] tel. 0409 936503

Vicki Carter Stephen D. Wratten Department of National Centre for Advanced Bio-Protection Technologies, Zoology-CESAR, Lincoln University, New Zealand University of Melbourne

Introduction of LBAM, while the overall species composition in each region Naturally-occurring biological control of pests is an important may vary. Our knowledge in Australia is currently restricted to a ecosystem service, provided by nature free of charge to human few areas where detailed research was undertaken, and the full agriculture. It contributes greatly to the control of many potential potential of parasitoids available for the control of LBAM is yet pests, even in highly modified agricultural landscapes, particularly to be realised. where IPM or organic farming practices are used[1-3]. The value of pest and disease suppression by natural enemies in crops worldwide The beneficial species complex of LBAM is conservatively estimated at US$100 billion per year[4,5]. Beneficial Specialist parasitoids together with generalist (multi-feeding) insects are important providers of biological control in vineyards. predators[6] form the beneficial species complex associated with An overview of vineyard predators was published in The Australian LBAM. These beneficials undergo changes in abundance over & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker, September 2006[6]. the growing season (Fig. 1), each contributing to a greater or Here we continue by giving an overview of parasitoids of LBAM lesser degree to overall pest control. LBAM parasitoids were (lightbrown apple moth: Epiphyas postvittana), and of grapevine abundant later in the season. In early spring and summer, insect ▲ moth (Phalaenoides glycinae) found in vineyards in/near the Yarra Valley over two growing seasons 2003-05; (GWRDC project MU LTU 02-01). All vineyards were in close proximity to large blocks of native remnant vegetation. We provide photographs, graphs summarising seasonality, an overview of knowledge on key species, and show two ways beneficials may be effectively enhanced by vine inter-row management. Wasps and flies parasitising LBAM eggs, larvae, pupae, and vine moth larvae are featured. An excellent account of the beneficial species complex controlling grapevine moth was published elsewhere[7]. The most detailed study of LBAM parasitoids in Australia to date[8], carried out intensive rearing of LBAM from the Coonawarra region during 2002-05, and recorded many more species of parasitoids than are presented here, from the Yarra Valley. A Fig. 1. Approximate periods of high abundance of beneficials in vineyards studied in 2003-05 growing seasons (predatory mites, mealybug and scale number of these species are likely to be common across the range parasitoids not included)

October 2006 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 21 grapegrowing predators and spiders were more abundant vineyard. Spraying pesticides that kill these (Fig.1)[6]. Periods of high abundance are of beneficials has an immediate visible effect interest to us, because they indicate when on beneficial numbers within a vineyard, but each beneficial is likely to contribute the with such factors out of the system, the effect most to pest control, and when use of of factors beyond the vineyard can be very pesticides toxic to beneficials is going to be important. Vineyard inter-row management especially detrimental. It is worth noting, to enhance beneficials can also be very for example that the new high rates of important. wettable sulphur (6 kg/ha) against powdery mildew, novel insecticides against LBAM, Enhancing beneficials inside the vineyard and insecticides against mealybugs are all A key step in conserving naturally present used up to c. fruit set, a time of high green biological control agents in vineyards is the lacewing, brown lacewing, and damsel bug elimination (or minimal use) of pesticides abundance. Therefore should any off-target toxic to beneficials. Following that the easiest toxicity apply, these sprays are in fact well to implement measures apply to vine inter- positioned in time to negatively affect these row management. Parasitoids of LBAM, beneficials and their seasonal contribution to and predators such as predatory mites[11] and pest control; for example of mealybugs. It is insect predators whose adult life stages feed also important to (1) note that the beneficial on nectar and pollen (e.g. hoverflies, and species complex as a whole delivers pest some green lacewings) may be enhanced in control (rather than one key ‘stand alone’ Fig. 2. Alternate row mowing of grass inter-rows vineyards by providing them with pollen, (providing pollen and shelter for beneficials); weekly beneficial), and (2) to move away from the monitoring of pests & beneficials (direct observation nectar, and shelter in vine inter-rows. Simple previous Australian wine industry emphasis of the vine canopy: Ms Vicki Carter) (©M. Bernard) alternate row mowing (allowing grass to on only LBAM egg parasitoids Trichogramma flower in every second row) (Fig. 2), provides sp. The moment a LBAM caterpillar hatches from the egg, it is pollen and shelter from heat and low humidity. When long grass is beyond the reach of Trichogramma, then predators[6], and wasps cut, it is used as mulch on bare ground under-vine strips, reducing and flies parasitising LBAM larvae and pupae contribute to control; water evaporation losses, and improving habitat for ground-dwelling some predators also feed on LBAM eggs[8-10] (Horne; Altmann & beneficial insects and spiders. Nectar provision for beneficials may Weppler; unpublished data). All these vineyard beneficial species be further enhanced by more sophisticated, yet cheap and simple are native to Australia. They inhabit native vegetation, and can also to use direct-drilling of buckwheat strips in some inter-rows (Fig. move into and prosper in agricultural ecosystems. Their numbers 3ab) to provide high quality, readily available nectar. Nectar are thus dependent on both what happens inside, as well outside the provision using buckwheat strips has been extensively evaluated in New Zealand in regards to a key Australian native LBAM larval parasitoid (Dolichogenidea tasmanica - Fig. 5)[12-17], and has been successfully extended into vineyard practice there. In New Zealand vineyards, the use of flowering buckwheat in one row in 10 reduces leafroller populations to below economic thresholds, and a whole wine region is adopting these and other practices, using native and non-native plants. Buckwheat nectar is also expected to enhance other parasitoid species such as parasitoids of mealybugs, vine scale, and vine moth. Please contact us for precise information on

Fig. 3. (a) Buckwheat, and (b) phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) vine inter-row strips provide high quality nectar and pollen for parasitoids, and for predators whose adult life stages feed on nectar and pollen. (©Jean-Luc Dufour, Waipara Hills Vineyards, New Zealand)

22 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au October 2006 grapegrowing

20 19 buckwheat use, and for other IPM methods to 18 17 enhance beneficials. Workshops and training 16 Parasitoids of LBAM larvae (cocoons) 15 in beneficial recognition are also available. 14 Larvae (LBAM) 13 12 New Australian research also identified 11 Parasitised LBAM egg-masses 10 8.7 ± 0.62 white alyssum (Lobularia maritima) as a 9 8 valuable nectar source for Trichogramma 7 6 [18] 5 carverae . The promising potential of 4 3 native plant species as a nectar source is 2 Average per 100 shoots (n= 4-6) Average 1 under investigation in New Zealand, and 0 7 Oct (2-412 Oct leaves) (5 leaves)20- 26 Oct (7-92-Nov leaves)12- 19 Nov (12-1527- leaves)5 Dec (80%13-Dec cap20 fall) Dec (fruit29-Dec set) 7 Jan (berries17-Jan peppercorn-size)25 1-Feb 7 Feb (veraison)16- 22-Feb 1-Mar 10- 17-Mar 24 March30-Mar (harvest)13- 28 April (leaf fall) needs to be investigated in Australia. Oct Nov Nov Jan (b Feb Mar Apr unch closure)

Beyond-the-vineyard initiatives Date & phenology (Pinot Noir) Beyond-the-vineyard factors, such as the distance of a vineyard from a remnant native Fig 4. Parasitoids of LBAM larvae, LBAM larvae (non-parasitised) & LBAM egg- masses parasitised by vegetation source of beneficials, and the size Trichogramma (Yarra Valley 2004-05): average per 100 vine shoots (± S. E.) of the remnant may be very influential in determining beneficial presence in crops. A region-wide beneficial enhancement initiative is now under way in a wine growing region in New Zealand; see www.waiparawine.co.nz/ index.cfm/research/greening_waipara.html, and www.lincoln.ac.nz/story13772.html. Combining Landcare re-vegetation initiatives 'ETTHEBESTOUTOF with research into beneficial enhancement in Australia, could provide environmental, cost saving and marketing benefits to Australian "ASTAANDYOURCROP grapegrowers in the future. 3OMANYGROWERSHAVEBEEN 4(%"!9%2 Sampling methods and limitations USING"ASTASUCCESSFULLYFOR Graphs presented here show trends found "%3402/'2!- in four IPM-managed vineyards over two YEARSTHATSOMEHAVESTARTED growing seasons 2003-05 in close proximity TAKINGITSRELIABILITYFORGRANTED to large blocks of remnant native vegetation. 4HE"AYER"%34PROGRAMIS Seasonal population changes of beneficials still need to be studied over a longer period, ATIMELYREMINDERTHATEVEN and in other regions; a task beyond the scope THEBESTPRODUCTSNEEDTO of this project. In dynamic, living ecosystems, numbers, peak times, and individual species BEUSEDWITHCARETOPRODUCE can vary between sites, regions and years. We THEBESTRESULTS present results and their interpretation given those constraints. Full scientific data are &ORMOREINFORMATION being prepared for publication elsewhere. CONTACTYOURLOCALRESELLEROR Field counts of parasitoid pupae and THE"ASTATECHNICALENQUIRYLINE larvae showing parasitism were made by direct observation of the vine canopy. All parasitoid pupae and abnormal LBAM larvae were collected, reared to adult emergence in the lab, and identified to species. 100 randomly selected shoots (replicated 3-6x; n = 3-6) were examined from tips, both sides of leaves, one fruit cluster, to 10cm cordon sections below each shoot; 300-600 shoots were checked weekly in each vineyard (7 October-28 April); four vineyards were sampled 2003-05. Scoring larval parasitism in the field is fast and well suited to routine IPM monitoring, but it underestimates parasitism[19] as only parasitoid cocoons can be scored (parasitised larvae generally show no superficially visible symptoms). This was compensated by the frequency (weekly) of sampling, to sufficiently indicate peak seasonal activity. The alternative (collecting "ASTA®ISA2EGISTERED4RADEMARKOF"AYER large numbers of LBAM larvae, rearing "AYER#ROP3CIENCE0TY,TD!". n4OORONGA2OAD%AST(AWTHORN 6)# these to adult emergence, and scoring % 0H WWWBAYERCROPSCIENCECOMAU !LWAYSREADANDADHERETOLABELDIRECTIONSONTHEPRODUCTCONTAINER parasitism), and the study of mealybug and "(4(4 scale parasitoids, were beyond the scope of ▲

October 2006 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 23 grapegrowing this project, focused primarily on predators. LBAM egg parasitism (from c. December/January) and were most abundant from about was scored as above; by weekly counts of all LBAM egg-masses mid-March, increasing in direct proportion with LBAM larvae (emerged; freshly laid; parasitised). All parasitised egg-masses (Fig. 4). Their main contribution to LBAM control was late in the were collected, reared until emergence, and wasps were identified season when only BT sprays are available for use. However, one to genus. High LBAM numbers were recorded in the cooler (2004- vineyard studied had low numbers of these parasitoids. 05) growing season. For pesticide use in study sites see[6]. The two wasps which most commonly parasitised LBAM larvae were: (A) Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Parasitoids of LBAM larvae and pupae (Fig. 5a-c) parasitising young (1-2nd instar) larvae, and (B) Eight wasp species parasitising LBAM larvae were found in the Goniosus sp. (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) (Fig. 6a-c), parasitising Yarra Valley vineyards studied; they are shown collectively (Fig. 4, 3-4th instar larvae. Adults of these wasps are not easily recognised page 21). They were found parasitising LBAM later in the season by the non-specialist, but not so the cocoons, which are spun by ▲

b c a

Fig. 5. The most common parasitoid of LBAM larvae (Yarra Valley) Dolichogenidea tasmanica: (a) adult wasp (©C. Stephens, University of Adelaide), (b-c) cocoon before adult wasp emergence (‘white rice grain’) (©Semeraro & Bernard)

a bc

Fig. 6. A common parasitoid of LBAM larvae (Yarra Valley) Goniosus sp. (a) adult wasp (© C. Paull, University of Adelaide) (b-c) cocoons (‘brown rice grain’); (b) showing dead LBAM larva’s head capsule alongside wasp cocoons (© Semeraro & Bernard)

a a a

b b b

Fig. 8 Parasitoid of LBAM larvae (Yarra Valley) Fig. 9 Parasitoid of LBAM larvae (Yarra Valley) Fig.7 Parasitoid of LBAM larvae (Yarra Valley) Eriborus Phytodietus celsissimus: (a) adult wasp (© C. Paull, Australoglypta latrobei (a) adult wasp , (b) white epiphyas (a) adult, and (b) cocoon resembling ‘a wild University of Adelaide), (b) cocoon resembling ‘a wild silken cocoon, with dead LBAM larva’s head capsule rice grain’ (© L. Semeraro) rice grain’ (© L. Semeraro) alongside (© L. Semeraro)

24 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au October 2006 grapegrowing

immature wasps on emergence from the a b dead LBAM larva. The cocoons can be easily recognised by their colour and shape: (A) appears rather like a thin long-white rice grain (Fig. 5b-c) usually found alone; (B) appears rather like a short-brown rice grain of normal size and is usually found in small clutches (Fig. 6b-c). The remains of the dead LBAM larva’s head capsule are often found alongside the cocoons (Fig. 6b). (B) is known from Victoria, SA, NSW, ACT, Tasmania[8-10]. Two species of this genus parasitise LBAM, one of which is Fig. 10 Parasitoid of LBAM larvae (Diptera: Tachinidae) (a) adult fly, (b) empty cocoon after fly emergence, with [20] naturalised in New Zealand . (A) is known dead LBAM larva’s head capsule shown near the exit hole (© L. Semeraro) from Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, Queensland and ACT[21], is abundant in Coonawarra vineyards[8], and parasitised 24 24 Fresh egg-masses about 30% of LBAM larvae in a study near 22 22 20 Hatched egg-masses 20 Mildura[22]. It was introduced to New Zealand 18 Parasitised egg-masses 18 where it is now the most abundant leafroller 16 LBAM larvae 16 14 14 parasitoid in vineyards; widely studied to 12 12 10 10

further enhance its abundance and rates of LARVAE 8 8 [13,15-17] parasitism . EGG-MASSES 6 6 Other wasp species parasitising LBAM 4 4 2 2 larvae were less common. Eriborus epiphyas 0 0 (Average per 100 shoots; n=3-6) (Average (Average per 100 shoots; n=3-6) (Average (Fig. 7ab) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) ) 2-Nov 1-Feb 1-Mar so far only confirmed here from the Yarra 20-Oct 12-Nov 27-Nov 17-Jan 16-Feb22-Feb 10-Mar17-Mar 30-Mar13-Apr Valley, and from Coonawarra region [8]; 20 Dec29 (fruit Dec set)(fruit set) 7 Feb (veraison) 7 Oct 12(2-4 Oct leaves) (5 leaves) 28 April (leaf fall) and Phytodietus celsissimus (Fig. 8ab) 26 Oct (7-9 leaves) 24 March (harvest) 19 Nov (12-155 Dec leaves) (80% cap fall) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) recorded 13 Dec (80% cap fall 25 Jan (bunch closure) only from Victoria, NSW, and Tasmania. Both Date & vine phenology (Pinot Noir) 7 Jan (berries peppercorn-size) have dark brown to purple cocoons, colored rather like grains of wild rice (Fig. 7b, 8b). Fig. 11(a) LBAM egg-massess parasitised by Trichogramma sp., compared to non-parasitised egg-masses (freshly laid & hatched), and to LBAM larvae: Site I - Yarra Valley, Victoria 2004-05 The large wasp Australoglypta latrobei (Fig. 9ab) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) can be recognised by its large delicate silken cocoon, spun on emergence from the host[23]. Two other wasps Meteorus sp. (Hymenoptera: 34 34 32 Fresh egg-masses 32 30 30 Braconidae), Gambrus sp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), and 28 Hatched egg-masses 28 26 26 two fly species (Diptera: Tachinidae) (Fig. 10ab), one common 24 Parasitised egg-masses 24 [22] 22 LBAM larvae 22 in unsprayed grapevines near Mildura , also parasitised LBAM 20 20 18 18 larvae. The wasp Brachymeria teuta (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) 16 16 14 14 12 12 parasitised LBAM pupae. LARVAE 10 10 8 8 EGG-MASSES 6 6 4 4 LBAM eggs parasitoids – Trichogramma sp. 2 2 When considering LBAM parasitism, the egg parasitoid 0 0 (Average per 100 shoots (n= 4-6) (Average (Average per 100 shoots (n= 4-6) (Average Trichogramma sp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) may first 6-Jan 2-Mar9-Mar 12-Oct20-Oct 12-Nov 28-Nov 20-Dec 31-Jan 22-Feb 16-Mar 13-Apr come to mind. Particularly in Australia where Trichogramma sp. has been by far the most studied of all vineyard beneficials in 14 Feb (veraison) 28 April (leaf fall) 5 Oct (2-3 leaves)26 Oct4 Nov (7-9 (9-10 leaves) leaves) recent years, and the most promoted in wine industry extension. 21 Nov (12-15 leaves) 13 Dec (100% cap fall)24 Jan (bunch closure) However, Trichogramma wasps are naturally limited in their 18 Jan (berries pea-size) 30 Mar (7 d after harvest) ability to control LBAM; they can only attack LBAM eggs (no 29 Dec (berries peppercorn-size)Date & phenology (Chardonnay) other life stage), and both parasitised and non-parasitised eggs may be eaten by predators. Furthermore, seasonality data from Fig. 11(b) Site II - Hoddles Creek, Victoria 2004-05 many vineyards show poorly parasitised LBAM eggs for most of the growing season[8] (Horne; Altmann; unpublished data), even where recognised disruptive chemical sprays were not used[24]. the recent Australian wine industry focus on Trichogramma sp. We found no parasitised LBAM egg-masses in all sites for most in both research and wine industry extension as a ‘stand alone’ of the growing seasons 2003-05; first egg parasitism was only bio-control agent has been over-emphasised. However, late in the recorded c. veraison, and high parasitism did not occur until c. growing season (from c. mid-March) high numbers of LBAM egg- mid-March (Fig. 4, 11ab). Many LBAM eggs in all study sites masses were parasitised (Fig. 11ab), suggesting Trichogramma developed into caterpillars and were thus no longer accessible to can be important near harvest, and in reducing the over-wintering bio-control by Trichogramma (Fig. 4, 11ab). The lack of parasitism LBAM population, while playing a minor role in vineyard pest is considered to be due to biological and ecological constraints[24], suppression during the rest of the growing season. Only when and may also be linked to high sensitivity to wettable sulphur[25]. Trichogramma carverae wasps were mass-released in vineyards All vineyards studied here used lower than industry average was a large percentage of LBAM egg masses parasitised earlier in rates and concentrations of wettable sulphur. We suggest that the season[26](Altmann; unpublished data). ▲

26 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au October 2006 grapegrowing

7. Grapevine moth parasitoids a Cordingley, C.L., Factors causing mortality of One species parasitising grapevine the grape vine moth, Phalaenoides glycine Lewin (Lepidoptera: Agaristidae). Journal of the Australian moth larvae (late instars) was collected Entomological Society, 1981. 20: p. 33-38. in the Yarra Valley Euplectrus agaristae 8. Paull, C. and A.D. Austin, The hymenopteran (Fig. 12ab) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae); parasitoids of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas with many tiny wasps emerging from each postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Australia. Australian Journal of Entomology, 2006. parasitised caterpillar. This species has also 45: p. 142-156. been recorded from Coonawarra vineyards in 9. MacLellan, C.R., Natural enemies of the light SA[7]. brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, in the Australian Capital Territory. Canadian Entomologist, 1973. 105(5): p. 681-700. Acknowledgements 10. Danthanarayana, W., Parasitism of the light This work was possible thanks to: Dr. brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), Paul Horne (IPM Technologies) sharing his by its larval ectoparasite, Goniozus jacintae Farrugia great practical knowledge of insect ecology, (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), in natural populations b in Victoria. Australian Journal of Zoology, 1980. Cate Paull & Prof. Andrew Austin (Adelaide 28(5/6): p. 685-692. Uni) identifying parasitoids to species, and 11. Smith, D. and D.F. Papacek, Studies of the the generous in-kind support of growers predatory mite Amblyseius victoriensis (Acarina: and wine companies who participated in Phytoseiidae) in citrus orchards in south-east Queensland: Control of Tegolophus australis and the study. Many thanks to Paul, Cate, and Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Acarina: Eriophyidae), Andrew; to Craig Callec, Ray Guerin, and the effect of pesticides, alternative host plants and Hardy Wine Company; to Dr. Neil Roberts augmentative release. Experimental & Applied Acarology 1991. 12: p. 195-218. (Rising Vineyard); to Stuart Sissins, Michael 12. Berndt, L.A. and S.D. Wratten, Effects of alyssum Brocksopp, and Tarrawarra Wines. Many flowers on the longevity, fecundity, and sex ratio of thanks to Prof. Ary Hoffmann (Melbourne the leafroller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica. Uni-Cesar) for discussions and guidance in Biological Control, 2005. 32(1): p. 65-69. design and statistical analysis; Cate Paull & Fig. 12 Parasitoid of grapevine moth larvae Euplectrus 13. Berndt, L.A., S.D. Wratten, and S.L. Scarratt, The agaristae (Yarra Valley): (a) dead, parasitised larva influence of floral resource subsidies on parasitism Claire Stephens (Adelaide Uni) for wonderful and multiple wasp pupae, just before adult wasp rates of leafrollers (Lepidoptera:Torticidae) in New insect photography. Many thanks to Drs. emergence; (b) wasp pupa-detail (© Semeraro & Zealand vineyards. Biological Control. 37: 50-55. Cate Paull, Paul Horne, Alan Yen & Mali Bernard) 2006. Malipatil (DPI Knoxfield), and to James Altmann & Rob Weppler 14. Berndt, L.A., S.D. Wratten, and P.G. Hassan, Effects of buckwheat flowers (Biological Services), Richard Llewellyn, and Peter Oatwright on leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) parasitoids in a New Zealand vineyard. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 2002. 4(1): p. 39-45. Kelly for most valuable comments on the manuscript. This research 15. Irvin, N.A., et al., The effects of floral understoreys on parasitism of was funded by the GWRDC; Project MU LTU 02/01. leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) on apples in New Zealand. Agricultural and Forest Entomology, 2006. 8(1): p. 25-34. References 16. Irvin, N.A., S.D. Wratten, and C.M. Frampton, Understorey management 1. de Bach, P., Biological control of natural enemies. 1974: Cambridge for the enhancement of the leafroller parasitoid Dolichogenidea tasmanica University Press, London. (Cameron) in orchards at Canterbury, New Zealand, in Hymenoptera: evolution, biodiversity and biological control. 2000. p. 396-403. 2. Cullen, R., et al., Ecosystem services on New Zealand arable farms. AERU 17. Discussion Paper, 2004(No.151): p. 84-91. Irvin, N.A., et al., Effects of floral resources on fitness of the leafroller parasitoid (Dolichogenidea tasmanica) in apples. Proceedings of the Fifty 3. Takatsuka, Y., et al. Values of ecosystem services on arable land and the Second New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Auckland Airport Centra, role of organic farming. in New Zealand Agricultural Resource Economics Auckland, New Zealand, 10-12 August, 1999, 1999: p. 84-88. Society (NZARES) 11th annual conference. 2005. Nelson, New Zealand. 18. Begum, M., et al., Using selective food plants to maximize biological control of vineyard pests. Journal of Applied Ecology, 2006. 43: p. 547- 4. Pimentel, D., et al., Economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity. 554. BioScience, 1997. 47(11): p. 747-757. 19. Vickerman, G.P. and S.D. Wratten, The biology and pest status of cereal 5. Costanza, R., et al., The value of the world’s ecosystem services and aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in Europe: a review. Bulletin of Entomological natural capital. Nature (London), 1997. 387(6630): p. 253-260. Research, 1979. 69(1): p. 1-32.

6. Bernard, M., et al., Beneficial insects & spiders in vineyards: Predators 20. Berry, J.A., The bethyline species (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae: Bethylinae) in South-East Australia. The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & imported into New Zealand for biological control of pest leafrollers. New Winemaker, 2006. 511(September): p. 37-48. Zealand Journal of Zoology, 1998. 25: p. 239-333. 21. Austin, A.D. and P.C. Dangerfield, Synopsis of Australasian Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) with a key to genera and description of species. Invertebrate Taxonomy, 1992. 6: p. 1-76. 22. Buchanan, G.A., The seasonal abundance and control of light brown #ROP0ROTECTION apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera:Tortricidae) on grapevines in Victoria. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 1977. &ROM"IRDSAND&ROST 28: p. 125-132. 4HE@%AGLEANDTHE"UDGET 23. Danthanarayana, W., D. Farrugia, and I.D. Gauld, Studies on the biology -ODEL@&ALCON$ESIGNED and systematic position of a new species of ichneumonid parasitising FOR%FlCIENT!PPLICATION the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: AND2ETRIEVALOFALLTYPES Tortricidae), in Australia. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 1977. 67(4): OF"IRD.ETTINGCOVERING 'RAPEVINES AND&RUIT p. 607-617. 4REES3ENSITIVE(YDRAULIC 24. Danthanarayana, W., Occurrence of Trichogramma funiculatum, an egg 3NAG0ROTECTIONAND3PEED parasitoid of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana. Entomologia #ONTROL Experimentalis et Applicata, 1980. 28(3): p. 287-294. 47/-/$%,3/&%!#( 25. Thomson, L.J., D.C. Glenn, and A.A. Hoffmann, Effects of sulfur on -!#().%!6!),!",% Trichogramma egg parasitoids in vineyards: measuring toxic effects and 4HE@&ROST3TOPPA3EARA04/0ORTABLE (ECTARES establishing release windows. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 4HE@&ROST3TOPPA3EARA%LECTRIC&IXED (ECTARES 2000. 40(8): p. 1165-1171. 4ATURA%NGINEERING0,#ONTACT!LEX#ARTER 26. Glenn, D.C. and A.A. Hoffmann, Developing a commercially viable system 0(OR% MAILACARTER TATENGCOMAU for biological control of light brown apple moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in grapes using endemic Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). 6ISIT4AT %NGWEBSITEWWWTATENGCOMAU Journal of Economic Entomology, 1997. 90(2): p. 370-382. ■

28 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au October 2006 grapegrowing The influence of adjacent vegetation on the abundance and distribution of natural enemies in a vineyard

Linda J. Thomson Ary A. Hoffmann Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture (CRCV) Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture (CRCV) CRCV for Viticulture, PO Box 154, Centre for Environmental Stress Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia and Adaptation Research (CESAR)

Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation Research (CESAR), Zoology Department, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia

Vegetation exists adjacent to vineyards for a variety of reasons. as a group because there is still much to be learnt about their Vegetation may be remnant, or planted to provide protection from role in vineyards. We know they are important natural enemies chemical drift, corridors for wildlife, shelter for stock, treatment of LBAM, scale and mealybugs but many interactions between of soil salinity or removal of waste water by providing a soak with pests and parasitoids remain to be uncovered. More than 8183 associated transpiration. By providing resources such as shelter, beneficials were sorted and analysed to assess if the abundance and overwintering sites and food sources, adjacent vegetation can distribution of natural enemies within a vineyard was influenced by influence invertebrates present not only in the vegetation itself, the vegetation at the margins. First spatial analysis was applied to but also in the vineyard. As these invertebrates will include natural the counts at each sampling point to determine if the distribution enemies relevant to control of pests in grape production, adjacent was non random using Spatial Analysis by Distance IndicEs or vegetation has the potential to lead to increased numbers of natural SADIE (http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/pie/sadie; Perry, 1998), enemies. then the points were mapped to visualise the distributions using a A number of natural enemies of LBAM, scale, mealybugs and mapping program (SURFER ver. 8.05 Golden Software®). pest mites for example are thought to benefit from food sources Our results showed the presence of vegetation adjacent to the and shelter available in remnants and shelterbelts. These include vines increased the numbers of natural enemies in the vineyard. parasitoids, lacewings, predatory mites, predatory bugs and spiders. As indicated in the figure, remnant vegetation increased the At the same time, there are reports of vegetation increasing pests abundance of ground spiders in particular. Vines adjacent to the (Coventry et al. 2004), so it is important to determine that there are shelterbelt which included flowering shrub species had relatively no increases in pests associated with vegetation. higher numbers of predatory mites, predatory and parasitic flies We have collected data in a Yarra Valley vineyard with remnant and parasitoids. Higher numbers of Trichogramma (egg parasitoids eucalypt vegetation on one boundary and a shelterbelt incorporating of LBAM) were associated with both the shelterbelt and the flowering shrubs on a second side. The remnant consisted of remnant block. There were also two negative effects of shelterbelts a messmate Eucalyptus canopy with a shrubby understorey of detected on beneficials, in that adjacent vines had lower numbers of common heath (Epacris impressa), Hazel (Pomaderris aspera) and ladybird beetles and canopy spiders. As evident from patterns seen clematis and the shelter belt consisted of grasses, flowering shrubs in the figure, increases in the relative abundance of beneficials (red flowered paperbark, Melaleuca hypericifolia (Myrtacea), extended well into the vineyard. For the parasitoids from pitfall heath teatree, Leptospermum myrsinoides (Myrtacea), black wattle traps, for instance, numbers were still higher 100m away from the Acacia mearnsii (Fabaceae) and Erica lusitanica (Ericaceae) and shelterbelt. Similarly, for ground spiders, differences were detected low trees - swamp gum (Eucalytus ovata) and blue gum (Eucalyptus 50m away from the remnant vegetation. These results suggest that globulus). We hypothesised natural enemy abundance would be vegetation can exert effects on numbers of natural enemies well lower in the interior of the vineyard and higher near adjacent away from the vegetation itself. vegetation. To investigate effects of this adjacent vegetation on To determine if this change in natural enemy abundance due to abundance and distribution of natural enemies, we sampled with adjacent vegetation had a direct impact on pest control, we placed yellow sticky traps (for the canopy) and pitfall traps (for ground LBAM egg masses in the vineyard. LBAM egg masses laid on level) at 100 points throughout the vineyard and used spatially plastic cups were placed at the sampling points in the vineyard on 1 explicit mapping techniques to establish patterns of natural enemy February for five days and a second batch of eggs was placed outside abundance across a season. on 6 February for five days. When collected, cards were scored for Analyses focussed on organisms collected in sufficient numbers egg masses lost due to predation. The remaining eggs were kept at that were likely to act as natural enemies of pests affecting grape 25°C until parasitoids emerged and these were identified (Glenn production. Eight groups of beneficials were identified from the et al. 1997). The percentage of egg masses lost to predation and sticky traps sampling the canopy (including spiders, lacewings, parasitism were calculated for each sampling point. Parasitism bugs, ladybird beetles, predatory flies and many species of was calculated as the percentage of the egg masses remaining parasitoids, including Trichogramma) as well as 13 groups from after loss by predation. On collection, 40% of egg masses were the pitfall traps sampling ground active animals (including spiders, missing (due to predation). Of the remaining egg masses, 57 % predatory mites, larval lacewings and parasitoids). We found 50 were parasitised and two species of Trichogramma were recovered different species of parasitoids but here ‘parasitoids’ are considered from the parasitised eggs (T. funiculatum and T. sp. x). Predation ▲

36 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au November 2006 grapegrowing was not affected but parasitism by Trichogramma wasps was higher Direct evidence for a positive effect of vegetation on pests adjacent to remnant vegetation and was correlated to the numbers came from the parasitism of LBAM eggs. The relatively higher of Trichogramma collected in yellow sticky traps (figure 1). parasitism rate near remnant vegetation and positive correlation The taxa increased by adjacent vegetation - predatory mites, between parasitism and numbers of Trichogramma responsible for spiders, staphylinids, lacewings, predatory flies and a wide range the egg parasitism in this vineyard suggests that high numbers of of parasitoids including species of Trichogramma - all have a natural enemies have positive effects on pest control. On average, potential role as natural enemies in vineyards. Staphylinids or rove at sampling points close to the vegetation, the number of LBAM beetles are known to be important generalist predators. The wide larvae would have been reduced from 1000 to 400 by the action of host ranges of spiders means not only they will consume a variety Trichogramma alone. In contrast to the parasitism effects, we found of pests but also they can exist in high numbers and be available to no positive impact of vegetation on egg predation, which may prey on pests like LBAM which appear sporadically throughout the reflect the inconsistent effects of vegetation on different groups of season (Danthanarayana 1975). Lacewings are voracious predators generalist predators. of mites, mealybugs and LBAM eggs. The range of parasitoids Why did vegetation influence some groups? Vineyards can be known to attack vineyard pests (Thomson and Hoffmann 2006) recolonised from perennial habitats by the groups represented is constantly expanding (e.g. Paull and Austin 2006). Predatory here: spiders, syrphids, staphylinids, parasitoids, predatory mites. mites contribute to control of eriophyoid mites, flies are known to Many spider species colonise crops by drifting through the air on parasitise LBAM, others parasitise mealybugs and possibly scale threads of spider silk (ballooning), staphylinids possess a high (Waterhouse and Sands, 2001) and it has been suggested that still movement rate (through flight or passive wind dispersal). Nectars others (hoverfly larvae) may eat LBAM caterpillars. However are significant sources of nutrition for most adult predatory the two groups of natural enemies that were at a lower abundance mites, lacewings, parasitoids, predatory and parasitic flies and near the shelterbelt (canopy spiders, ladybird beetles) may also staphylinids. Adjacent flowering plants have frequently been shown contribute to pest control. to increase natural enemies and biological control in a range of ▲

ground spiders predatory flies predatory mites shelterbelt

larval lacewings staphylinids hover flies

remnant shelterbelt

parasitoids trapped at ground level Trichogramma parasitised LBAM eggs

remnant

Fig. 1. distribution of natural enemy groups captured in a vineyard bordered by remnant vegetation and a shelterbelt. • indicates point with high numbers and indicates point with low numbers. Shading shows distribution over entire vineyard.

November 2006 www.winebiz.com.au The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 39 grapegrowing crops including vineyards (Williams and Martinson, 2000) and the This is a step along the way to identify means to encourage results for LBAM egg cards reinforced the notion that increased environmentally sensitive targeted crop protection measures. control can occur adjacent to vegetation. What about other groups not affected or negatively affected Acknowledgements by vegetation? The fact that adult lacewings were unaffected by This research was supported by the Commonwealth Cooperative vegetation unlike larval lacewings may reflect the higher movement Research Centre Program and conducted through the CRC for rates of adults, while the positive effect of vegetation on ground Viticulture with support from Australia’s grapegrowers and spiders but not on canopy spiders may also reflect relative rates of winemakers through their investment body the Grape and Wine movement of these groups. Spiders caught in the canopy may be Research and Development Corporation with matching funds from more able to move around within the vineyard so be less likely to the federal government. Infrastructure support for this research was show effects of adjacent vegetation. It is not clear why numbers of provided by the Centre for Environmental Stress and Adaptation canopy spiders and ladybird beetles were relatively more abundant Research and a Federation Fellowship funded by the Australian away from vegetation -perhaps there are competitive interactions Research Council. among generalist predators. These results indicate the abundance and distribution of vineyard References Coventry, S.A., Jaensch, L.J., Keller, M.A., Wood, F.J. (2004) Observations of natural enemies is influenced by adjacent vegetation and there elephant weevil in the Langhorne Creek wine region. Australian & New Zealand are direct beneficial effects on the control of a moth pest. The Grapegrower & Winemaker. 488:75. conservation of remnant vegetation and planting of shelterbelts Danthanarayana, W. (1975) The bionomics, distribution and host range of the around vineyards may have direct economic benefits in terms of light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Australian Journal of Ecology 23, 419-437. pest control. We show the abundance of several groups of natural Glenn, D.M., Hercus, M.J., Hoffmann, A.A. (1997) Characterizing Trichogramma enemies and parasitism of moth eggs are increased adjacent to (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) species for biocontrol of lightbrown apple moth vegetation. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in grapevines in Australia. Annals of the Entomological Further work is required to discover aspects of vegetation Society of America 90, 128-137. which are important to the different groups, involving a detailed Paoletti, M.G., Lorenzoni, G.G. (1989) Agroecology patterns in northeastern Italy. spatial analysis of other vineyards and surveys of large numbers Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 27, 139-154. Paull, C. & Austin, A.D. (2006) The hymenopteran parasitoids of light brown of vineyards with different types of adjoining vegetation. The data apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Australia. collected here suggests that existing vegetation and revegetation Australian Journal of Entomology, 45, 142-56. can contribute to pest control by natural enemies with the potential Perry, J.N. (1998) Measures of spatial pattern and spatial association for counts to reduce chemical applications, contributing to both increased of insects. In: J. Baumgartner, P. Brandmayr, B.F.J. Manly (Eds.), Population and community ecology for land management and conservation Balkema, economic and environmental sustainability of the wine industry. Rotterdam. Thomson, L.J., Hoffmann, A.A. (2006) Grape Production in Australia: Integrated Strategies and Bioindicators for Sustainability. In: D. Pimentel (Ed.). Encyclopaedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, N.Y. Waterhouse, D.F., Sands, D.P.A. (2001) Classical biological control of arthropods in Australia CSIRO Entomology, Canberra. Williams, L., Martinson, T.E. (2000) Colonization of New York vineyards by Anagyrus spp. (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae): overwintering biology, within-vineyard distribution of wasps and parasitism of grape leafhopper, Erythroneura spp. eggs. Biological Control 18, 136-146. ■

Introductory workshops on biodynamics Biodynamic Agriculture Australia has been conducting a number of one-day introductory workshops throughout NSW. The use of biodynamics to improve and enhance soil fertility, animal health and farm profitability was the focus of four one-day workshops in central and northern NSW at the end of October and early November, 2006. The workshops were presented by biodynamic educator, Hamish Mackay. “This introduction to biodynamics includes soil fertility, the soil food web, managing plant and animal health, weeds and pests. Participants will learn about making on-farm inputs such as biodynamic compost, liquid fertilisers, tree paste and weed teas. They will see what the biodynamic preparations are and how to prepare, store and use them on farm,” said Mackay. The last of the one-day workshops will be at “Billabong”, Inverell, hosted by Glen Morris, on 9 November.

For further information and bookings contact Biodynamic Agriculture Australia on 02 6655 0566, online at www. biodynamics.net.au or email: [email protected].

42 The Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker www.winebiz.com.au November 2006 !

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