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Directed Assembly of Particles for Additive Manufacturing of Particle-Polymer Composites

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Directed Assembly of Particles for Additive Manufacturing of Particle-Polymer Composites micromachines Review Directed Assembly of Particles for Additive Manufacturing of Particle-Polymer Composites Soheila Shabaniverki 1 and Jaime J. Juárez 1,2,* 1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA; [email protected] 2 Center for Multiphase Flow Research and Education, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-515-294-3298 Abstract: Particle-polymer dispersions are ubiquitous in additive manufacturing (AM), where they are used as inks to create composite materials with applications to wearable sensors, energy storage materials, and actuation elements. It has been observed that directional alignment of the particle phase in the polymer dispersion can imbue the resulting composite material with enhanced mechani- cal, electrical, thermal or optical properties. Thus, external field-driven particle alignment during the AM process is one approach to tailoring the properties of composites for end-use applications. This review article provides an overview of externally directed field mechanisms (e.g., electric, magnetic, and acoustic) that are used for particle alignment. Illustrative examples from the AM literature show how these mechanisms are used to create structured composites with unique properties that can only be achieved through alignment. This article closes with a discussion of how particle distribution (i.e., microstructure) affects mechanical properties. A fundamental description of particle phase transport in polymers could lead to the development of AM process control for particle-polymer composite fabrication. This would ultimately create opportunities to explore the fundamental impact that alignment has on particle-polymer composite properties, which opens up the possibility of tailoring these materials for specific applications. Citation: Shabaniverki, S.; Juárez, J.J. Directed Assembly of Particles for Keywords: directed assembly; additive manufacturing; external fields; 3D printing; particle- Additive Manufacturing of polymer composites Particle-Polymer Composites. Micromachines 2021, 12, 935. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12080935 Academic Editor: Matteo Cocuzza 1. Introduction Additive manufacturing (AM) is a method by which three-dimensional computer- Received: 21 July 2021 aided designs (CAD) are fabricated without the need for process planning [1]. This process Accepted: 3 August 2021 involves the layer-by-layer deposition of filament, powder, or liquid drops to translate Published: 7 August 2021 the CAD drawing into a fully realized object. The AM industry generated a revenue of approximately 5.2 billion USD in 2015 [2]. This revenue includes a 769 million USD AM Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral materials market that produces, in descending order of market share, photopolymers, with regard to jurisdictional claims in laser-sintered powders, filaments, and metals. These materials are used to support a published maps and institutional affil- variety of AM technologies [3] that include 3D printing, stereolithography, laminated object iations. manufacturing, and fused deposition modeling. Among the materials available for use in AM applications, polymers represent 51% of the products produced by AM systems [2,4]. This fraction does not include the 29% of products that blend polymers and metals together to form composite AM materials. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. The ubiquity of polymers in the AM industry likely arises from their low cost and high Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. production volume. The U.S. National Research Council reports that polymers, in the form This article is an open access article of plastics, fibers, and rubber, are produced in the range of 71 billion pounds per year distributed under the terms and with a financial return approaching 0.50 USD per pound [5]. As a fundamental building conditions of the Creative Commons block for AM applications, polymers have properties that can be tuned to achieve specific Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// rheological behavior [6–8] or functionalities related to ionic conductivity [9–12], thermal creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ conductivity [13–15], and magnetic [16–18] or dielectric [19–21] permittivity. 4.0/). Micromachines 2021, 12, 935. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi12080935 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines Micromachines 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24 Micromachines 2021, 12, 935 2 of 24 rheological behavior [6–8] or functionalities related to ionic conductivity [9–12], thermal conductivity [13–15], and magnetic [16–18] or dielectric [19–21] permittivity. While some of these polymer functionalities can be achieved through chemical modi-mod- ification,fication, anan alternativealternative methodmethod isis toto disperse fillerfiller micro-micro- or nanoparticles in the polymer solution prior to processing or deposition by AM [22 [22–26]26].. Inks Inks based based on on particle particle-polymer-polymer dispersions can can be be used used in in the the AM AM process process to tocreate create compositionally compositionally graded graded composites compos- [27,28]ites [27 that,28] thatserve serve to enhance to enhance the multi the multi-material-material capabilities capabilities of finished of finished products products [29]. Tun- [29]. ingTuning the AM the process AM process for particle for particle-polymer-polymer dispersions dispersions influences influences composit compositee properties proper- such asties flexibility, such as flexibility, mechanical mechanical strength, toughness strength, toughness,, and optical and transparency optical transparency [30–32]. These [30 –ma-32]. terialThese properties material properties are directly are tied directly to the tiedfiller to particle the filler organization particle organization within the withincomposite the [33]composite. [33]. Directing the assembly of filler filler particles in a a composite composite toward toward specifically specifically organized arrangements oror orientationsorientations enables enables the the fabrication fabrication of materialsof materials which which exhibit exhibit hierarchical hierar- chicalfunctionality functionality from the from nanoscale the nanoscale to the macroscaleto the macroscale [34]. Polymer [34]. Polymer composites composites that contain that containaligned aligned filler particles filler particles exhibit exhibit increased increased elastic elastic moduli moduli as compared as compar withed with composites compo- siteswhere where the filler the filler particles particles arerandomly are randomly arranged arranged [35– 38[35].–38] Particle-polymer. Particle-polymer composites compo- siteswith with internal internal alignment alignment also exhibit also exhibit anisotropic anisotropic responses responses to mechanical, to mechanical, thermal, thermal, electric, electricor magnetic, or magnetic inputs [inputs39–42]. [39 The–42] anisotropy. The anisotropy exhibited exhibited by the by aligned the aligned particle-polymer particle-pol- ymercomposites composites can be can used be used for a for variety a variety of emerging of emerging soft soft material material applications, applications, including includ- ingwearable wearable sensing sensing devices devices [43–45 [43], energy–45], energy storage storage [46–48 ],[46 artificial–48], artificial muscles muscles [49–51], and[49–51] soft, androbotics soft [robotics52–54]. The[52– alignment54]. The alignment of filler particles of filler particles used in these used materials in these materials is often achieved is often achievedby the application by the application of external of fieldsexternal such fields as electric such as [ 55electric,56], magnetic [55,56], magnetic [57,58], and [57,58] acoustic, and acousticfields [59 fields–61]. [59–61]. ItIt is is the the purpose purpose of of this this review review article article to to provide provide an an overview overview of ofsome some of ofthe the types types of externalof external fields fields used used to direct to direct the theassembly assembly or alignment or alignment of filler of filler particle particle-polymer-polymer disper- dis- sions.persions. Figure Figure 1 summarizes1 summarizes the thetransport transport mechanisms mechanisms discussed discussed in this in this review. review. Using Using ex- ternalexternal fields fields to totune tune the the internal internal arrangement arrangement of of filler filler particles particles is is a apathway pathway towards towards fab- fab- ricatingricating functionallyfunctionally graded graded particle-polymer particle-polymer composites. composites. Achieving Achieving specific specific arrangements arrange- mentsof filler of particle filler particle distributions distributions requires requires an understanding an understanding of how different of how different directed assemblydirected assemblymechanisms mechanisms operate. operate. The forces The associated forces associ withated each with of each these of mechanismsthese mechanisms can favor can favordifferent different structures structures and a and fundamental a fundamental understanding understanding of these of these forces forces serves serves as the as basis the basisfor a paradigmfor a paradigm in multi-material in multi-material AM processing. AM processing. The review The review concludes concludes with a with discussion a dis- cussionof how externalof how external fields can fields contribute can contribu to specificte to fillerspecific particle filler arrangementsparticle arrangements that enhance that intrinsic material properties (e.g., elastic
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