Sustainable Urban Transport in Asia-Pacific for the 2030 Agenda

SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT IN ASIA-PACIFIC FOR THE 2030 AGENDA

Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport

Bangkok December, 2020

UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page i

ESCAP is the regional development arm of the United Nations and serves as the main economic and social development center for the United Nations in Asia and the Pacific. Its mandate is to foster cooperation among its 53 members and nine associate members. ESCAP provides the strategic link between global and country-level programs and issues. It supports the Governments of the region in consolidating regional positions and advocates regional approaches to meeting the region’s unique socio-economic challenges in a globalizing world. The ESCAP office is located in Bangkok, Thailand. Please visit our website at www.unescap.org for further information.

The shaded areas of the map indicate ESCAP members and associate members.

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SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT IN ASIA-PACIFIC FOR THE 2030 AGENDA

Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport

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The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat. The opinions, figures, and estimates set forth in this publication are the responsibility of the authors and should not necessarily be considered as reflecting the views or carrying the endorsement of the United Nations. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided that the source is acknowledged.

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Acknowledgments

The study was conducted under the management of Ishtiaque Ahmed, PhD, Economic Affairs Officer and the Officer-in-Charge, Sustainable Transport Section as the Project Officer; and Mr. Weimin Ren, Director of Transport Division.

This report was prepared by Romain Pison, Senior Digital and Transport Specialist, Avantir, United States, with national case expertise and contributions of, in alphabetical order of the countries, Xumei Chen, Associate Professor, Director for Policy and Standard Division, China Urban Sustainable Transport Research Center (CUSTReC), China Academy of Transportation Sciences, Ministry of Transport, (China), Himani Jain, Principal Consultant, P4Planning Consultants, (India), Vadim Donchenko, Scientific Leader/First Deputy Director General, Scientific and Research Institute of Motor Transport (NIIAT), (Russian Federation), and Vu Anh Tuan, Director, Vietnamese-German Transport Research Centre (VGTRC), Vietnamese-German University (VGU), Vietnam. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Government of the Russian Federation for the generous funding for this study as well as their constructive suggestions.

Experts from ESCAP and other international organizations have offered valuable comments on the development of this document.

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ABBREVIATIONS ...... VII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 1 1 URBAN TRANSPORT TRENDS AND CHALLENGES IN ASIA-PACIFIC...... 2

1.1 URBANIZATION AND MOTORIZATION ...... 6 1.2 SUSTAINABILITY AND PUBLIC TRANSPORT ...... 18 1.3 URBAN ROAD SAFETY ...... 35 1.4 CONGESTION AND POLLUTION ...... 44 1.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENCE ...... 53 1.6 DIGITAL CITIES AND SERVICES TO USERS ...... 63 2 GOALS FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT IN ASIA-PACIFIC ...... 73

2.1 THE 2030 UN AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ...... 75 2.2 THE 2030 UN AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT ...... 80 2.3 UNESCAP SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT INDEX...... 85 3 FINDINGS AND LESSONS FROM FOUR COUNTRIES ...... 90

3.1 CHINA ...... 90 3.2 INDIA ...... 92 3.3 RUSSIAN FEDERATION ...... 100 3.4 VIETNAM ...... 104 4 HOW TO MAKE URBAN TRANSPORT SUSTAINABLE IN ASIA-PACIFIC ...... 107

4.1 OVERALL STRATEGIES TO BOLSTER SUSTAINABLE URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT ...... 108 4.2 DECARBONIZE AND REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ...... 123 4.3 LEVERAGE TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL INNOVATION ...... 142 4.4 ENSURE SOCIAL INCLUSION AND SAFETY ...... 157 5 RECOMMENDATIONS...... 167 REFERENCES ...... 172

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ABBREVIATIONS

BAC: Blood Alcohol Concentration BRT: Bus Rapid Transit CAGR: Compound Annual Growth Rate CNG: Compressed Natural Gas CATS: China Academy of Transportation Sciences CCUD: China Center for Urban and Small-Town Reform and Development COVID-19: Coronavirus Disease 2019 CMP: City Mobility Plan CPI: Castor Performance Index DRT: Demand-Responsive Transport service GDP: Gross Domestic Product GHG: Greenhouse Gas ICLEI: Local Governments for Sustainability IEA: International Energy Agency IPT: Intermediate Para Transport ITS: Intelligent Transport System LEZ: Low Emission Zones MaaS: Mobility as a Service MOHURD: Ministry of Housing and Urban Rural Development MOT: Ministry of Transport MPS: Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China MRT: Mass Rapid Transit M2W: Motorized Two-wheelers NDRC: National Development and Reform Commission NEVs: New Energy Vehicles NMT: Non-Motorized Transport NTMDP: National Transit Metropolis Demonstration Project PMD: Personal Mobility Device PPP: Public Private Partnership QR: Quick Response RHA: Ride Hailing Apps SDG: Sustainable Development Goals TC: Transport Community TMC: Traffic Management Centers TOD: Transit-Oriented Development VRU: Vulnerable Road Users UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WHO: World Health Organization

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A shift towards sustainable transport could save hundreds of thousands of lives every year and could deliver savings of US$70 trillion by 2050 through improved road safety, reduced air pollution, and lower carbon emissions. The transformation to sustainable transport requires a redirection, rather than any substantial increase, in infrastructure expenditure and can be realized through an annual investment of around US$2 trillion worldwide, similar to the current ‘business as usual’ spending of US$1.4 to US$2.1 trillion. When considering full transport costs, including fuel, expenses, and congestion costs, sustainable transport can deliver savings of US$70 trillion by 2050. Asia has witnessed rapid population growth and urbanization. In 2016, 48.7 per cent of the region’s 4.3 billion population lived in urban areas. This rapid growth and increased urbanization will continue to stress urban transport systems and infrastructure leading to congestion, accidents, and more consumption of fossil fuels. For most Asian countries, urbanization challenges derive mainly from high population growth concentrated in a few cities. Public transport should be the main transport system of choice in large cities, with more choices and better services to improve accessibility and inclusivity. Non-motorized transport should become the norm in small and medium cities. In megalopolises and megacities, a rapid commuting service network with reasonable division of labor (such as trunk railway, intercity railway, city (suburb) railway and urban rail transit) should be built to promote the "one network" of rail transit operation to emphasize rail transit as the backbone of large passenger flow.

In our four target countries, the development of demand-responsive public transport is key to improving urban transport resilience. Attention should be paid to the transportation connections between urban suburbs and rural areas to ensure that rural residents can enjoy safe and high-quality public transportation services. Analysis shows that specific attention should be paid to the care of vulnerable groups in the development of city traffic.

Adhering to ‘people-oriented’ concepts ensures that transport planning leads to urban sustainability and enhanced traffic resilience. In the process of rapid urbanization, it is necessary to highlight the importance of ‘people-oriented’ urban planning Social inclusion in transport is paramount and can help combine affordability and coverage.

In small and medium-sized cities, there should be a shift from infrastructure construction and towards service improvement. In large cities, a compact urban development pattern with intensive land use, mixed functions, and public transport orientation should be promoted.

A comprehensive systemic approach is key to ensure urban transport sustainability. Efforts to solve the problems of urban congestion with disconnected and simplistic solutions (for example, by expanding the road infrastructure) have proven to be useless.

A sound regulatory framework and quality governance of planning authorities are needed to effectively promote sustainable urban transport. Multi-level institutional rearrangements are essential to prevent the fragmentation and effectively coordinate activities of planning, development and operation for integrated urban transport infrastructure and services.

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1 URBAN TRANSPORT TRENDS AND CHALLENGES IN ASIA-PACIFIC

Introduction Only a holistic vision of sustainability can tackle The pattern of urbanization occurring these challenges by harmonizing social, throughout Asia presents great challenges but economic, environmental and institutional also unique opportunities to address dimensions. environmental degradation, social equity, and It took 30 years for the Intergovernmental economic prosperity. There are numerous Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to build studies looking at trends, challenges, and evidence, knowledge, and science-to-society innovation related to urban transport interface about climate change. At the same sustainability around the world. The purpose pace, we would have to wait until 2050 to of this report is to highlight potential best deploy science-to-policy partnerships in the practices to guide Asia-Pacific cities in a path field of urbanization, with a priority on towards sustainability. informality, urban planning and design, green With over 70 million more people living in and blue infrastructures (Parnell et al., 2018). urban areas annually (World Bank, 2018) and a As we are touching upon limitations of natural forecast of 6.5 billion urban dwellers by 2050, resources and the regeneration of eco-systems urbanization is a source a global growth but is questioned 2050 is way too far a horizon also poses many problems. Investment gaps (Silvain et al., 2018, Nofal et al., 2019). are widening, transparency and citizen Following over a decade of loosely coordinated participation is scarce, inequalities are rising action and policymaking at combined micro, (OECD, 2018), territorial and social cohesion is metro, and macro-scales (Buchoud, 2019) we at risk (Fleurbaey et al., 2018). Moreover, land- have reached a turning point. As illustrated by use policies are massively ailing (Seto et al., the Nationally Determined Contributions 2012; Angel, Galarza et al., 2016) and the (NDCs) to reach the Paris agreement and the ecological footprint of human activities is rising Voluntary National Reviews of the SDGs, the faster than ever before (Boulding, 1966; call for a cross-sectoral approach to Meadows et al., 1972; Wackernagel, 1996; urbanization, mobility, and infrastructure Rockström, 2009; Sachs, 2015). development is getting higher on local, regional, and global agendas (IISD, 2017, AFD, et al., 2018). It is now on the way of being transformed into applicable policies.

"The cities in which we live have become hostile environments for their inhabitants. However, today we have the opportunity to rethink the way in which we keep constructing our cities (...) Transforming the city model is not only a formal question: it implies changing the way we live and interact with others, the way we consume and work. In short, it implies guiding our society towards a more democratic and ecological horizon." Acero G. et al (2016), “Against the antisocial city"

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The word ‘sustainability’ has often been of GDP in some cities of emerging economies, misappropriated, usually for reputation including Beijing, São Paulo, and Lima. (“greenwashing”) or for conscience-clearing purposes. It is important to understand its Regional trends and challenges global role as a new and implementable way of Asia has witnessed rapid population growth conceiving our relationship with nature, in and urbanization. In 2016, 48.7 per cent of the which we are part of the cycle instead of a region’s 4.3 billion population lived in urban disruptive element. Sustainability means areas. According to recent projections, more preserving and developing physical and than half of the region’s population will be environmental assets for future generations. It urban residents by 2018 (UNESCAP, UNDP and also means including and empowering people ADB, 2017), and by 2050 the total regional to give them equal chances and thinking of urban population will reach 3.2 billion business models that use innovation to create (UNESCAP, 2016). The fleet of motor vehicles is value through positive impacts. also growing steadily in the region’s cities. The growth and concentration of motor vehicles in There are enormous opportunities presented urban areas has led to increased demand for by sustainable transport: saving hundreds of urban mobility. thousands of lives every year through improved road safety and reduced air pollution This rapid growth and increased urbanization and reducing carbon emissions by seven will continue to stress urban transport systems gigatons. The transformation to sustainable and infrastructure leading to congestion, transport requires a redirection, rather than accidents and more consumption of fossil any substantial increase, in infrastructure fuels, and correspondingly will raise expenditure and can be realized through an greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Quality of annual investment of around US$2 trillion, life issues such as loss of productivity and similar to the current ‘business as usual’ health will also suffer as follow-on impacts. For spending of US$1.4 to US$2.1 trillion. When most Central Asian countries, urbanization considering full transport costs, including fuel, challenges derive mainly from high population operational expenses, losses due to growth concentrated in a few cities. These congestion, and vehicles, sustainable transport pressures are intensified by shrinking can deliver savings of US$70 trillion by 2050. In employment opportunities in rural areas due addition, improvements in border to limited land and water resources. Migrants administration, transport, and communication from rural areas mostly settle in large cities, infrastructure could increase global GDP by where urban housing, infrastructure, and US$2.6 trillion, or 4.7 per cent. employment opportunities are not meeting the demand from new residents. These issues There is also an urgent need for action to are aggravated by a limited electricity supply in address the staggering social, environmental, most densely populated areas and high and economic costs associated with ‘business transportation costs for small and medium-size as usual’. Every year 1.24 million people die in businesses located in rural areas. road accidents and a further 3.5 million people die prematurely due to outdoor pollution, These challenges can be divided into physical- including from transport sources. Some 23 per geographical constraints, increased migration, cent of energy-related greenhouse gas and differences in the models of economic emissions come from transport, and road reforms. Firstly, a major challenge of congestion is a tremendous burden on the urbanization stems from the limited supply of economy, currently accounting for 2–5 per water, land, and energy resources in most cent of GDP in Asia, and as high as 10 per cent countries of the region, which makes extensive

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agricultural growth unfeasible in the long term. Foundations of good urbanism are inherent to By 2025, accessible agricultural land per capita many successful interventions in cities around in the region will decrease by an average of 19 the world. They are part of Medellin’s social per cent. Secondly, limited opportunities for urbanism, with its focus on linking new agricultural growth have resulted in high rates transport with social infrastructures, as well as of internal and/or external migration in Central Seoul’s efforts to activate public space within Asia. Internal migration consists mainly of the the urban core. London’s transit-oriented flow of surplus labor from rural to urban areas. urban intensification strategy, informed by its Shrinking employment opportunities in rural spatial development plan, has facilitated more areas have been buffered so far by increased successful, sustainable growth not unlike that external labor migration, in which incomes are of the more land-constrained Tokyo. derived through remittances. Still, reversing business-as-usual urbanization A way forward trends will require more ambitious and By creating more mixed-use urban districts coherent action than seen to date. It will where people can live, work, study, shop, and require joined-up interventions from the have fun without excessive travel, and national to the local level, recognizing that combining this with citywide, high-capacity urban development is shaped by policies at public transport, cities can benefit from multiple levels. For national governments, it is agglomeration effects, using resources more also crucial not only to advance tailored efficiently and achieving greater prosperity national urban policies, but also to shift the and social inclusion at lower costs. focus of urban-impacting policies and their underpinning priorities.

Impact of the COVID-19 Scheme – the way to recovery and adaptation to the new normal for urban transport operations The transportation industry has been one of the most affected sectors by COVID-19. While the recovery path and the long-term implications are not yet clear, ensuring transport does not spread the virus is of the highest priority. There are three themes for adaptation to the ‘new normal’.

Figure 1: Key pillars for adaptation to the new normal for urban transport operations

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CASE STUDY: Impact of COVID-19 on Urban Transport in Vietnam Between March and May 2020, Vietnam implemented social distancing measures to cope with the Covid-19 pandemic. During the strict implementation of social distancing all city bus, intercity coach, taxi, railway, and airway services were stopped. Bus and taxi ridership decreased by 80 per cent compared to the same period in 2019. However, the negative impacts continued long after service resumption.

City bus systems resumed operations in May 2020, but very few passengers were willing to use bus services due to psychological fears about the virus spread. The authority of Ho Chi Minh City reported just 40 per cent of bus passengers compared to the same period in 2019. Consequently, public transport service providers now face serious financial difficulties.

Even after the pandemic, the public transport systems are likely to remain extremely weakened, jeopardizing strategies to expand the public transport network. Municipal governments have implemented a series of financial support measures, such as lower bank interest rates, tax reductions, financial support to employees, and exemption of road maintenance fees until the end of 2020. Further, transport departments are adjusting bus subsidy schemes in 2020 to cover the operating costs during and after the pandemic periods.

Ride Hailing Apps (RHA) played a bigger role in city logistics during the COVID-19 pandemic period. Following the introduction of social distancing regulations, people switched to purchasing their food and consumable goods online, with RHA services delivering the goods to homes. Despite the Covid-19 pandemic slowing global trade and disrupting supply chains, RHA services have grew to serve city logistics. Online food sellers reported a tripling of revenues. RHA services such as Grab and Be have introduced a feature to allow users to buy from local supermarkets using their motorbike drivers. People now find online shopping safe and convenient, with door-to-door deliveries now possible within hours of placing orders. Delivery provider GrabFood has introduced “contactless delivery” to ensure hygiene and the health of customers. Grab has also launched GrabMart, a grocery service app that allows goods to be delivered to a citizen's house within two hours.

It is important to anticipate social disruption scenarios through learning from past disruptions and international coping strategies, and prepare coping plans to minimize negative impacts to sustain urban mobility. Enhancements to public transport systems must be considered carefully, from the planning stage through to the operating stage in order to sustain the role of public transport due to Figure 2: Takeaway-only food delivery services social disruption.

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1.1 URBANIZATION AND MOTORIZATION inadequate means to access the economic and Introduction social centers of the cities. The burden of Urban areas are the ‘engine’ to economic climate change adds another layer of urgency growth and employment, and the foremost and complexity to the problems that decision producers of knowledge and innovation. makers must address in their quest to create Towns and cities are the hubs and drivers of sustainable cities. economic activity and welfare. Urban transport systems are vital to the economic Congestion is increasing and access functioning of cities through their provision of decreasing. Transport-caused air pollution accessibility for goods and commuters. appears to be on the increase. Accident rates Similarly, they are vital to the welfare of the per km were falling, but total fatalities per km population by providing accessibility for all still remain among the highest in the world. social activities. Social issues are often not considered. The economics of public transport are marginally However, due to the extensive economic positive, but threatened by the increased use activity in urban areas, many Asian cities face of private vehicles. Perhaps most encouraging numerous problems related to or caused by is the way in which governance is improving, transport and traffic. Economic and social with a hard push on cleaner fuels and vehicles, transformation has rapidly increased the levels and better road safety. Whether the policy of mobility. The growth of private car use has process can increase safety and access for the been accompanied by increased urban sprawl poor, for those who still walk or cycle, still and commuting, whereas in many cases public remains to be seen. transport networks have not developed at the same rate. Regional trends and challenges Between 1960 and 2017, the world’s urban On top of this, transport systems generate population quadrupled from about 1 billion to negative external effects. Congestion, air and more than 4 billion people. By 2050, the noise pollution, and road safety are examples world’s urban population is expected to have of commonly shared problems in Asian cities. grown by 2.5 billion people, reaching 66 per Besides these direct impacts, urban transport cent of the total global population. Asia will also affects social development, social make up nearly 50 per cent of this increase inclusion, and accessibility for people with until 2050 and, with this boom, economic mass reduced mobility. The need for sustainable will continue to shift from the mature mobility has been receiving increasing economies toward emerging markets. In 2015, attention. Asian cities face the challenge of there were 29 megacities of over 10 million how to enhance mobility, ensure accessibility, people, and by 2030 there will be an additional and create high quality and efficient transport 12 megacities, with nine of them in Asia. In systems while at the same time reducing addition, recent decades have seen the rise of congestion, pollution, and accidents. polycentric metropolitan regions consisting of In many cities in developed and developing a number of connected large urban areas, countries alike, congestion, pollution, shifting which present a new set of challenges for economic centers, and demographic patterns transport planning. present imminent threats to lives and livelihoods. The transport landscape in urban agglomerations is often highly inequitable, with poor and disabled people left with

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Urbanization and public spaces: a dependency Motorization and informal transport in the making The Asia-Pacific region has witnessed rapid Urbanization enables people to come together motorization. Most countries showed growth to benefit from economies of agglomeration in the motorization rate (vehicles/1,000 through increased productivity due to inhabitants) from 2014 to 2015. The economic density, accelerated innovation motorization rate in highly motorized from knowledge spillovers, and greater countries, such as Australia, Japan, New mobility and access to jobs and services. Zealand, and the Republic of Korea increased However, it also puts immense pressure on from 402-796 in 2014 to 417-819 in 2015, and land and natural resources, and the resulting the rate in less motorized countries, such as urban environment is often riddled with India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Vietnam undesirable outcomes – from housing increased from 20-36 in 2014 to 22-38 in 2015. shortages and unaffordability to poor basic Motor vehicle fleets in the region double every services, increased pollution, and congestion. five to seven years. By 2035, it is estimated that The extent to which cities will continue to be China alone will have approximately 350 sustainable as they grow will depend on how million private cars, which is 10 times the they manage the trade-offs between the figure for 2008. India’s private vehicles are benefits of urban agglomeration and the costs estimated to increase threefold. of unplanned urbanization processes. In addition to the growing number of private In the public realm – the urban spaces between vehicles, powered two and three-wheelers buildings such as streets and open space – the constitute a major share of vehicle population frictional forces of urbanization and their in South and South East Asia's cities, even if negative externalities manifest themselves in data is scarce. Due to growing numbers of many forms, including neglected parks and private vehicles and unreliable public transport open spaces that become collectors of trash systems, regional cities and member States are and pollution, streets that divide communities finding it difficult to attract more commuters without consideration for pedestrians, and to public transport. Other factors such as ease vehicular traffic that dominates the use of of access, affordability, flexibility, and public spaces. In the city of Dhaka, Bangladesh, convenience have made the business viable for for example – home to one of the world’s informal motorized modes. densest urban populations at about 510 Because these transit modes often operate persons per hectare (UN DESA 2019) – traffic with little or no regulations, the service quality moves only slightly faster than walking pace, at can be poor and the operations unsafe and around 7 km per hour (World Bank 2017). polluting. In Jakarta (Indonesia), the slower Poor-quality, uncomfortable, and unhealthy and smaller vehicles are confined to peripheral urban environments and public spaces have parts of the city and on narrow roads, out of thus taken a toll on liveability, resilience, and concern for safety and traffic discipline. In competitiveness in many of the world’s Bangkok (Thailand), they are not licensed to densest cities. As a result, citizens who rely on transport passengers. In Manila (the public spaces to access jobs and services, enjoy Philippines), jeepneys stop and pick open spaces and greenery, or earn their passengers at their convenience without livelihoods – such as the street markets and regard to road safety. Since 2000, Vietnam has vendors that form a sizable part of the informal banned three-wheeled motorbikes with open economy (Skinner, Orleans Reed, and Harvey cargo bins in the front for goods transport. In 2018) – are affected disproportionately. C40 Ho Chi Minh City, these are considered inefficient modes as they take up nearly as

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much space as a car but greatly contribute to Lanka, some families buy three-wheelers for slow traffic. private use, attracted by the lower price of the vehicles relative to passenger cars. More than Trying to regulate the operations of informal half of the motor vehicle fleet in China, transport modes can be problematic as there Thailand, and Malaysia consists of two- is a need to balance efficiency and social wheelers; in Indonesia, Vietnam and Taiwan equity. These informal modes appear to be (China) the figure exceeds two-thirds of the significantly important for economic and social fleet. There is a dominance of two- and three- sustainability as they serve lower-income wheelers in the vehicle fleets of Dkaha groups to travel to workplaces, as well as (Bangladesh), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), providing employment opportunities. A ban on Denpasar (Indonesia), and Delhi (India). these modes may adversely affect the However, there is not always a close economic situation of lower-income groups. correspondence between the number of These modes compete with regular taxis, vehicles registered and those in use, so it is buses, and light rail systems by providing low important to use reliable data in analysis. fares and better door-to-door services. There may be sufficient incentive for service China improvements in the informal transport when With the rapid development of China in recent the alternative modes are promoted years, China’s urbanization process and aggressively. For example, in an attempt to motorization development level have regulate tuk-tuks, Phuket (Thailand) will be undergone tremendous changes. According to introducing fare meters in all tuk-tuks to data from the National Bureau of Statistics, ensure they remain viable in the midst of China’s urbanization process has developed upgrading the public transportation system. rapidly from 2010 to 2018. The urbanization rate increased from 47.5 per cent to 59.58 per Two-stroke engine vehicles in developing cities cent, which means around 15 million new in Asia fall into two categories: two-wheelers people enter the city from countryside every and three-wheelers. Two-wheelers include year. mopeds, scooters, and motorcycles and are used mostly for personal transportation, At the same time, China's level of motorization though in Bangkok and some other cities – has also increased tremendously, private car including in Vietnam and Indonesia – ownership per capita has grown rapidly from motorcycles are also used for public 76.8 vehicles per thousand people in 2014 to transportation or paratransit. Three-wheelers that of 147.9 vehicles per thousand people in include small taxis such as auto-rickshaws in 2019. In 2019, car ownership exceeded one India and Sri Lanka, baby taxis in Bangladesh, million in 66 cities, and two million in 30 cities. and tuk-tuks in Thailand – usually for carrying Of which Beijing ranked top with 5.934 million three passengers – and larger vehicles such as cars. Tempos in Bangladesh, Nepal, and parts of India, which carry as many as a dozen passengers.

Two- and three-wheelers play an important role in the transport market in Asia. India, China, Vietnam, and Indonesia have a large number of two-wheelers, which are used mostly for personal transport. Three-wheelers are typically used as short-distance taxis. In Sri

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58.5% 59.6% 60.0% 57.4% 1400 54.8% 56.1% 52.6% 53.7% 51.3% 1390 50.0% 47.5% 1380 1370 40.0% 1360 30.0% 1350 1340 20.0%

Urbanization Urbanization Rate 1330

1320 Population(million)Total 10.0% 1310 0.0% 1300 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 urbanization Rate Total population Figure 3: Chinese Urbanization Rate and Total Population during 2010 to 2018. Source: China National Bureau of Statistics, 2019

China's rapid motorization development is Tangshan, Linyi, and Weifang. In addition, uneven. The specific manifestation is the there are eight cities in the Midwest, including uneven development of cities with different seven provincial capitals and one municipality. population sizes and economic development It can be seen that ordinary prefecture-level levels. There are over three million vehicles in cities and small and medium-sized cities in the 11 cities including Chongqing, Suzhou, Midwest still have great potential and space. In Shanghai, Zhengzhou, Shenzhen, Xi'an, Wuhan, the Northeast, only Shenyang city was Dongguan, and Tianjin. By region, of 30 cities shortlisted. Looking at the distribution of with more than two million cars in 2019, 21 are provinces in these cities, Guangdong, on the eastern coast, accounting for 70 per Shandong, and Zhejiang province each had cent. It not only includes the first- and second- four cities with more than two million vehicle tier cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, owners; Jiangsu and Hebei province each had Shenzhen, Nanjing, and Hangzhou, but also three. These five provinces had 18 cities, prefecture-level cities such as Jinhua, occupying nearly two-thirds of the country1.

300.0

250.0

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

vehicle ownership per thousand peopleper thousandownership vehicle 0.0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Figure 4: China's vehicle ownership perMotor thousand vehicle people duringCivil Car 2014 toPrivate 2019. CarChina Ministry of Public Security, 2019

1 Chinese Statistics of Motor vehicles in 2019, 2020

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Rapid urban expansion has brought an promoted composite land use, and improved acceleration of motorization. The selection land output benefits. According to a statistic includes four mega cities with the most based on a survey from typical Chinese cities, developed economies in China. Cities of huge Beijing, Hangzhou, Guangzhou and some other growth include Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, places have developed 16 comprehensive rail Shenzhen, and Shenyang in the Northeast, transit development projects, with 10 projects Lanzhou in the Northwest, Tianjin in the North, under construction, and another 50 approved Jinan, Hangzhou in the East, Wuhan in the construction projects. They have accumulated Central China as well as Chengdu in the rich experience in practical exploration and Southwest. From the comparison of 2016 and policy innovation3. 2017, it can be seen that urban expansion has At the same time, with the acceleration of brought about an acceleration of the urbanization and motorization, especially the motorization process, and the congestion rapid development of private transportation, situation is not necessarily proportional to the bicycle sharing rates in Beijing and other cities urban expansion situation2. The area of built- have fallen sharply. From 1990 to 2015, the up areas in major cities has grown rapidly in share of bicycle trips in Beijing dropped from the past decade, but the density of road 54 per cent to 13.5 per cent, in Shenzhen networks has not increased significantly. dropped from 30 per cent to 4 per cent, and in Urban transport congestion has gradually Wenzhou dropped from 44.3 per cent to 6 per spread from mega cities and large cities to cent. To this end, the Chinese government has small and medium cities in China. continuously strengthened policy guidance at With this rapid urbanization, the relationship the national level to promote green travel. between land use and transportation needs Since 2012, China has issued guidance to has changed. Some cities have been actively accelerate the implementation of the priority exploring the comprehensive development of development strategy for public land in transportation planning, promoting transportation. In 2019, the Green Travel commercial development and residential Action Plan (2019-2022) was released to functions along public transportation lines or encourage public transportation, walking, and hubs, with attempts to use public cycling. Under this action plan, Chinese cities transportation to lead urban development. In such as Beijing and Shanghai are formulating recent years, some regions in China have green mobility strategic goals and carrying out optimized the construction mode of urban rail publicity and education activities. The level of transit stations, increased business services, non-motorized transport in some cities in 2018 housing and public supporting functions, is shown in Figure 5.

2 Report on Urban Road Transportation Development in 36 large cities of China 2017.2018.

3 Recommended Catalogue of Land-saving Modes for Comprehensive Development and Utilization of Above- ground and Underground Space in Rail Transit of China, 2020

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City Share of public transport in motorized Share of active transport4 mobility Qingdao 58.80 per cent -- Urumqi 64.31 per cent -- Hefei 56.92 per cent 36.23 per cent Jinan 54.25 per cent -- Fuzhou 48.19 per cent 64.72 per cent Harbin 56.20 per cent -- Huhhot 54.36 per cent -- Liuzhou 48.80 per cent -- Nanchang 60.54 per cent 42.29 per cent Shenyang 61.24 per cent 33.22 per cent Shijiazhuang 54.27 per cent 66.50 per cent Xi'an 61.69 per cent 41.43 per cent Chongqing 60.20 per cent -- Zhuzhou 49.21 per cent 34.50 per cent Figure 3: Modal Share of active and public transport commuting in several Chinese cities in year 2018. Source: Survey data, CATS, 2019

freight rate between metropolitan cores and India peripheries in India are 5.2 per ton-km, twice The natural growth rate in population has the national average and five times the cost in gradually decreased from 1.59 to 0.99 United States. between 2005 and 2020, and the growth is expected to decline only after 2060 as per UN The metropolitan and million plus cities cores estimates (after peaking at 1.65 billion). Thus, (central city and area of 5 km radius) saw a a larger rate of urbanization and economic decline in employment over last two decades, growth is anticipated for India, with a growing but peripheral towns and villages saw growth younger demography. in hi-tech manufacturing, real estate, and other manufacturing sectors. A World Bank An estimated one-third of the new upcoming report highlights weak institutional fast-growing towns in India are located within foundations for land valuation and 50km of large cities/mega-cities. These transactions and stringent regulation on land suburbs are concentrated in 1 per cent of use for this shift. The key reasons for the India's land area but account for about 18 per decline in growth are a disparity in access to cent of the country's employment. Rapid basic services and limitations in transportation growth of individual modes of transport, poor and freight services. and expensive public transport services, and slow commuting speeds have combined to The upcoming towns feature low-density create an exodus of business and factories sprawl with large spatial footprints. Small and from large Indian cities. Businesses located in big urban cities often form a spatial peripheries struggle to access local and continuum. Some 37 such multi-city urban regional markets and face higher costs. The agglomerations exist in the country and most

4 Active transport here refers to cycling and walking.

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the unique and long is the Delhi-Lahore transport networks, inefficient curbside agglomeration with a population of 73 million management of streets, unorganized parking, (Elllis and Roberts, 2016). Urban footprints are and passive institutional arrangements all add estimated to be growing at twice the rate of to congestion. urban populations, reflecting increasing urban The increasing levels of urbanization have led trip lengths and time taken (Ellis and Roberts, to economic prosperity among many Indian 2016). households (Sixth Economic Census, 2016). The agriculture land around cities is reducing, Moreover, in the absence of proper public built-up areas are increasing in sub-urban transport systems, Indian cities saw a rise in its areas, green and open spaces (30 per cent to vehicle population (Tiwari, Key Mobility 21 per cent) are be reduced within cities, and Challenges in Indian Cities, 2011). As per the there is increasing construction in low-lying Road Transport Yearbook 2016, the number of areas (Garg et al. 2018). The amount of urban registered motor vehicles in the country has built spaces has increased from an average of increased from 21 million in 1991 to 230 25.4 per cent in 1991 to 48 per cent in 2017. million in 2016. The number of vehicles grew Land use changes impact transportation at 9.64 per cent Compound Annual Growth patterns and choices of transportation modes Rate (CAGR) between 1991 and 2016. Figure 6 in a city, thus defining travel behavior, the shows the vehicle fleet on the road in India for energy-vehicle mix, and local air pollution. 2010-2016, and the estimates for 2016-2030. These in turn could alter a city’s resilience and One-third of the total registered vehicles are in livability. the 52 million-plus cities of India.5 Transport demand has increased by a factor of eight in India since 1980 (Chin, et al., 2018) on account of an almost doubling population and 5x improvement in GDP per capita. This huge transport demand could possibly be due to an increase in employment and educational opportunities. A lack of sufficient public

1,600 1.80% 1,400 1.60% 1,200 1.40% 1.20% 1,000 1.00% 800 0.80% 600 0.60% 400 0.40% 200 0.20% 0 0.00%

Figure 4: India’s Historical Population Growth Rate Source: https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/IND/india/gdpPopulation (in milions) Growth-growth Rate-rate; Data: MOSPI

5 Data on vehicle registrations available for 52 out of 53 million plus cities

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350 300 250 200 150

Fleet in millionsinFleet 100 50 -

2Ws Cars UVs Taxis 3Ws Buses

Figure 5: On-road vehicle stock in India. Source: CEEW, 2020 (upcoming analysis of registered vehicles adjusted using prevailing survival rates). Note: 2018 onwards are the projections based on prevailing BAU CAGR trends

India has a higher share of motorized two- the commercial regions. A large proportion of wheelers in their vehicle fleet as compared to low-income households have remained passenger cars. This is due to the low marginal dependent on walking, cycling, or public cost of operating an M2W (of about INR 0.70- transport for their commute. The dense and 1.00 per kilometer at 2005 prices (Khatri, mixed land use urban fabric with narrow lanes 2015)). Passenger vehicles have a penetration and compact structures have kept average trip rate of 26 vehicles per 1000 people (2017), low lengths low, irrespective of city size. compared to the Organisation for Economic Figure 8(a) illustrates the importance of buses Co-operation and Development (OECD) as a means of transport in Indian cities. Buses average of 442 and Southeast Asian Nations have been an affordable option with better average of 56 (India 2020: Energy Policy coverage throughout the city. However, their Review, 2020). The total share of buses in the shares are declining rapidly in the Indian vehicle population reduced to 0.8 per cent in market. Trains in the form of suburban rails 2016, from 11 per cent in 1951 (Road also carry a considerable number of Transport Year Book 2016-17). This indicates passengers in Indian metro cities. Figure 8(b) limited Government priority for bus-based illustrates that majority trips in all size of urban public transport. areas are less than 5 km (only a few large/ Walking, cycling, and using public transport are megacities have comparatively higher average prime modes of transport for workers (The trip lengths). Metro systems, on the contrary, Census of India 2011). Figure 7 shows the are promising when trip lengths are higher modal share, where it is clear that almost half than 10 km (Mohan D. e., 2005). of the workers in urban India walk or cycle to work, and one fifth use buses. Also, 15-60 per cent of the population lives in low-income settlements, regularized slums, and informal settlements (Cities for all, 2014). They provide a workforce catering to nearby middle and high-income groups, manufacturing units, and

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Other, Train, 0.70% 5.10%

Bus, 21.80% Walk, 46.50%

Tempo/A uto/Taxi, 6.00% M2W, M4W, 10.50% 4.90% Bicycle, 4.50%

Figure 6: Work trip modal share and length of work trips in urban India (2011). Source: Tiwari, G. and Nishant, 2018, Travel to work in India: current pattern and future concerns.

Figure 9: Modal split of work trips in urban centers of India distributed by the size of cities. Source: Census 2011 data

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Vast amounts of money are being spent in the Russian Federation development of metro systems (including The differences in the motorization levels monorails and trams) in 14 Indian cities, yet across Russia differ massively, and they are the modal share of the metro system in most significant as they indicate different starting cities remains dismal. Moreover, metro conditions when assessing the prospects for systems also increase the access and egress the development of urban transport systems. time, making shorter trips even more time- The level of motorization depends on a intensive. The metros in many Indian cities number of factors: the wealth of the remain unaffordable for low or middle-income population, size of the city, development of groups (The Cost of Urban Commute: public transport system, climate conditions, Balancing Affordability and Sustainability, existing restrictions on private cars use, town 2019). The Non-Motorized Transport (NMT) planning, and the specificity of the city. share is even larger (50-70 per cent of total, as understood from the City Mobility Plans of most cities) considering all kinds of trips: education, leisure, shopping, and others. However, these NMT shares are declining in the absence of safe infrastructure and the rising vehicle population.

Public transport decreases with city size. As can be seen in Figure 10, mega-cities have the highest percentage of formal6 public transport trips, which reduces as the size of the city declines. As shorter trips increase, the dependence on bicycles and M2W increases. Interestingly, Intermediate Para Transport (IPT as shared mobility mode) holds a considerable trip share (6-9 per cent) amongst all Indian cities but is mostly informal. The IPT systems are somewhat formal in larger cities and act as feeder service to the mass transit lines. However, they are largely neglected in planning (route/ area planning) and often lack the necessary infrastructure for parking, integration with other public transit using scheduling, or common ticketing. There is a need to recognize and strengthen their presence in formal public transport systems.

66 Transport system (mostly buses) planned, organized, managed by urban local bodies (ULB) with varying engagement

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350

УровеньMotorization автомобилизации, level, vehicles/1000 АТС/1000 чел. people 300

ЧисленностьPopulation населения, size, mln. млн. people чел. 250

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2017 2018 Figure 10: Dynamics of motorization level in the Russian Federation in 1990-2018, cars/1000 people. Source: Traffic Police, Goscomstat, 2018

The maximum motorization level is fixed in technical conditions, long hours for drivers Eastern regions of Russia due to the proximity (who in many cases worked for up to 15 hours to Japan and South Korea where second-hand a day), high levels of corruption and traffic cars are imported (Kamchatka -472 cars, the violations, and little transparency as to where Primorsky Kray – 437 cars per 1000). The the cash fares would end up. lowest level of motorization is in Chukotka This model is still in place in a number of cities, Autonomous Okrug (Far North East of Russia however the largest cities have brought the where the climate conditions are harsh and the commercial carries under the umbrella of a road network is not well developed, with 88 common public transport management system cars per 1000), and in the Chechen Republic – with common fares and fare collection which is characterized by difficult mountain systems, common requirements for rolling conditions (131 cars per 1000)7. stock and drivers, and common control One issue faced in many Russian cities is the systems. widespread adoption of ‘marshrutka’ minibuses in the 1990s. This quick-fix helped Vietnam alleviate the problem of rapid degradation of A motorcycle boom began in Vietnam in of the the municipal carriers’ public transport fleet early 2000s with annual growth rates ranging due to falling local budgets and an inability to between 20 per cent and 30 per cent. Such a maintain a sufficient volume and quality of phenomenon was caused by the huge import municipal transport services. Numerous of low-cost Chinese motorcycles. It then commercial carriers were allowed to enter the continued growing at 15 per cent per annum market, quickly saturating it with cheap until 2009, and is now growing at 8-10 per cent Russian-made minibuses, often not new and per year. In 2016, Vietnam had 43.8 million driven by migrant drivers. This market model motorcycles amongst a population of 92.7 was very cheap, however it led to poor million, resulting in an ownership rate of 473 motorcycles/1000 people and 87 per cent of

7 Autostat Agency, 2016

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Figure 11: Numbers of motorcycles and cars in Vietnam (1995-2016). Source: Autostat Agency, 2016, VGTRC, 2018

families owning motorcycles. In 2019, the A way forward motorcycle ownership rate increased to 490 Asia will continue to urbanize rapidly over the motorcycles/1000 people. next few decades. Rapid economic growth in urban areas drives considerable growth in the Motorcycle ownership rate differs between demand for transport of both people and cities and provinces, reflecting the levels of goods, with particular emphasis on the growth economic development. The cross-sectional of two- and three-wheelers, which now data of 2016 shows that HCMC, Hanoi, and dominate vehicle fleets and streets in many Danang City had the highest rates (more than Asian cities. Apart from the growth in private 550 motorcycles/1000 people). In fact, HCMC vehicles, the population growth and increased had the highest rate in the country with 768 affluence have resulted in strong growth, in motorcycles/1000 people while Hanoi stood at absolute terms, in the demand for public 573 motorcycles/1000 people. Can Tho City, transport. In many cases, cities have had Hai Phong City, and Binh Duong Province fell difficulties in meeting this increased demand, into the middle group (450-550 leading to a decrease in the quality of services motorcycles/1000 people). The lowest group provided. At the same time, the growth in (below 450 motorcycles/1000 people) private motorization has overwhelmed the included lower income provinces. streets in almost every large Asian city, The number of cars has been growing rapidly creating unbridled congestion and long at average rate of 12 per cent-15 per cent per commute times. Unsurprisingly, non- year in recent years. In 2016, Vietnam had 3.25 motorized transport and public transport have million motor vehicles of all types, increasing suffered as authorities emphasize paved to 3.4 million cars in 2019. Compared to the streets for individual vehicles. Building more motorcycle ownership rate, the car ownership roads and flyovers cannot hope to catch up rate is much lower, averagely 35 cars/1000 with the trends. This challenge can only be met people in 2016. Hanoi had the highest with a new approach to sustainable transport. ownership rate (57 cars/1000 people),

followed by HCMC (45), Quang Ninh (33), Vinh Phuc (31) and Binh Duong (23). Other provinces and cities had rates below 10 cars/1000 people.

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1.2 SUSTAINABILITY AND PUBLIC TRANSPORT Improving accessibility may require trade-offs between these factors and consideration of Introduction social norms, vested interests, technical Long-term serviceability, safety, reliability, capacity, appropriate technology, and many affordability, and equitable access are other issues. essential attributes of a sustainable and The integration of urban transport modes is inclusive transportation system. Such a system essential to promoting smooth intermodal should comprise various modes: roads, transfer. When there are two operators of railways, inland waterways, maritime, air different transport systems, integrated transport, as well as non-motorized forms of ticketing makes it more efficient as well as transport such as cycling and walking or other convenient for users, and many cities are individual mobility forms. Within the hierarchy following this approach. The physical interface of transport systems, national, urban, and between modes, infrastructure, and facilities intercity transportation tends to receive more at intermodal junctions should allow for the priority than rural and rural-urban smooth transfer of passengers and goods from transportation links. Even if this report focuses one mode to another. Operational integration on urban transport, all levels of transport and scheduling should facilitate transfer with should be integrated and considered within a minimum use of time. sustainable transport system, especially as the majority of the population living below the Evidence from cities in Asia provides important poverty line resides in rural areas and informal policy insights for low-income cities urban settlements. Providing physical mobility everywhere, especially those that are for people to move from one place to another beginning to enjoy some economic success. is one way to reduce poverty. While recent Early decisions to prioritize public transport trends suggest a greater acceptance amongst and non-motorized transport investments policy-makers of the need to reorient over private transport-oriented investments transport development to be more sustainable can bring important long-term benefits. Such and inclusive, there is still a significant gap investment priorities are made enormously between stated intentions and actual easier to carry out in developing cities if the implementation. pace of motorization can be deliberately slowed down, especially during the early Arguably, one of the most important new stages of the process which often accompanies priorities is enhancing urban accessibility – the periods of rapid economic growth and ease with which people can reach destinations urbanization. The need for better balanced and connect with one another. Accessibility transport systems is particularly acute for cities depends on land use – how different resources that are already large and dense, as is very are situated within the city and relative to one common in cities throughout Asia, since dense another – as well as transport options, the cities are particularly vulnerable to the availability of opportunities at different times, negative impacts of traffic. and people’s individual needs and abilities.

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Figure 7 (above): Rail-Based Mass Transit Systems in Figure 8 (below): Public transport mode share in selected Asian Cities. Source: Review of Developments in Asian cities, 2015. Source: Review of Developments in Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017 Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017:

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Sustainable transport The role of transport in sustainable • Access and equity: Allow the basic access development was first recognized at the 1992 and development needs of individuals, United Nation’s Earth Summit and reinforced companies and society to be met safely in its outcome document – Agenda 21. and in a manner consistent with human Transport drives development – enabling and ecosystem health, and promote equity trade, tourism, and economic growth, and within and between successive allowing people to access jobs, services, generations. education, and the interactions that help • Diversity of choice: Is affordable, operates create fulfilled lives. Sustainable transport, by fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of extension, drives sustainable development, transport mode, and supports a advancing the people-centered goals at the competitive economy and balanced heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable regional development. Development while protecting and preserving • Responsibility: Limits emissions and waste the planet and its resources for generations to to within the planet’s ability to absorb come. The European Union Council of Minister them. Uses renewable resources at or of Transports (2015) has also adopted an below their rates of generation. Uses non- advanced view on what role transport should renewable resources at or below the rates play in our society. This can be applied to a city of development of renewable substitutes. scale and is summarized as the following: Minimizes the impact on the use of land and the generation of noise.

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CASE STUDY: Avoid – Shift – Improve. An Approach for Urban Transport in Vietnam The terms sustainable transport and mobility allude to paradigms and strategies that have been developed to help make transport more sustainable. The sustainable mobility paradigm promotes a broad range of strategies (UN-HLAG 2016, Banister 2008) to i) avoid unnecessary transport or demand ("Avoid"); ii) shift transport from individual motorized transport to active modes and public transport ("Shift"); and iii) promote clean fuels and vehicles and efficient traffic management ("Improve"). In Vietnam, the paradigm has seen the following policies and goals:

Avoid

• Control private vehicle use. Hanoi, HCMC, and three other medium cities (Can Tho, Dang Nang and Hai Phong) have formulated policies to control and gradually ban the use of motorcycles in urban central areas. Financial instruments such as vehicle registration fees, parking management, and congestion charging can lower the usage of private cars to relieve road congestion and create budgets for infrastructure improvements.

• Increase coordination with land-use development at transit stations. HCMC is looking to develop Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) at every station of the MRT1 line, examining the design, infrastructure arrangements, and land-use plans for the areas surrounding stations. A centre for land fund development is being developed in major cities, which will operate under the umbrella of the metropolis authorities.

Shift

• Develop urban railways networks to serve as backbones for future development.

• Expand existing city bus networks.

• Utilize water systems. As many cities in Vietnam are endowed with a network of rivers and canals, a water-bus system is being developed to diversify public transport and encourage tourism.

• Revitalize non-motorized transport to supplement transit systems, such as rental bicycle schemes and bicycle sharing services.

• Improve the pedestrian environment. HCMC and Hanoi have both developed and improved their pedestrian environment. The CBD area of these cities could be fully pedestrianized to improve the environment and enhance connectivity to transit systems.

Control

• Invest in the urban road network. Measures to mobilize financing for key urban highway/expressway projects must be formulated urgently.

• Leverage the global smart city strategy. Under Ho Chi Minh City’s “Smart Strategy for 2017- 2020, Vision to 2025”, the city aims to adopt Industry 4.0 technologies, such as a shared public database, administration centre, an information security centre, and a simulation research and forecast institution.

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UNESCAP views a high-quality service in urban and higher awareness of health hazards to public transport as vital, defined by good which all transport workers at the forefront of accessibility, high reliability, and appropriate the COVID-19 crisis were exposed. comfort, safety, and aesthetics. Urban public This transformation of transport connectivity transport offers good accessibility if it connects should come at a continuous but gradual pace, the locations where citizens live with locations as many countries, in particular developing they go to work, study, shop, or go for countries, may experience reduced appetite or recreation or medical care. These connections greatly diminished implementation can be direct or interconnected within urban capabilities to pursue ambitious public or national public transport networks environmental or social agendas. It is a good but they need to offer an overall satisfactory opportunity to incorporate environmental and ride time. social agendas into new policies that will shape Urban public transport is reliable if it runs in future sustainable transport and connectivity. accordance with the itineraries. Both the departure time from the station and the ride Regional trends and challenges time between the stations to ensure the Popular forms of urban public transport modes interconnectivity need to keep to schedule. prevalent in the region’s cities include buses Urban public transport is comfortable, safe, (BUS), Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), elevated and appealing if the means of transport are in monorail (MONO), Light Rail Transit (LRT), appropriate technical and safety conditions, Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), as well as clean, air-conditioned or heated, and paratransit, urban railways, taxis, and trams. protected from outside noise, etc. Moreover, BRT is a popular form of public transport the station infrastructure should be such that system globally, and it continues to be a it protects from unfavorable weather favored system of mass transit in Asia for its conditions and it is separated from traffic to relative ease and low-cost of installation. prevent injuries or fatalities. Currently, 43 Asian cities operate 1,593km of In the context of the COVID-19 crisis, initiatives BRT carrying about 9.3 million passengers per which contributed to making urban transport day. The Tehran BRT has the highest capacity operations more sustainable, especially in of two million passengers per day, while the environmental and social terms, should be Jakarta BRT system is the longest in the world retained, helping countries to build back better with 207km. and make a quality leap in their transport The region also has many rail-based public connectivity. The close linkage between the transport systems, such as LRT and MRT. Cities COVID-19 pandemic and the climate change such as Beijing, Guangzhou, Moscow, Tokyo, challenge has already been signaled (ESCAP, Seoul and Shanghai have more than 300km of 2020) and lessons learned from COVID-19 rail-based urban transport networks. New policy responses should inform future policies constructions of rail-based urban mass transit on more sustainable and inclusive transport. systems are progressing in many Chinese and As the pandemic recedes, the growing use of Indian cities, selected Iranian cities (Ahvaz, “avoid-shift-improve” techniques, a greater Karai, Kermanshah and Qom), as well as in use of more environmental modes of Bangkok, Dhaka, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Jakarta, transport, and a greater use of new and Lahore. technologies should be retained as much as possible, avoiding the return to an unsustainable status quo. The COVID-19 crisis should help achieve greater social protection

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Figure 14: Mass transit system in selected cities, 2015. Source: Review of Developments in Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017:

In general, the quality of urban public transport and promoting car-free days as part transport is gauged by public perception, of comprehensive mobility plans. Cycling is ridership, and modal share. The mode share of growing and various forms of public bicycle public transport is high in some Asian cities like sharing schemes are emerging in China, Japan, Manila (59 per cent), Colombo (53 per cent), India, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Hong Kong (52 per cent), Mumbai (45 per Singapore, and Thailand. cent), and Singapore (44 per cent). While Finally, while PPPs (Public-Private Kathmandu (28 per cent) and Jakarta (27 per Partnerships) can be an opportunity to finance cent) have moderate public transport mode and develop sound public transport share, other major cities such as Ho Chi Minh infrastructure and services in a city, they do (2 per cent), Hanoi (7 per cent), Kuala Lumpur not always respond to people's needs (high (7 per cent), and Tehran (13 per cent) have a CPI). It is of utmost importance to agree lower public transport mode share. Each carefully on contracts that fairly allocate risks system has its own pros and cons, as well as and gains to avoid situations in which the very broad variations in investment costs private sector takes advantage of local low (IDTP, 2019). capacity in contract management or lack of Inner city paratransit systems are often found transparency with disproportionate gains. in the region that provide flexible and Barcelona's tramway concession reflects some affordable public transport services. of these risks, operating very profitable lines Paratransit comes in various forms, including that distribute huge dividends among its vans, mini-vans, tempos, electric-three shareholders. If these dividends would have wheelers, motorcycle taxis, minibuses, and been limited or restricted in the concession customized public pick-ups (Ankots in contract, the city would benefit from extra Indonesia, Tempos in Nepal, Songtao in funds to cover less profitable public transport Thailand and Jeepneys in Philippines). operations.

Non-motorized transport, such as walking and cycling, is also gaining popularity in this region. Member states and city authorities are developing infrastructure for non-motorized

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Figure 15: Comparisons of urban transit systems. Source: IDTP, 2019

Figure 16: Passenger capacity and costs for urban transit systems. Bus Rapid Transit: Planning Guide, 2007

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CASE STUDY: Policy Measures to Improve Urban Mobility

Suroboyo Bus (Indonesia) is an awareness campaign combining public transport and green waste management in Surabaya. A fleet of eight large red low-floor public buses operates between Purabaya Terminal and Rajawali Street covering 44 stations. This bus fleet operates with a 5-minute headway and 67-passenger capacity per bus. The buses have assigned seats for women and priority citizens. To exchange for a single-ride sticker for this bus route, passengers need to bring empty plastic bottles, either six small bottles or three large bottles. Bus stops are equipped with facilities to collect recyclable plastics bottles and ride stickers. The awareness campaign has become so popular that the city has added 10 more buses to the existing fleet and extending the service to other routes.

Purabaya Intercity Bus Terminal (Indonesia): Surabaya has developed a state-of-the-art intercity bus terminal at Purabaya for the smooth transfer of passengers from intercity and suburban buses to urban buses. In 2016, the terminal handled around 32 million passengers. The terminal features bus information, ticketing booths, passenger waiting areas, restaurants, and two-level departure halls leading to intercity,

suburban, and central city bus bays. It is the largest bus terminal in South Figure 9: Suroboyo Bus System East Asia.

Surat Sitilink public transport system (India): Surat has a public transport system featuring 102km of BRT network with 156 stations, 279km of regular city bus network, and 12km of high mobility corridor. The ridership increased from 25,000 to 210,000 passengers per day over the 18 months since opening. A single private operator, Sitilink, operates the three systems with a common fare structure and transferable ticketing system. Surat City Authority is planning a new bus depot, a smart ticketing card system, and new infrastructure for walking and cycling. C05

India’s Smart City Mission: The provision of efficient urban mobility and public transport is a strategic element of the Smart City Mission launched by India in 2015. Key elements include traffic and transport management, universal design and barrier-free public transport facilities, strategies to increase walking and cycling mode-shares, and urban planning strategies to reduce long distance trips of private passenger vehicles. Rail-based public transport is a key component with 77kmof new metro network in the last three years and five approved new metro projects. Currently, there are 14 metro projects under construction in 12 Indian cities.

China remarkable, the gap between residents' While China’s economic growth since the 1978 wealth and income has widened. This is reform and opening-up policy has been reflected in the macroeconomic field as the

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economic development gap between and lines, and its average bus line length has within regions, urban areas, and rural areas. As dropped from 19.1km in 2012 to 16.4km in an important factor and key policy variable 2017. A large number of "last mile" affecting regional economic growth, community-to-metro lines have been transportation infrastructure has received developed, strengthening connections extensive attention. between buses and subways. In 2017, Shanghai had 75 per cent of rail transit stations The connotation of ‘inclusive growth’ requires with access to bus stations within 50m, and 89 a balance between both efficiency and per cent of rail transit stations with links to bus fairness. Under the premise of efficiency stations within 100m. improvement, we must pay more attention to the common and fair sharing of economic In 2018 in Guangzhou City, meanwhile, all development results for the public. The metro stations had bus connections within improvement of transportation infrastructure 200m of a rail station, with opening hours can promote flows between urban and rural running through the night to link with night bus areas, allowing for easier commuting corridors, services. Another issue is to improve the higher growth rates, and a reduction in both guidance signs of bus and subway connections, urban and rural poverty. with information easily on display for passengers. Hangzhou, Zhuzhou, Yichang, and At present, there are still shortcomings in the other cities have promoted public bicycle construction of transportation infrastructure parking facilities around subway stations to in rural China. For this reason, the government promote connections between buses and has taken action in planning and constructing bicycles. infrastructure networks to promote the integration of transportation.

The practices adopted in Chinese cities shows that the problem of inter-city transportation is not only about infrastructure, but also about planning and transportation services. Some cities have adopted operational service optimization measures to strengthen connections between transportation modes. Shanghai has adjusted some long-distance bus

CASE STUDY: Development of public transport in Jiangsu Province

In Southeast China, the construction of town-village public transportation has been actively promoted in Jiangsu Province and Zhejiang Province. In many areas of Southern Jiangsu ‘regional public transport’ has been gradually implemented with a number of public transport lines among adjacent towns and villages. In the Sucheng area of North Jiangsu, a rural passenger transport network structure has been formed, which consists of urban-rural lines, town-town lines and town-village lines. In Fengxian County, Peixian County, Jinhu, Huaiyin and other places, there is a network layout mode of ‘integrated public transport’ with buses linking key nodes.

At present, the scope of public transportation in towns and villages in Jiangsu Province has been expanded from 96 towns in southern Jiangsu to 907 towns in the wider Jiangsu Province. The daily average passenger volume has reached 320,000 people.

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India in handling various activities related to Indian cities mostly look like their US transport in a city or a Metropolitan counterparts, where sprawl dominates more region. UMTA is the answer to the than compactness. The decision of the urban institutional overlaps and gaps. A major form rests with city planning authorities with task includes creating Comprehensive the integration of transport becomes a Mobility Plan (CMP) for the entire region. necessary part. Central government is responsible for developing guidelines and ii. Creation of an Urban Transport Fund policies covering issues such as the granting (UTF) - Local governments were given partial or full funds for development or setting powers to generate their own funds up vehicle emission and safety standards. through taxes and levies. Out of these Transport and urban development are dealt funds, earmarked UTF could be generated with at the state level in India. for the purpose of improving mobility.

Though the importance of Unified Transport Since urban transport is a state subject, Authority (UTA) is agreed upon an efficient transport departments are responsible for UTA still has a legal step to cross. A lack of preparing State Transport Policies (STPs), political interest, system inertia, and vested urban transport policies, road policies and interests have developed a fragmented road safety policies. These contain detailed ecosystem of several actors: accounts of transport demand in the state (supported by local demands in each • Urban and transport planning (Municipal region/city) and the connectivity between Corporations/ Development Authority); rural and urban areas and adjoining states. • Registration, taxes, licensing, permits, Currently, less than 10 Indian states out of 28 vehicle roadworthiness and PUC have a state transport policy. A few of these certificates (Regional Transport have incorporated a brief account of urban Authority); transport into the STP itself. Only Maharashtra has developed a detailed state urban transport • Road construction (Public Works policy applicable to its 350+ towns and cities. Department), At the city level, Comprehensive Development • Public transport operations (Special Plans (CDP) are created as guiding documents Purpose Vehicles, City transport by the State's Town and Country Planning undertakings), Organization. Most Indian cities lack this exercise of urban planning and transport • Freight, manufacturing hubs and integration is a key missing feature. The commercial establishments (traders union exercise has been run since the 1960s yet has and department of industry and had little impact. While local government has a commerce) duty to implement the CDP, this is not sacrosanct and the implementation agencies • Traffic management (Police). have serious capacity constraints.

Local government was strengthened with the th 1992 74 Constitutional Amendment Act Russian Federation (CAA), which provided for the: Connectivity is an important characteristic of i. Creation of an Urban Metropolitan transport networks. In many large Russian Transport Authority (UMTA). Currently cities, the territory has historically been there are multiple organizations involved divided by natural barriers (rivers, ravines,

reservoirs, hills etc.) or by engineering infrastructure (railways), leading to a significant extension of transport correspondence and overrunning of urban transport. One key task for city authorities is to link national transport networks to urban systems through the construction of the city's road infrastructure, construction of bridges and overpasses, and construction of off-street transport links.

As an example of the city’s success, the Magistral integrated routes have connections with public transport routes, social routes, and with the Moscow Central Cycle Railroad (MCC) and Moscow Central Diameters city train stops (MDC). Some 103buses have been purchased for the route and, thanks to its dedicated lanes, this surface public transport option runs as regularly as metro trains. In other cities such as Kazan and Yekaterinburg similar plans have been implemented or are expected to be Figure 17: Different sections of the same street before deployed soon. and after implementation of the City Program Magistral

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CASE STUDY: The Moscow transport system

Moscow day-time population is estimated at about 15 million people. Since 2010, the Moscow Government has pushed for a shift away from personal cars towards higher usage of public transport and active mobility. Policies have included:

• Development of the metro and suburban railway; • Development passenger transport such as bus, tram, and trolley bus. ; • Parking policy; • Pedestrian reallocation of road space with priorities for pedestrians and cyclists. • Development cycling infrastructure; • Improvement of traffic management and implementation of ITS; • Improvement of road network capacity, especially urban motorways in radial and chord directions.

The changes have led to numerous improvements:

• Trips on public transport have grown by 11.8 per cent since 2010, with 66 per cent being made by electric transport. • Moscow has the youngest bus fleet in Europe (with an average age of 4.7 years) and has eliminated the problematic mode of transport by minibus (so called “marshrutka”). • Around 80,000 taxi cars operate in the wider Moscow region (more than six times the number in 2010), carrying around 890,000 passengers a day.

The Moscow Central Cycle Railroad (MCC) was created in 2016 by redeveloping a little used freight ring railway, and links up with the metro, railways, and surface public transport.

The multimodal public transport system of Moscow is based on the system of transfer hubs and stations. There are 121 existing hubs, which are expected to increase to 250 over the next few years.

Figure 18: MCC transport interchange hub

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One key lesson to learn from the Russian entity to undertake planning functions come Federation is that a regulatory framework is from an equity and efficiency point of view. needed to effectively promote sustainable There are various existing ways to deliver these urban transport. Russian legislation and services, however there is an assumption that, regulations define a multitude of various left entirely to a commercial organization with planning documents that can be used to profit as its priority, only commercially viable structure transport planning (such as programs routes would be served at the expense of more for the integrated development of transport deprived areas. Similarly, the profit motive infrastructure of settlements and urban might restrict services to peak periods to the districts (PKRTI), integrated schemes for public neglect of off-peak hours. Vietnam offers an transport services (KSOT), and integrated examples of how cities can operate and deliver traffic management schemes (KSODD)). The planning functions effectively and efficiently. main task of transport planning is to determine Improvement of city bus services to feed and the appropriate parameters of the transport integrate with urban railways system (route network topology, infrastructure, rolling stock, transportation HCMC is planning to reform and expand its bus organization) that meet the transport needs of network to meet increased travel demand. Bus the. In particular, these programs should fleets are continuously renewed to improve ensure the following: passenger comfort and reduce emissions. CNG vehicles are being introduced as an eco- • Transport infrastructure development transport mode, saving 23 per cent of fuel should be aligned with urban costs compared to diesel vehicles. In addition, development in settlements and bus priority lanes are being piloted along urban districts; several urban road corridors to increase bus • Safety conditions for road users; travel speed and reliable operations. • Priority conditions for public transport; Favorable conditions for pedestrian and bicycle traffic.

Packages of transport planning documents have been developed in most major Russian cities. As of April 2020, some 1,572 cities have developed integrated traffic management schemes. Furthermore, the Government encourages the development of transport planning documents, as their creation is a prerequisite to be included in the state- supported project for the development of "Safe and Quality Roads".

Vietnam Travel demand management policies – how urban planning can work.

Urban planning and transport service planning are vital in preparing for the actual delivery of Figure 19: Modal shift challenge in Binh Duong City, public transport services. The need for a public 2019. Source: JICA, 2018

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An example of good practice is the project for running along the Saigon River. Opened in the Enhancing Management Capacity of Public end of 2017, the first route features 12 floating Transport System in Binh Duong City, the so- stations and attracts around 2,500 travelers a called Binh Duong Modal Shift Challenge. This week. A second route is due to be opened in project was a joint effort of Binh Duong 2020, with links to the first route alongside People’s Committee, JICA and Becamex-Tokyu parking for cars and motorcycles. Bus (BTB) company to address a challenge of modal shift away from motorcycles to public transport. Becamex IDC (a local firm) and

Tokyo Group (a foreign firm) founded BTB as a joint venture to run bus services connecting the old city (Thu Dau Mot) to the new city (Binh Duong New City). The aim is to replicate the Japanese model of integrated urban transit and land developments. A network of 11 bus routes has been developed with new buses offering safe, comfortable, and punctual travel, with passenger information provided on board, at stop sand via mobile applications.

Under the project, mobility management programs were implemented for three groups, namely officials, students, and local residents. The programs aimed to: (i) Disseminate bus information (route map, timetable) and personalized travel assistance tools; (ii) Provide urban traffic-related knowledge, including the merits of bus commuting and the drawbacks of motorcycle usage; (iii) Help local residents understand how to use bus services, such as through reading bus maps and timetables; (iv) Provide incentives to attract new bus users and improve the bus riding experience. As a result, the numbers of bus passengers have increased by between 25 per cent and 50 per cent compared to the previous year.

Development of a waterbus system to diversify public transport and encourage tourism

HCMC benefits from a 1,000km waterway network, based upon the poetic Saigon River and 112 other rivers and canals. To diversify public transport modes, help mitigate road congestion, and encourage tourism, the city has launched its first two waterbus routes

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Figure 20: The first waterbus route in Ho Chi Minh City

Development of non-motorized transport to will meet mobility demand of tourists and reduce private vehicle use public transport users within a radius of 3 km.

HCMC National University is the first university Improving the pedestrian environment town in Vietnam to put public bicycles into HCMC is famed for its CBD walking operation with new rental and sharing environment. Nguyen Hue (750m long) and Bui services. In 2018, the university introduced Vien (400m long) are walking streets at night, 2,000 bicycles to serve more than 60,000 with around 7,000 people arriving each students and lecturers in its campus town. The evening for shopping, entertainment, and bicycle system is managed and coordinated via social interactions, creating a charming, a smartphone application, and students dynamic, and tourism-oriented area. register an account with a monthly fee of 30,000 VND (US$1.5). The city also plans to The whole CBD is to be pedestrianized to deploy a rental bicycle system with 800 to improve the environment and enhance 1,000 bicycles at around 80 bicycle park connectivity to transit systems. he city has locations in its first phase. This bicycle service plans to develop a pedestrian-priority street network on weekdays and open fully walking streets at weekends, expanding the walking zones from Nguyen Hue street to Dong Khoi, Le Loi, and Ham Nghi streets to cover the area around Notre Dame Cathedral, the Central uses, such as shopping malls, offices, restaurants, hotels, sport centers, and museums.

Figure 21: Rental bicycle system at HCMC National University

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Nguyen Hue Walking Street Bui Vien Walking Street

Figure 22: Walking streets in HCMC’s central area

Figure 23: Pedestrian street network plan by 2025 in HCMC central area

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A way forward Finally, there are growing inequities linked to Social sustainability measures can create safety and clean air in Asian cities. Those inequities of access and opportunity, or can walking, cycling, and riding tend to breathe the disadvantage some groups over others. In worst air, and those living in some parts of the much of Asia, the most obvious aspect of social city may face more transport-based pollution sustainability reflects the social systems that than others. Above all, it is pedestrians and have sprung up around both mass transit and cyclists who suffer disproportionately from small-scale transport (three-wheelers, mini- traffic accidents. And the proportion of people buses). Tens of thousands of families depend whose personal security is threatened when on income from small transport operators, walking, cycling, or riding mass transit is higher both honest and shady. In Asia, three-wheeler than that of people who are travelling in their and conventional taxi drivers can be a strong own cars. force against transport reform towards larger, more efficient vehicles and lower emissions.

Equity of access is vital in developing socially sustainability transport. In some circumstances, congestion and poor access to transport can fall heavily on the poor or disadvantaged groups. This can be measured by differences in modal shares, travel times, travel ease, and travel costs that arise between rich and poor, men and women, handicapped and able, or private car/ two-wheeler users vs. those using other modes. Private vehicles can monopolize streets, with pedestrians, cyclists, and the handicapped having fewer and fewer safe choices for travel. Offering equal access to cars and other vehicles, as well as non- motorized transport, penalizes those who walk, cycle, or ride the bus – generally the economically weak. Since private vehicles are generally the privilege of the middle or upper classes, and public motorized transport is used mainly by the middle classes, this means that in rapidly urbanizing cities, the poor are left with fewer and fewer choices, making it more difficult for them when seeking employment. There may also be discrimination against women, who may face harassment on public transport or have less access to whatever mode is fastest or safest. In short, a transport system where affordable access is not assured for all is not sustainable, as such a system freezes some people out of the economic and personal development that transport access can bring.

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1.3 URBAN ROAD SAFETY towards meeting the targets identified in the plan of action through global status reports on Introduction road safety and other appropriate monitoring Social sustainability is the ability to ‘reflect a tools (World Health Organization, 2010). concern about the rights of individuals and communities to enjoy the pursuit of healthy Regional trends and challenges and socially rewarding lives, free from Based on WHO road safety data, one person is discrimination, danger, crime and anti-social killed in a road crash every 38 seconds in the behavior’. From the perspective of social Asia-Pacific region, with around 813,000 sustainability, transportation projects should fatalities in 2016, which accounted for 60 per enhance quality of life by ensuring safety and cent of the global fatalities. Many more people health to all road users, provide good access to sustain serious life-changing injuries, resulting key services, ensure equity between different in significant economic and social losses. It was community and generation groups as well as found that the majority of the survivors encourage citizen participation in decision experienced social and economic difficulty, making. The concept of social sustainability is while large numbers of victims lost their jobs relatively new although road safety and and nearly half of those who become disabled community severance have long been lost their homes. In addition, more than one- considered in transportation planning. third experienced divorce due to economic difficulties and mental frustration. Given the rise of motorized transport throughout the world in recent years, road The burden of road traffic deaths is accident analysis and prevention is now a disproportionately high among middle-income priority challenge for policy makers. In 2010, countries in relation to the size of their the United Nations (UN) General Assembly populations. Globally, the population of proclaimed the 2011-2020 period as “the middle-income countries accounts for 74 per Decade of Action for Road Safety” (Resolution cent of the world's population, and road traffic 64/255), with the aim of stabilizing and then deaths account for more than 78 per cent. The reducing the forecasted levels of road fatalities middle-income countries in the ESCAP region on a global scale (United Nations, 2010). To account for 93 per cent of the region's achieve this, the World Health Organization population but have more than 97 per cent of and the United Nations regional commissions, road traffic deaths. This indicates that middle- in cooperation with the United Nations Road income countries of the ESCAP region need Safety Collaboration and other stakeholders, more attention towards improving road safety. were asked to prepare a Plan of Action for the Between 2013 and 2016, in the ESCAP region, Decade as a guiding document to support the road traffic deaths reduced in 14 upper- implementation of its ambitious objectives, middle- and high-income countries, while only fostering road safety management expertise, seven lower-middle-income countries improving the safety levels of transport succeeded in reducing road crash deaths. networks and vehicles, influencing the For both globally and in the ESCAP region, the behavior of road users accordingly, and number of low-income countries is small, and enhancing post-crash responses. In addition, the high-income countries have smaller Resolution 64/255 invited the World Health populations, meaning middle-income Organization and the United Nations regional countries account for the largest proportion of commissions to coordinate regular monitoring, both population and road traffic deaths. The within the framework of the United Nations proportion of road deaths exceeds the Road Safety Collaboration, of global progress

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Figure 24: Proportion of population and road traffic deaths by income category- global and ESCAP region, 2016. Source: Global status report on road safety, 2016 proportion of the population, both globally sub-regions, the deaths of pedestrian ranges and in the ESCAP region. Motorcyclists, cyclists from 11 per cent to 37 per cent. The East and and pedestrians are collectively known as North-East Asia subregion had the highest “vulnerable road users” (VRUs). VRUs are at proportion of pedestrian road traffic deaths, more risk in traffic and have less protection with 37 per cent. The deaths of cyclists than car occupants. Road fatalities among worldwide and in the Asia-Pacific region were VRUs are a cause of serious concern in many relatively low, accounting for about 3 per cent countries. According to the WHO’s Global and 2 per cent of all deaths respectively. The Status Report on Road Safety (2015) 47 per deaths of cyclist in the ESCAP sub-region cent of the world’s road traffic fatalities involve ranges from 1 per cent to 10 per cent. The East VRUs. In Asia and the Pacific, road traffic and North-East Asia sub-region had the highest deaths among VRUs account for 55 per cent of proportion of cyclists’ road traffic death of 10 total road traffic fatalities. per cent.

Pedestrians, cyclists and motorized two- and The rapid increase in motorization, especially three-wheelers represented more than half of with motorcycles, cars, and trucks, has all global and Asia-Pacific region deaths. A resulted in an associated growth in the number significant number of deaths were among of traffic accidents. Up to 50 per cent of victims riders of motorized two- and three-wheelers, are not occupants of motor vehicles, but who represented 29 per cent and 39 per cent pedestrians or non-motorized vehicle users. of all deaths globally. The deaths of riders of Estimates for the ASEAN region estimate the motorized two- and three-wheelers in ESCAP annual economic losses from road accidents at sub-regions ranges from 5 per cent to 62 per 2.23 per cent of annual gross domestic cent. In both the South and South-West Asia product. Additionally, an indirect consequence region and the South-East Asia region, most of rapid motorization is that pedestrians and deaths were among riders of motorized two- cyclists increasingly must detour around and three-wheelers who represented 38 per motorized traffic to get where they are going, cent and 62 per cent of all deaths respectively. or risk fatal accidents while crossing traffic.

Globally, pedestrians represent 20 per cent of all deaths. Pedestrians make up 13 per cent of all deaths in the Asia-Pacific region. For ESCAP

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Figure 25: Distribution of road traffic deaths by type of road user, 2017. Source: WHO, 2018

Figure 26: Road traffic fatalities and fatality rate in ESCAP region. Source: Review of Developments in Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017

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The prevalence of motorcycles in urban deaths of riders of motorized two- and three- transport systems in developing cities raises wheelers are higher than other vulnerable serious safety concerns in at least two areas: i) road users, representing 29 per cent and 39 Motorcycles tend to drive cyclists off the per cent of all deaths globally. Injuries to the street, literally and figuratively. In a city such as head and brain are the main cause of death, Ho Chi Minh City, but also to varying extents in which is why helmet usage is so important for other Asian cities, the rapid growth of motorcycle riders. motorcycles has coincided with a rapid decline Global and regional goals. The Second Global in the use of bicycles. With more motorcycles, High-Level Conference on Road Safety held in cyclists are more likely to fall in the event of a Brasilia in November 2015 mapped a way collision. In the event of an accident, forward for global road safety that reconciled motorcyclists have little protection from the Decade of Action and the SDGs through the injury, especially in developing cities in Asia Brasilia Declaration. It includes 30 operative where road safety laws are often not enforced. paragraphs that recommend actions in the In Vietnam, for example, nearly 1,000 people following areas, each of which are related to are killed each month from road accidents, the the pillars of the Global Plan for the Decade of vast majority motorcyclists. Road traffic Action for Road Safety: accidents account for over 90 per cent of accidents in Vietnam (Road Toll Careers (a) Strengthening road safety Toward Last Year‘s Nightmare High, Vietnam management and improving News, 30 October 2002). legislation and enforcement; (b) Promote safer roads and the use of Speed is a key risk factor in road traffic sustainable modes of transportation; accidents, especially for vulnerable road users. (c) Protect vulnerable road users; A vehicle travelling at high speed will increase (d) Develop and promote the use of safer the risk of a crash and the severity of injuries. vehicles; Vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, (e) Increase awareness and build capacity cyclists, moped riders, and motorcyclists are of road users; particularly at risk of severe or fatal injury (f) (f) Improve post-crash response and during a collision. Most vulnerable road users rehabilitation services; have an 80 percent chance of being killed at an (g) Strengthen cooperation and impact speed of 50 km/h, but this risk is coordination towards global road reduced to 10 percent at a 30 km/h impact safety. speed. In a modern car, a car occupant wearing a seat belt has an 80 percent chance of being At the regional level, the Ministerial killed at an impact speed of 70 m/h in a side Declaration on Improving Road Safety in Asia impact crash, but this risk is reduced to 10 per and the Pacific, had the goal of saving 600,000 cent at a 50 km/h impact speed. Even small lives and preventing a commensurate number reductions in speed can result in substantial of serious injuries on the roads c between 2007 safety benefits to all road users. and 2015. An updated Regional Road Safety Goals and Targets for Asia and the Pacific 2016- Motorcycle helmet laws and enforcement are 2020 was adopted by Transport Ministers at also key elements. The number of both two- the Ministerial Conference on Transport held and three- wheelers motorcycles has increased in December 2016 in Moscow. Throughout the rapidly in many low-income and middle- 2010s, there was an aim to achieve a 50 per income countries. But they are more cent reduction in fatalities and serious injuries vulnerable due to less visibility in traffic and a on the roads of Asia and the Pacific. lack of physical protection. The road crash

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CASE STUDY: Regional Road Safety Goals and Targets for Asia and the Pacific 2016-2020

Goal 1: Making road safety a policy priority. How?

• create a road safety policy/strategy, designate a lead agency and implement a plan of action. • allocate sufficient financial and human resources to improving road safety.

Goal 2: Making roads safer for vulnerable road users. How?

• reduce by 50 per cent the pedestrian death rate in road crashes; and increase the number of safe crossings for pedestrians (e.g. With subway, overhead crossings or traffic signals). • make the wearing of helmets the norm; ensure minimum child safety measures, in order to reduce the child death rate by 50 per cent; equip all school children with basic road safety knowledge. • ensure safe transportation access to elderly people and persons with disabilities.

Goal 3: Making roads safer and reducing the severity of road crashes. How?

• integrate a road safety audit into all stages of road development. • increase separate/secure road space for pedestrians and cyclists in urban and suburban areas.

Goal 4: Making vehicles safer and encouraging responsible vehicle advertising. How?

• make regular inspection of road vehicles mandatory and ensure enforcement of inspection. • ensure safety requirements for new vehicles are in line with international standards.

Goal 5: Improving road safety systems, management and enforcement. How?

• accession/ratification and implementation of the United Nations instruments on road safety. • implement a national (computerized) database, including a mobile reporting system where possible, that provides information on road crashes. • aim to provide road safety at the stage of road network planning. • introduction of laws on use of helmets and seat belts, drink driving, mobile phones and speed limits. • allow alcohol tests for prosecution (breathalyzer and/or behavioral tests). • make it the general practice to keep motorcycle headlights on at all times. • increase responsiveness to post-crash emergencies and improve the ability of health and other systems to provide appropriate emergency treatment and early rehabilitation for crash victims. • apply new technologies in traffic management and intelligent transport systems, including navigation systems, to mitigate the risk of road traffic crashes and maximize response efficiency.

Goal 6: Improving cooperation and fostering partnerships. How?

• encourage and recognize initiatives sponsored by the private sector. • create new and deepen existing partnerships with non-governmental organizations.

Goal 7: Developing the Asian highway network as a model of road safety. How?

• reduce the total number of fatalities and road crashes on the Asian highway network. • reduce the number of fatalities on all Asian highway network segments. • increase resource allocation for measures related to road safety along the Asian highway network. • improve Asian highway network segments to be forgiving to road users if a crash occurs.

Goal 8: Providing effective education on road safety awareness. How?

• carry out targeted awareness campaigns and training programs. • introduction of policies to reduce work-related road traffic crashes.

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China India With the acceleration of urbanization and India accounts for almost 11 per cent global motorization, China's urban transport has road traffic deaths. Amongst the 199 countries gradually shifted from non-motor vehicle reported in World Road Statistics 2018, India traffic to fast-paced motorization. The ranks first in the number of road fatalities, resulting increase in the total number of motor leading to an almost 3 per cent loss in GDP per vehicle trips, the unreasonable design of road cent. infrastructure, and the fact that non- The number of RTAs between 2010 and 2018 motorized vehicle and bicycle travel spaces remained relatively stable, however the have been compressed, has led to an increase number of fatalities has been increasing. In of road traffic accident casualties. 2018 alone, there were 151,000 deaths in India In 2017, 36 major cities experienced an with 467,000 RTAs. The majority of victims (70 average of nearly 1,000 urban road traffic per cent) annually are working-class citizens accidents annually, with 141,000 people killed aged between 18 and 45. More than 60 per and 53,000 sustaining injuries. cent fatalities occur on National and State Highways, which comprise less than 5 per cent There are, however, differences in how the of the country’s total road network. Many of cities manage their own traffic safety schemes, these highways pass through or around a city. resulting in different numbers of accidents Despite low vehicle ownership, India has high across the country. In Shijiazhuang, Shanghai, RTA fatalities due to the presence of higher Hangzhou, Fuzhou, Changsha, Shenzhen, Xian, non-motorized trips and unsafe road Yinchuan, and other cities, the number of infrastructure (Mohan, Tiwari, & Bhalla, 2017). fatalities has been decreasing year-on-year. The number of accidents in Shanghai has In 2011, India's urban population was 31 per dropped by 22.56 per cent year-on-year, cent of the country's total population (this rose mainly due to the comprehensive rectification to an estimated 37 per cent in 2020). Road actions of illegal behavior of pedestrians, traffic accidents in urban areas range between bicycles, and motor vehicles 40 and 45 per cent of the total crashes (consistently over the past five years) and the share of fatalities ranges between 33 and 40

per cent (Road Accidents in India, 2018). The

600 500 498 490 486 489 501 481 500 465 467

400

300

200 135 142 138 138 139 146 150 147 151 100

0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Number of Crashes ('000) Fatalities ('000) Figure 27: Road Traffic Crashes and Fatalities trend in India. Source: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India

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8000 7580 7000 6515 6000 5000 4611 4000 3508 3434 3000 1690 2000 1260 698 692 686 1000 0 Chennai Delhi Bengaluru Bhopal Indore

Road Traffic Crashes Fatalities

Figure 28: Worst performing cities in terms of road safety in India (2018). Source: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India

million-plus cities comprising 42 per cent of and local traffic safety programs that have India's urban population have witnessed an been approved by the Government of the increase in road traffic crashes and fatalities Russian Federation. These polices have been between 2014 and 2018, similar to the national introduced alongside continuous trend. The top five cities are shown in Figure improvements to nationwide road conditions, 29. as well as the introduction of safer car models (which include active and passive safety Several states have made tangible measures). Tougher penalties for violations of interventions both into policy and into projects the Highway Code, the use of CCTV systems to on the ground. The Haryana Vison Zero Policy catch offenders, and improvements to traffic placed the matter of road fatalities at the management and control are all helping to center of the workings of state governments. make Russia’s urban roads safer and more Similarly, Delhi traffic police, in collaboration sustainable. with a range of organizations, have initiated CCTV-based speed monitoring at several spots Vietnam on Delhi roads. They also began Tactical Thanks to the implementation of policies and Urbanism trials during Road Safety Week in enforcements, the number of road crash January 2020. fatalities has reduced from around 13,150 deaths in 2007 to 8,125 deaths in 2018. Yet the Russian Federation country still has problems with its roads. The main governmental body responsible for Between 2009 and 2019, there were 326,299 the realization of state policy is the State road accidents, killing 97,721 people and Traffic Safety Inspection of the Ministry of injuring 329,756 people (MOS, 2019). The cost Interior Affairs of the Russian Federation of road accidents between 2015 and 2030 is (GIBDD, Traffic Police). Two federal programs, estimated to be around US$130 billion, making the Improvement of Road Safety in 2006-2012 up 2.9 per cent of total GDP (United Nation, and the Improvement of Road Safety in 2013- 2019). Despite lower fatality numbers, 2020. have led to reductions in the number of Vietnam has a higher dead toll than other people killed in road accidents. Federal, countries in Asia-Pacific region) (WHO, 2015). regional, and local programs are being developed to reduce the number of road accidents as well as damage and injuries caused. The federal law About Ensuring of Road Safety had led to the creation of regional

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Figure 29: Road crash fatalities in Vietnam (2001-2018). Source: NTSC, 2019

There is a clear gender split in the country: men 8,125 deaths in 2018. The government has also are involved in 85 per cent of all accidents, promulgated a zero-tolerance alcohol while women account for 15 per cent. The regulation (Decree 100/2019/ND-CP) since statistics also reveal that age may be an issue, January 2020 in an attempt to tackle drunk with 86 per cent of all accidents involving those driving (which contributed to 28 per cent of aged between 27 and 55. Urban roads account serious road crashes in 2009/2010). Compared for nearly 34 per cent of road fatalities, with to the first quarter of the year 2019, road many fatalities on national urban highways. crashes, fatalities and injuries have been Motorcycle users, meanwhile, contribute to 70 reduced by 9.7 per cent, 14.9 per cent, and per cent of total road crashes, followed by car 16.6 per cent, respectively (NTSC, 2020). users (27 per cent). A way forward The Vietnamese government has implemented Traditionally, road safety policies aim to a number of policies to improve road traffic reduce the likelihood of road crashes and their safety. In 2007, the government passed severities by improving road infrastructure; regulation stating motorcycle riders must wear educating road users, improving vehicle a helmet (Resolution 32/2007/NQ-CP). One technology, and enforcing well designed traffic year later the number of road fatalities rules. While these are important actions, dropped from 13,150 to 11,594. In 2008, a Law equally important should be a focus on the of Road Traffic was passed, and in 2011, the promotion of safer modes, such as public then Prime Minister issued a governmental transport, and by reducing exposure. Studies resolution to strengthen actions and programs show that cities and regions with less private for road safety and congestion mitigation car travel have lower rates of crashes and (Resolution 88/2011/NQ-CP). In 2012 the fatalities. Cities with high public transport Ministry of Transport formulated a National mode shares tend to have lower city-wide Strategy for Road Traffic Safety to 2020 and a traffic fatality rates. Sustainable forms of vision to 2030, comprising of solutions and urbanization (e.g. higher density and better policies related to safer infrastructure, safer street connectivity that allow for lower speeds) road users, safer vehicles, and better traffic can also improve road safety. safety management. These two policies have contributed to remarkable reductions in road fatalities, from 11,395 deaths in 2011 down to

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The safe system approach is at the core of the Plan of Action of the UN Decade of Action, which states that for all countries, whatever their level of development, the guiding principles are those included in the ‘safe system’ which state that:

(a) Human beings can make mistakes that can lead to road crashes. (b) The human body by nature has a limited ability to sustain crash forces. (c) It is a shared responsibility between stakeholders (road users, road managers, vehicle manufacturers, etc.) to take appropriate actions to ensure that road crashes do not lead to serious or fatal injuries.

ESCAP member countries are recommended to prioritize the improvement of vulnerable road user safety in their respective countries. In terms of road safety targets, ESCAP member countries that have not adopted a road safety target in line with the regionally and globally adopted road safety targets, are recommended to adopt an appropriate road safety target for the next decade.

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1.4 CONGESTION AND POLLUTION and cause health problems, while ozone near the ground can cause a number of health Introduction issues. It can irritate the respiratory system, Congestion in urban environments is a aggravate asthma and chronic lung diseases, complex phenomenon with many dimensions: and may cause permanent lung damage. demographic, social and economic characteristics, land use patterns, car- ownership, availability of public transport, “A city living on total automotive availability of parking, and urban freight dependence becomes dysfunctional, transport and goods delivery. These factors determine where people live and work, where inefficient and inconvenient for life. businesses locate, the location of different The goal of the transport system is to activities, and how people access these move people, not vehicles.” locations. These factors shape activity В. Vuchic, "Transportation for Liveable Cities patterns, which in turn generate a demand for travel. This demand results in traffic on the urban road network. When the volume of car traffic exceeds available capacity, congestion Noise pollution is also caused by traffic, arises. construction, industry, and some recreational activities. The external costs of noise in the EU The average percentage delay in 2013 amount to at least 0.35 per cent of its GDP and compared to the "free flow” situation in a are mostly caused by road traffic. This is sample of 58 EU cities ranges from 14 per cent equivalent to external costs of over €40 billion in Malmö (Sweden) to 39 per cent in Palermo per year. Noise has direct as well as indirect (Italy). In cities outside Europe the average health effects. Urbanization, a growing delays can be often higher. For example, in a demand for motorized transport, and sample of 22 Chinese cities the average delays inefficient urban planning are the main driving in 2013 were between 23 per cent and 56 per forces behind environmental noise exposure. cent; other average delays include cities like Rio de Janeiro (55 per cent), Mexico City (54 Regional trends and challenges per cent) and Sao Paulo (46 per cent). In 2016, Asian cities experienced severe traffic Transport is responsible for large proportion of congestions ranging from 30 to 50 per cent global emissions and congestion only (defined as an increase in overall travel times accentuates the impact. Air quality is an when compared to a free flow situation), with important element in ensuring the sustainable Bangkok (61 per cent), Jakarta (58 per cent) development of a city. Transport, industry, and Chongqing (52 per cent) having the worst power plants, agriculture, households and traffic jams. waste management all contribute to air Air quality has worsened because of the rise in pollution. According to the EEA Air Quality in transportation, even as authorities have forced Europe Report (2014), high levels of nitrogen reductions in emissions from fixed sources. dioxide exposure can lead to coughing and The main pollutants of concern are particulate shortness of breath and people who have matter (PM), especially PM10 and PM2.5, NOX, extensive exposure to NO2 for a long time have and hydrocarbons. Increasing NOX levels a higher risk of respiratory disease. contribute to an increase in ozone levels. The Additionally, particulate matter that is small rapid growth in the number of vehicles enough (PM2.5 and PM10) can enter the lungs explains why ambient air quality levels do not meet guideline values set by the World Health

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Organization (WHO), despite recent technical China improvements. A particular danger for Asia is According to a study by the Beijing Institute of that typically more than half of all trips are Transportation Development, about two- walking, cycling, or in open two- or three- thirds of Chinese cities experience congestion wheelers, resulting in an unusually high during morning and evening peak hours, of exposure of the mobile population to which 15 major cities are estimated to suffer emissions. daily traffic congestion, with nearly US$150 million lost every day As a result, local Air pollution in particular has a steep economic governments in China are actively taking cost, in addition to the staggering human cost. congestion management measurements as In China, India, and the 35 OECD countries the part of their comprehensive urban transport cost is estimated to be US$3.5 trillion annually governance. in terms of ill health and lives lost. Data from OECD countries shows that approximately half Zhejiang Province initiated a project to treat of that economic burden results from road urban transport congestion in 2012 at the transport pollution. While air pollution in OECD provincial level, uniting various departments in countries has fallen recently, in part due to terms of institutional mechanisms, project emission controls, there has been an increase advancement, and performance evaluation, in China and India as the growth in road traffic and promoted congestion management as the outpaces tighter emission regulations. mission of the city government rather than Reducing air pollution from transport and being a responsibility of the transportation other sources would clearly represent a boon department. The province adopted a three- to some of the largest economies in the world. level joint congestion control model at the

Figure 30: Traffic congestion in major cities in Asia. Source: Review of Developments in Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017

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provincial, municipal, and county levels, and an 2017, the total emission of four major annual congestion control plan was pollutants (CO, HC, NOx, PM) of motor vehicles formulated step by step. Various municipalities in China was 46.069 million tons and 43.597 have set up leading groups, with a mayor or a respectively. deputy mayor as the team leader, forming an An indicator of change might be China's integrated management structure of domination of the global electric vehicle (EV) departmental coordination. Zhejiang is the landscape. As of 2017, China was home to 40 first province in China to list congestion per cent of the world’s electric passenger cars, management as a livelihood project and with 1.2 million battery or plug-in hybrid EVs. include it in the performance evaluation of China also accounts for over 99 per cent of the officials. It also provides a useful reference for world’s 370,000 electric buses and the 250 other provinces and cities in China to promote million electric two-wheelers. China’s congestion management. sustained commitment to EVs is grounded in The Beijing Municipal Transportation their potential to improve air quality and Commission has set up a traffic congestion energy security. China’s air pollution is among release division to coordinate congestion the world’s most extreme, leading to 1.37 management work in the city. It releases an million premature deaths every year, and the annual traffic congestion mitigation action country depends heavily on oil imports. EVs plan and formulates a special responsibility list can address both these pressing issues. for congestion release. Jinan City, meanwhile, China’s NEV program has built domestic and has included congestion management in its international capacity to cost-effectively Thirteenth Five-Year Plan. In order to reduce produce EVs, paving the way for a more rapid congestion, the Traffic Commission of Jinan global uptake. By crafting regulation, providing City has set up a comprehensive traffic incentives, and offering technical support, management office to effectively and China’s national government has turned its efficiently solve congestion problems. cities into test beds for innovation and public As urban transport congestion becomes more procurement. and more serious, urban air pollution characterized by excessive PM2.5 emissions India and smoke has caused greater economic and In 2019, The Economic Intelligence Unit's social losses. According to the monitoring Global Livability Index measured 140 cities results of the Ministry of Environmental across the world on various parameters such Protection of China, in June 2013, the average as health, education, infrastructure, and the number of days when air pollutants exceeded environment. Only two Indian cities were th the standards in 74 cities accounted for 35.6 featured in the list: Delhi at 118 and Mumbai th per cent. The main source of air pollution in at 119 . Clearly, improved mobility and China is coal-fired pollution, with a cleaner air is important to the liveability of contribution rate of about 30 per cent. With urban areas. Congestion and pollution are two the maturation and development of major negative externalities associated with technologies such as desulfurization, transport, and both are prevalent in Indian denitrification, and alternative energy sources, cities. the contribution rate of coal-fired pollution is The congestion studies of a few megacities expected to drop below 20 per cent. With the highlight the impacts in terms of increased increase of vehicle ownership and other travel time, economic losses, and increased air factors, vehicle exhaust pollution will become pollution. The annual traffic congestion index the primary source of air pollution. In 2011 and

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Figure 31: Peak hour congestion (per cent extra travel time) in Asian cities. Source: Boston Consulting Group, 2018

(prepared by TomTom) o consisted of four of vehicles. A study in 10 cities on the amount cities from India amongst 416 cities from 57 of time spent by car drivers in different countries. Bengaluru topped the list followed conditions showed that about 10-26 per cent by Mumbai (4th), Pune (5th), and New Delhi of time is spent in idling, and 4-29 per cent of (8th) amongst the worst congested cities in time spent in speeds less than 5km/h (Sharma, 2019, with a congestion level above 56 per et al., 2018).The traffic congestion in these cent (Figure 32). These four cities also had cities is estimated to cost US$22 billion more than a quarter of the vehicle annually in form of fuel waste, air pollution, registrations amongst all Indian cities in 2016. traffic crashes, and productivity loss. Delhi pays the highest price for congestion at around A detailed study on traffic congestion was US$9 billion per year, which is 12 per cent of its conducted by the World Bank group in 2018 on GDP (Chin, et al., 2018) 154 large cities of India. The major finding was that slow movement of traffic in Indian cities The transport sector in India has become more throughout the day, even outside the normal road dominating as it accounts for over 80 per peak hours in morning and evening (Akbar, cent of passenger traffic and more than 60 per Couture, Duranton, & Ghani, 2018). The mean cent of freight traffic (Sharma & Kumar , 2016). travel speed across the Indian cities was found An air quality assessment of 20 Indian cities to be just 24.4km/h, probably on account of showed that nine complied with annual NOx NMT and mixed traffic. This can be compared standards (40 μg/m3) and all cities complied to a mean speed of 38.5km/h in Metropolitan with the SOx standards (50 μg/m3). However, cities of the US. The central parts of these cities all cities exceeded the PM standards. India is (especially the mega cities) experience even the second most severely affected country slower movement of traffic. The slowest cities from air pollution with more than 600,000 include Patna, Hyderabad and Varanasi (about deaths annually due to outdoor air pollution 18km/h). (Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure and Burden of Disease , 2016). Vehicle tailpipe emissions increase further in Indian cities due to the slow movement of traffic, congestion, and the poor maintenance

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Figure 32: List of the most polluted cities of world in 2018 (PM2.5 pollutant µg/m³). Source: World Health Organization, 2018

Air quality monitoring in India is still weak, with poorly maintained vehicles (20 per cent of all only 231 continuous monitoring stations. To be vehicles) are responsible for more than 60 per effective, it has been estimated that the cent of vehicular air pollution in India (Malik, country needs a network of around 2800 Dutta, Sitalakshmi, & Sharma, 2017). continuous air quality monitoring stations To tackle air quality issues, the Government of (Guttikunda, K, & Jawahar, 2019). The India (GoI) adopted an Auto Fuel Policy in 2003 contribution from vehicles can amount to which led to the introduction of cleaner fuels between 18 per cent and 45 per cent of all air and vehicles in Indian cities. Initially, 13 cities pollution (Figure 33). Many cities also lack a were selected to move to BS-IV norms strong vehicle inspection and maintenance (equivalent to Euro 6) by 2010, with the rest of program, as Pollution under Control (PUC) test the country due to follow. The policy led to a centers are mainly concentrated in larger reduction in premature deaths by 6,500 a year cities. Even in cities such as Delhi and and cumulative benefits of US$30 Billion Bengaluru, only 21 per cent and 10 per cent between 2000 and 2010 (Bansal & registered vehicles show up for testing Bandivadekar, 2013). However, major Indian respectively (Malik, Dutta, Sitalakshmi, & cities are still five years behind standards in Sharma, 2017). Meta-analysis has shown that Europe, with the rest of the country 10 years

Figure 33: Contributions of Particulate Matter in Indian Cities (2011). Source: Central Pollution Control Board, 2011

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CASE STUDY on congestion and pollution in Perm City

The large length of the city and uneven placement of business, commercial, and social infrastructure leads to a daily pendulum migration of people from the suburbs to the central city. The speed of vehicles during peak hours drops to 5-10kmph. In the Perm city agglomeration, about 38.4 per cent of roads and streets in rush hours are congested. In 2018, emissions from vehicles amounted to 77.5 per cent of total atmospheric pollutants. The city administration is examining how to reconstruct the urban road network to facilitate the withdrawal of traffic flows from the center to all directions. In recent years, bypasses of the city for transit traffic from the West and East sides have been built to allow traffic to move. Yet, these motorway links remain congested during rush hours and on weekends.

behind (Bansal & Bandivadekar, 2013). Newer “transport, poor urban road conditions, and BS-VI standards came into effect in April 2020. congestion” was the most cited concern (with 24 per cent of answers) ahead of issues such In 2019, the GoI adopted a National Clean Air important issues as migration (32 per cent), PT Programme (NCAP) with the aim to reduce operation (12 per cent), housing (10 per cent), particulate pollution 20 per cent by 2024. and public health (8 per cent). In 2018, the NCAP covers 102 Indian cities, with each total amount of vehicle emissions amounted to needing to submit a Clean Air Action Plan 15.1 million tons, or 47.2 per cent of pollutants focusing on steps to be taken by the city from all sources. authorities. Around 38 per cent of the action points were focused towards transport Although road transport is officially recognized (Guttikunda S. , 2018). as the largest source of air pollution in cities, the measures taken to improve environmental Russian Federation safety cannot be considered as sufficient. Since 2000, congestion has been one of the What is vital is improvements in the methods main public concerns in Russian cities. A 2013 for assessing the negative impact of transport opinion poll in Moscow suggested that on the environment and public health, and

Figure 34: Change of pollutant emissions from motor vehicles in the atmospheric air in the Russian Federation, 2005-2018 (thousand tons). Source: Rosprirodnadzor, 2018

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evaluations of the performance of existing administrative tools that encourage the use of transport systems and new infrastructures. To more environmentally friendly vehicles and do this, structures at the federal level (the transport technologies (such as ’green’ taxes Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology) and charges, implementation of low emission need to be developed by using scientific-based zones, encouraging electric vehicles). It is also methodological approaches for conducting very important to increase the liability for appropriate assessments. Also important is a violations of the law. Finally, national radical change in the system for technical legislation and local enforcement need to be inspection of environmental performances of introduced for the detection of exhaust gases vehicles, including changes to national after-treatment systems, with chip-tuning of legislation. At the federal and local levels, it is on-board computers in vehicles. necessary to introduce economic and

CASE STUDY: Environmental Transport Reform in Moscow

Over the past nine years Moscow has seen a reduction in vehicle emissions by around 218,000 tons. Pollutants have been reducing due to a combination of factors, including cumulative impacts in the environment performances of vehicles and reducing congestion. In 2019, around 65 per cent of Moscow’s fleet met environmental classes 4, 5, and higher (Greenpeace, 2019). Other factors include:

• 66 per cent public transport trips are made on electric modes; • Implementation of ITS and effective traffic management schemes; • Support for the ownership and use of electric vehicles • Restriction on the movement of trucks. • New parking fees; • Increase in cycling and walking; • Renewal of the entire transport fleet;

Figure 35: Electric bus in Moscow

In 2020, more than 300 electric buses were running in the city with further fleet expansions are planned. Full replacement of the traditional bus/trolleybus fleet is planned by 2030. Some 62 ultra-fast charging points have been installed for buses at terminal points. The city also takes advantage if its existing trolley bus network, as electric buses can use dynamic charging on the routes.

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Vietnam The majority (70 per cent) of air pollution in In HCMC and Hanoi, the central areas suffer cities is caused by motorized traffic. The quality from an average rush hour speed of just 7- of vehicles is worsening as most motorcycles 8km/h during rush hours. Along main roads in do not undergo emission control. In fact, HCMC, 60 per cent of total travel time is motorcycles account for 95 per cent of total attributed to delays at intersections (Arup & vehicular traffic. In 2016, around 60,000 Siemens, 2014). About 76 per cent of deaths were caused by air pollution (WHO, commuting people get stuck in traffic with 30 2018). Vietnam also entered the list of 20 minutes per day and 13 per cent are stuck for countries with the highest rate of pollution- two hours per day. The total waste time caused related deaths in the Western Pacific region, by congestion is about 160 million hours per with 75 deaths per 100,000 populations (HIME, year (Uber, 2017). Traffic congestion in HCMC 2017). Economic loss due to air pollution was estimated to have a direct cost of amounts to between $10.82 billion and $13.63 approximately $97 billion between 2015 and billion per year, equivalent to between 4.45 2045 (Arup & Siemens, 2014). In Hanoi, traffic per cent and 5.64 per cent of annual GDP congestion may cause the city an economic (Truong, 2020). loss of $600 million (Saigoneer, 2017). A way forward Vietnam is among the countries with the The transformation to sustainable transport lowest air quality index (AQI) and this is requires a redirection rather than any expected to fall even lower. Both HCMC and substantial increase in infrastructure Hanoi had more than 200 days in 2017 of air expenditure and can be realized through an quality that was polluted beyond the health annual investment of around US$2 trillion, standards set by the World Health similar to the current ‘business as usual’ Organization (WHO). In Hanoi, for example, spending of US$1.4 trillion to US$2.1 trillion. the total percentage of hourly average AQI measurements with moderate and healthy In urban areas, according to the New Climate limits were between 35 per cent to 55 per cent Economy Report by the Global Commission on during 2016-2017 (Thu & Blume, 2018). In the Economy and Climate, “more compact and cities, the concentration of dusts in the air at connected urban development, built around road junctions are three to five times higher mass public transport, can create cities that than the permitted standards, and the daily are economically dynamic and healthier and average concentration of CO and NO2 at big that have lower emissions”. The study finds road intersections has exceeded the that such an approach to urbanization could permissible standards by 1.5 times. reduce urban infrastructure capital

Figure 36: Comparison of hourly average AQI in Hanoi in 2016 and 2017. Source: Thu & Blume, 2018

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requirements by more than US$3 trillion over In addition, reducing road congestion would the next 15 years. translate into powerful economic benefits for many countries. Congestion is currently a These savings come from costs associated with tremendous burden on the economy, 2 to 5 the sprawl – expanded public services over per cent of GDP in Asia, and as high as 10 per larger areas, infrastructure to facilitate longer cent of GDP in some cities of emerging commuting distances, higher crash and economies, including Beijing, São Paulo, and pollution rates, and lower resource Lima). Public transport is central to reducing productivity rates –that is avoided with the road congestion and the associated costs in compact urban model. Looking at a longer cities. It also creates value for individuals, time horizon, the International Energy Agency businesses, and public authorities by has predicted that shifts to sustainable increasing the competitiveness of cities in transport patterns could save US$70 trillion terms of: economic strength, by allowing until 2050 in reduced spending on fossil fuels higher job density and productivity; human and lower capital investment and operational capital, by providing opportunities to build expenses related to vehicles and road competences and skills more quickly; physical infrastructure. capital, by supporting urban regeneration efforts; global appeal, and by increasing the attractiveness of the city for business and tourism; and quality of life by addressing congestion and improving public health.

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1.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENCE Cities account for more than two-thirds of energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) Introduction emissions. Given the role they play in climate Climate change has already taken hold in the change, a future in which cities work Asia-Pacific region. Higher temperatures, the intentionally to direct change should be re- rise in sea level, and extreme weather events thought and planned for. To address the are likely having a major impact on the region, challenge of reducing transportation-based increasing risks to economies and natural and emissions, cities need to promote car-free physical assets and potentially compounding alternatives such as public transit and active development challenges, including with transportation. New concepts of planning and respect to poverty, food and energy security, designing liveable cities are emerging that and health. Future climate change in the region encourage sustainable and active mobility and may cause more frequent and severe coastal accessibility, and which provide more vibrant inundation and erosion, salinization, wildfires, public spaces. heavy precipitation and drought. Climate Cities approach the challenge of reducing change is a long-term threat to future transportation-based greenhouse gas generations, and given the significant past emissions in different ways. Transit agencies growth in greenhouse gas emissions in the are experimenting with innovative region and the potential for an acceleration of technologies to increase ridership and that growth in the near future, it is vital that efficiency. On-demand bus hailing essentially Asia-Pacific countries take strong action to takes the algorithms and technologies that transition to more efficient, low-carbon underlie ride-hailing apps, and applies them to economies to avoid the worst impacts of public transit routes. In September 2017, climate change. A recent World Bank study Belleville (Ontario), replaced its night time bus estimated that without further climate change service on some low ridership routes with an adaptation and mitigation action, climate on-demand bus-hailing system. The pilot saw change could force more than 100 million an increase of 300 percent in ridership, while people into extreme poverty by 2030, many in the number of kilometers driven per vehicle the Asia-Pacific region. declined by 30 percent. The transport sector is the fastest growing Sometimes, work-arounds are needed in order contributor to CO2 emissions and is the largest to test emerging transportation options. For global user of energy (36 per cent). It was the example, autonomous vehicles are not allowed second-largest source (24 per cent) of CO2 on public streets in New York. An autonomous emissions worldwide in 2015. In particular, vehicle pilot running on private roads in the CO2 emissions from the transport sector Brooklyn Navy Yards is an opportunity to test increased by 68 percent between 1990 and the technology, build public trust in driverless 2015, with the road sector accounting for 75 cars, and prepare for a possible future in which percent of transport emissions in 2015. In this self-driving cars are permitted to operate on context, the EU aims to reduce greenhouse gas public streets. emissions to 80 to 95 per cent lower than the 1990 levels by 2050 and significantly reduce its transport system's dependence on oil-based fuels without sacrificing its efficiency and compromising mobility.

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Figure 37: Climate change in Asia - Pacific, 2014. Source: ADB, 2017

Regional trends and challenges and others, 2019), and widespread drought Urbanization and climate change intersect to will disrupt and stress human habitats (World create and exacerbate other shocks and Bank, 2018). . The Fifth Assessment Report of stresses. Climate modelling and economic the IPCC shows that current trends of forecasting suggest that more catastrophic greenhouse gas emissions will result in further events are on their way. Under current warming and long-lasting changes in climate projections by the Intergovernmental Science systems, increasing the likelihood of severe, Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem pervasive and irreversible impacts on people Services (2019), catastrophic ecosystem loss and ecosystems, putting the achievement of all will disrupt food supplies, increasing heat and Sustainable Development Goals into question floods will force mass migration to cities (Abel (IPCC, 2014a). The region’s economic model exposes cities to multiple stresses. Despite the economic success of the region, it has never been so unequal, with 40 per cent of countries experiencing soaring inequality, despite a huge expansion in wealth over the past 20 years (ESCAP, 2018b, ppxiv). This rush to growth has clear impacts on the ability of Governments to build meaningful resilience approaches. Spatial inequality plays out within cities as high-rise condominiums take precedence over social Figure 38: Greenhouse gas emissions in the Asia-Pacific housing and as elevated highways are chosen region (million tonnes of CO2 equivalent), 2010. Source: over shared green space. The physical UN ESCAP (2019). Using Smart Transport Technologies to manifestations of these choices leave the Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Transport Sector in Asia and the Pacific region’s cities particularly exposed to socioeconomic disruption.

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Figure 39: Impacts of climate change in the Asia-Pacific region. Source: The Future of Asian and Pacific Cities 2019: Transformative Pathways Towards Sustainable Urban Development.

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Resilience Pacific cities, special attention should be given Since 2005, the Asia-Pacific region has to urban resilience. Extensive resilience recorded almost 60 per cent of total global activities have already taken place, from a deaths, 80 per cent of affected people, and 45 number of cities that have tasked high-ranking per cent of total economic damage due to city officials with this cross-cutting topic to climate disasters. Currently, over 500 million those that have prepared resilience strategies poor people are living at medium or high and climate action plans. Major shocks and disaster risk. Disasters in the region are stresses are likely to afflict the region in the becoming more complex, often tending to coming decades, from natural disasters, , an affect multiple countries, and bring about economic reliance on single industries in the cascading impacts. Many of these disasters are face of the “Fourth Industrial Revolution”, and transboundary in nature, such as floods, the an ageing population set to follow the greying impacts of El Niño, droughts, tropical cyclones, trends of Japan and the Republic of Korea. earthquakes, tsunamis, and sand and dust Resilience has become an essential tool in storms. For instance, the 2015-2016 El Niño urban governance. It comprises a set of affected entire swathes of the Asia-Pacific strategies that improve policy efficacy, region, including South Asia, South-East Asia infrastructure implementation, project design, and the Pacific. There is scope for program delivery, and urban planning across strengthened regional cooperation in relation multiple levels of decision-making and to specific hazards such as transboundary river community action. Good resilience practices basin floods, flash floods, glacial lake outburst inherently bring together diverse stakeholders floods, and landslides. such as government institutions, communities In the light of the uncertain environmental, and businesses, and operate at various levels social, and economic future facing Asian and from the local to the regional to the national.

Figure 40: Major resilience characteristics that should be built in as part of an urban resilience solution. Source: The Future of Asian and Pacific Cities 2019: Transformative Pathways Towards Sustainable Urban Development.

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The great challenge of resilience is that it is still supporting and guiding the urban system, a relatively abstract concept to many decision- strengthening the agglomeration effect of makers in Asia and the Pacific. Due to its multi- public transportation hubs on core cities and sectoral nature, resilience is still difficult to important regions, highlighting composite land frame and it is relatively complex to use with rail transit stations at the core, and understand how it differs from more classic promoting functional integration and layout public policy tools. In parallel, the concept optimization to reduce the travel distance of suffers from the ’catch-all syndrome’, by which residents. resilience seems to cover every aspect of urban Mobility resilience: Walking and cycling lanes governance and as a result suffers from a together constitute a slow transport system in paralysis whereby it ends up covering nothing the city. It is necessary to accelerate the at all. The region must recognize the significant construction of a continuous and safe active practice experience upon which it has to draw. transportation network to ensure the road This experience is imperfect, but clearly points rights of walking and cycling. Through the way to groups that need to be taken into humanized and refined street and traffic the ’big tent’ of multilevel governance: co- design it is possible to create a green creating solutions with the private sector is key transportation environment that can facilitate to finance, design, collaborate, and lead urban life without driving. In Guangzhou and resilience-building in the region. C14 Shanghai, walking passages and non-motor China vehicle parking spaces have been set up near There are a number of key themes in which rail transit stations and public activity centers resilience is being deployed in Chinese cities, to form a Bike and Rail (B + R) system. covering climate, transportation, mobility, and Hangzhou, Zhuzhou, and Wuhan encourage general safety. the healthy and orderly development of shared bicycles. Beijing proposes to increase Climate Resilience: In 2015, the State Council the proportion of urban green travel to more of China initiated the construction of ‘Sponge’ than 75 per cent by 2020 and not less than 80 cities, a pilot program emphasizing the use of per cent by 2035. Shanghai hopes that by 2035 green and ecological ‘flexible’ facilities and the proportion of green travel will reach 85 per focused on effective connections with cent. traditional ‘rigid’ facilities. Through the preservation and restoration of urban Safety Resilience: As the complexity and risk vegetation, wetlands, pits, and streams, the increases rapidly in urban transport networks, ‘blue’ and ‘green’ space of the city can be it is necessary to accelerate and improve public significantly increased, the urban heat island emergency systems, strengthening the safety effect can be reduced, and the general living management of each process of urban environment is improved. planning, design, construction, and operation. In particular, with regard to the operational Transportation resilience: The transit- safety of urban rail transit system, China has oriented development model (TOD) is a land- issued guidelines, regulations, and a series of use model that aims to create organic national technical standards to guide local integration of transportation and land use for actions in newly opened urban rail transit urban construction. It is one of the basic operations. modules of resilient cities. Most Chinese cities are exploring transport development paths guided by TOD, paying attention to public transportation composite corridors in

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India rapidly unless stringent policy interventions The transport sector in India accounts for are applied. about 28 per cent of total energy consumption Urban India has been at the forefront of the and is mostly dependent on oil with a less than climate issue as the per capita carbon 5 per cent share of CNG and electric vehicles emissions in cities are nine folds higher than (Energy Security Outlook: Defining a secure the rural counterparts (Aziz, 2018). Figure 42 and sustainable energy future for India, 2015). shows that a quarter of CO2 emissions in India A major share of this consumption is due to in the transport sector comes from cities. over-dependence on road transport which Meanwhile, the share of trips catered by the accounts for nearly 80 per cent of the transport vehicles in urban India (including public demand and 94 per cent of the total transport transport) is just 11 per cent of national energy demand in India (Singh, MIshra , & passenger trips. Public transport systems, with Banerjee, 2018). This is further bolstered by their limited availability in Indian cities, have a the declining share in railway traffic and the lower carbon footprint. Medium to small sized emergence of low-cost airlines providing cities such as Ludhiana and Coimbatore have a passenger transport services. To make it larger per capita carbon footprint than mega worse, most energy consumption is of the cities such as Kolkata and Mumbai (Reddy & highly polluting diesel, which is used by 70 per Balachandra, 2010). These small/medium sized cent of the country's vehicle fleet cities have witnessed an increasing number of (Ramanathan & Sundar, 2014). New emission private vehicles and suffer from a lack of norms, along with natural gas for the vehicle adequate public transportation systems. fleet, were introduced between 2011 and2014. However, due to a rapid increase in Russian Federation vehicle numbers, increasing trip rates and The Government of the Russian Federation has distances, and degrading public transport approved (Order No. 3183-R of December 25, systems, the overall emissions are still 2019) a ‘National action plan for the first stage increasing. These numbers will continue to rise of adaptation to climate change for the period up to 2022’. This is the first suite of measures to adapt the economy and the population to climate change and includes institutional, organizational, and methodological measures aimed at forming state approaches to climate change adaptation. It defines organizational and normative measures which will be introduced over the next three years, in which sectoral and regional adaptation plans should be developed. The plan involves the development of a standard ‘climate security passport’ of the Russian Federation by the end of 2020, which will analyze existing and future climate trends. While the plan does not give clear instructions to regional authorities about the necessary actions and their procedures, it does call for projects to include overviews of Figure 41: Share of CO2 Emissions (in MT). Source: Low the needed funding mechanism and for an Carbon Pathways for Urban Development and Mobility in India, 2018

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CASE STUDY: The Moscow Tram analysis for what is actually needed in the regions. 8 Since 2012, the Moscow City Government has taken significant steps Climate change brings a number of unique to modernize the existing tram network problems to the Russian Federation, including: to reduce congestion and tackle air and • Changes in the ice conditions in the noise pollution. The network of the Northern Sea Route water area and its Moscow Tram is 418km) and is served by impact on sea navigation and sea port 41 routes with a daily passenger flow of infrastructure functioning up to 850,000 people. The share of • Threats to transport infrastructure due to dedicated tram tracks has been the melting of permafrost; increased from 55 per cent to 88.6 per • Changes in the conditions of ’winter cent, including through the separation of delivery’ (products, cargo) to settlements markings and road signs, the in the far north due to changes to ‘winter effectiveness of which has proven to be roads’ (ice roads along riverbeds) and ice comparable with separation by side crossings. stones at a much lower cost. Despite this, reducing the vulnerability of All routes have been shifted onto a urban transport systems to climate change is predictable time schedule with intervals not currently the focus of city and regional agreed on common areas, which has administrations or transport authorities. It is reduced actual rush hour intervals from more usual that scenarios aimed to tackle 5-35 minutes to 3-8 minutes. emergency situations are only developed and deployed once extreme weather or climate conditions are actually experienced or fully predicted.

Vietnam Endowed with a very long coastal line of 3,260 km long, Vietnam is considered one of the 30 countries at ‘extreme risk’ by the Climate Change Vulnerability Index. HCMC, Can Tho, Da Nang, and other coastal cities are vulnerable to sea level rises and storm surges. Figure 42: The Moscow City Tram If sea levels rise just one meter, about 19,000 The daily passenger flow of the entire km of roads (or 12 per cent of existing road tram network has increased by more stocks) would be destroyed, at a cost of than 50,000 per day since 2012. By 2023 $2.1billion. The Mekong River Delta region is the Moscow tram park will be the most vulnerable, with 10 of the most completely renovated with low-floor affected provinces located in the region and tram cars adapted for passengers with where 77 per cent of road infrastructure is low mobility, some of which will support likely to be destroyed (Chinowsky et al., 2015). the possibility of working in autopilot

mode.

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Figure 43: Provincial road damages from one-meter sea level rise estimated through 2050. Source: Chinowsky et al., 2015

Figure 44: Vietnam’s government resolution on climate change with measures towards 2050. Source: IIED, 2015

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In HCMC, 60 per cent of its land area lies in a cities, including big cities (Hanoi and HCMC), floodplain and 45 per cent is less than a meter medium cities (Hai Phong, Da Nang, and Can above sea level. The city is highly exposed to Tho), and small or provincial cities. The fluvial, pluvial, and tidal flooding. During the objectives are to reduce flood risk in urban rainy season, around 110,000 hectares and core areas, improve connectivity between city nearly one million people (12 per cent of the centers and new low-risk urban growth areas, total population) suffer from flooding. Future and enhancing the capacity of city authorities extreme flooding will mean 187 km of railways, to manage disaster risk. Can Tho city, for 33km of monorails, and 36km of planned instance, has been spent US$80million on metro lines would be located in anticipated urban corridor development. The city has flood zones (Arup & Siemens, 2014). As rapid focused on transport investments to increase urbanization is pushing the city to develop intra-city connectivity and encourage compact, further into low-lying ground and flood zones, mixed-use, pedestrian, and public transport settlement sprawling makes communities oriented urban development in the less flood more vulnerable to the effects of climate prone areas, increasing transport-related change. efficiencies and reducing transport costs.

The government has issued a number of policy A way forward measures for the prevention of and adaptation Recasting the role of nature and natural to impacts of climate change. Vietnam ratified systems is starting to play an important role in the United Nations Framework Convention on urban resilience. Planning tools aligned under Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994 and the the Paris Agreement or Sendai Framework Kyoto Protocol in 2002. Since then, the provide critical normative frameworks, while government has instituted national policy development banks provide a pipeline of measures. The National Target Program needed infrastructure that helps Governments Responding to Climate Change (NTP-RCC) was build urban resilience. Along those lines, approved in 2008, followed by the more micro, low-tech and nature-based approaches comprehensive National Strategy on Climate are becoming increasingly important as Change (NCCS; Decision No. 2139) in 2011. The resilience practitioners recognize the lower Party Central Committee’s Resolution No. cost of leveraging ecosystem services to 24/NQ-TW on climate change in 2013 is the protect cities against resource depletion and latest and the highest legal document that extreme weather. Recent experience has also expresses Vietnam’s political will to address highlighted how these options are often more climate change issues, and aims to proactively effective at supporting the urban poor. In respond to climate change through a series of Colombo, the city government recently measures to be implemented towards 2050 decided to integrate wetlands into the city’s targets (IIED, 2015). development plan following increased flash- flooding events in rapidly expanding urban Billions have been spent across the country areas. After the city identified that 40 per cent over the last decade to enhance flood of local wetlands had been degraded or paved prevention and urban connectivity. As over, it was decided that 2,000 hectares would Vietnam’s cities expands and ever more people be completely safeguarded from development inhabit low-lying and floodplain areas, the bill (Ranghieri, 2018). C14 for protecting the city’s assets will continue to rise (Arup & Siemens, 2014). With international support, such as from the World Bank, urban development and resilience Speed, however, is key for efforts to increase projects have been implemented in various urban resilience in the era of climate change.

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For mitigation, the challenges from delayed actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions include the risk of cost escalation, locked-in carbon-emitting infrastructure, stranded assets, and reduced flexibility in future response options (IPCC, 2018). For adaptation, delayed action in the present may reduce options for climate-resilient pathways in the future, with current failures to address the effects of emerging climate stressors already eroding the basis for sustainable development and offsetting previous gains (Denton and others, 2014). Delay comes with huge penalties, not just in the increasing financial costs, but by making the problems even harder to solve: delay today means even greater, faster solutions will be needed tomorrow (Steffen, 2016a). Therefore, to avoid the disastrous impacts from shocks and stresses that are not under one’s control, speed must be embraced and fundamental, well-thought- out changes to urban systems that are both rapid and disruptive must be pursued (Steffen, 2016b). The region’s cities should keep the following maxim in mind: “Winning slowly is the same as losing” (McKibben, 2017).

Technological disruptors, such as automation, digitization and the knowledge economy, might offer an opportunity to gain some speed but also pose challenges. As globalization has brought significant growth, it has also augured rapid technological changes that have major implications for urban resilience. There is keen interest among private sector actors and Governments on the possible impacts that technology, in particular automation, will have on the future of work (ESCAP and ADB, 2018). Mechanization and digitization are expected to disrupt economic growth, with significant implications for urban areas of the Asia-Pacific region (World Economic Forum and ADB, 2017).

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1.6 DIGITAL CITIES AND SERVICES TO USERS start with people, not technology. ‘Smartness’ Introduction is not just installing digital interfaces in Cities are facing both promises and pitfalls traditional infrastructure or streamlining city brought by the digital revolution. Improving operations. It is about using technology and Internet and smartphone penetration has data purposefully to make better decisions and enabled unprecedented access to information deliver a better quality of life. Quality of life has and the ability to connect individuals. The vast many dimensions, from the air residents amount of data generated in real time across breathe to how safe they feel walking the the urban environment provides the ability to streets. Dozens of digital applications are understand and respond more effectively and trying to address these kinds of practical and promptly to challenges in cities. Mobile web very human concerns. access for services such as ride sharing has triggered a lifestyle shift in cities. E-hailing and While smart solutions have the potential to food delivery apps have created job facilitate improved urban performance, they opportunities with greater flexibility. These are no panacea to all the problems that cities technological shifts are transforming the way face. If not planned or governed well, smart people connect with one another, conduct solutions can cause just as many problems as business, provide services, and live their lives they set out to address. For example, in cities. For city leaders, technological surveillance systems incorporate advanced advancement offers numerous opportunities facial recognition software and CCTV which can address urban challenges and help applications in an attempt to strengthen public them make informed decisions effectively. security, optimize traffic, service city management and innovate social governance. After a decade of trial and error, municipal However, the systems have generated leaders are realizing that smart city strategies controversy and concerns over citizen privacy

CASE STUDY: Smart Cities and Privacy

In 2017, Sidewalk Labs won a proposal to develop a 12-acre section of Toronto’s eastern waterfront. The proposal left open the possibility to develop as many as 800 acres of the city’s Port Lands area in the coming years. Originally seen as a tool for addressing affordability and transportation issues in the city, the Quayside was meant to be one of the world’s first ‘smart cities’, drawing on environmentally conscious design and emerging technologies to “accelerate urban innovation and serve as a beacon for cities around the world”. Sidewalk Labs intends to build 2,500 housing units, nearly half of which will be under market value. Despite initial public support for the project, the Quayside has been dogged by fears of data harvesting, privacy concerns, and an overall lack of transparency.

Roger McNamee, an early investor in Facebook and Google, is co-founder of Silver Lake Partners, one of the world’s largest technology investors. “No matter what Google is offering, the value to Toronto cannot possibly approach the value your city is giving up,” he wrote. “It is a dystopian vision that has no place in a democratic society.” He warned that technology companies such as Google cannot be trusted to safely manage the data they collect on residents. “The smart city project on the Toronto waterfront is the most highly evolved version to date of… surveillance capitalism”, he wrote to the city council, suggesting Google will use “algorithms to nudge human behavior” in ways to “favor its business”.

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(Cassiano, 2019). Consequently, smart digital divide to the need to regulate the use of technologies and data do not remove the need technology in order to protect citizens’ privacy. for good planning, governance, financial The use of information and communication management, and smarter use of existing data technologies (ICT) to improve efficiency and sets. These are essential safeguards to ensure safety of transport operation is often referred that people are at the heart of smart cities. as Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). The Regional trends and challenges most common use of ITS are traffic regulation The 21st Century’s digital revolution has and management, providing real-time travel undeniable implications for cities. Asian and information to users to assist with route Pacific cities have been at the forefront of planning, ticketing, toll collection, and adopting smart city key performance electronic payments. ITS can provide indicators and plans, as has been done in Goris, assistance to driver and vehicle control Armenia, which combined new technologies through interactions between highway with new forms of collaboration to manage city systems, vehicles, and the driver. The use of services, such as the ASEAN Smart Cities appropriate ITS technology can improve Network. The region is a hub of both tech- vehicle and infrastructure safety, make road savvy citizens, characterized by high levels of transport safer, faster, less polluting, more smartphone penetration and centers for high- energy efficient, and cheaper. tech industries, such as the start-up culture of Some countries in the Asia-Pacific region have Bengaluru, India’s answer to Silicon Valley. emerged as world leaders in testing and However, there are also potential limitations deploying advanced transport technologies, and drawbacks of an overreliance on but many countries are still in the early stages technology, from a failure to address the of adopting ITS while others have yet to initiate the transition towards ITS. A major challenge

Figure 45: ITS short- and long-term goals in four major areas Source: Guidelines for the regulatory frameworks of intelligent transport systems in Asia and the Pacific, UN ESCAP, 2019

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to adoption of ITS is the lack of adequate of information and services also transforms the regulatory frameworks. Its effectiveness notion of ’accessibility’. Even among urban depends not just on physical infrastructure and dwellers, most of the unconnected population technologies, but also requires a are from low-income households, the socially comprehensive regulatory framework that venerable, and publicly unengaged groups defines the roles and responsibilities of the such as the elderly, young children, the public and private sectors as well as the R&D illiterate, the disabled, and the unemployed. community in ITS development and operation. There must be measures to humanize technology, whereby feedback channels, Accessibility citizen participatory processes, and timely Automation and the digital revolution are responses to requests contribute to shaping pushing a diverse set of demographic and inclusive smart solutions. No universal social changes that are having impacts on the guidelines, however, currently exist. resilience of economies, societies, cities, Traffic Management communities, and households. While rural- With growing urbanization, many urban migrants would previously have tried metropolitan areas have tried to set up Traffic their luck in the city without a job or housing Management Centers (TMCs) to handle traffic offer, social media and mobile connectivity issues. The basic functions of a TMC includes means that migrants ( an increasing number of real-time detection, traffic monitoring, whom are women) are more easily able to find adaptive traffic signal and control a job, housing, and a social network as well as management, and wireless communications send remittances home, all using their phones for maximizing the capacity of roadway (Engblom, 2018). networks, minimizing the impact of incidents Besides the lack of proper legal institutions to to users, and proactively managing traffic govern these new service models, digitization flows. A TMC pursues security and redundancy

CASE STUDY on digitalization of transport functioning in Moscow

Surface public transport in Moscow has adopted ITS with the use of communications technology to manage passenger transportation, monitor urban traffic (by using the national satellite system GLONASS) and allowing for more timely and detailed passenger information for Figure 46: Car Rental in Moscow travelers. Various highlights include:

• Implementation of ‘Mobility as a Service’, with five mobile apps dedicated to transport: (with 7.5 million downloads in 2019). • At the end of 2019, the Velobike sharing scheme had 5,300 bicycles in Moscow, located at 530 rental stations covering 43 per cent of the city, with 1.5 million registered users. • All rolling stock of the SUE Mosgortrans accept contactless fare payment • More than 2,700 bus pavilions are equipped with on-line displays, Wi-Fi, ticket machines, USB-plugs, and navigation. • Moscow currently leads the world in car sharing with nine operators having 31,000 cars at their disposal. In 2019, there were 47 million car sharing trips.

responding timely to traffic issues, influencing achieve MaaS. However, the introduction of the operation of traffic signals, disseminating ride sharing mobility services in urban areas is timely/accurate information, and interacting challenging the balance between private and with other transport modes and agencies. public transport. The use of mobile applications has enabled private operators to Connected and Autonomous Vehicles easily reach customers, collect data, and learn It may be still some time before autonomous from the usage of the service. Mostly, vehicles, also called ‘self-driving’ or ’driverless’ operators can work in isolation, which is vehicles, take to the roads, but vehicles are disruptive and not sustainable at scale. already ‘talking’ to each other as they speed Mobility services operators do not follow a along highways and are alerting drivers to specific strategy prior to activating a service prevent collisions. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), but undergo a process of trial and error in an Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), and Vehicle-to- attempt to attract demand, however, they Everything (V2X) are emerging ‘smart could provide a useful asset for the public transport’ technologies that enable moving transport sector, extending the catchment vehicles to communicate with each other as area of services and acting as feeders for fixed well as with road infrastructure and other scheduled public transport. objects in order to improve traffic safety and travel convenience. In Asia and the Pacific, Singapore is implementing the smart mobility concept. Autonomous vehicles, connected vehicles Beeline is a smart mobility platform based on (V2V, V2I and V2X), and Mobility as a Service the open cloud, which offers demand-based (Maas) platforms that promote seamless shuttle bus services for commuters through connectivity are being tested and adopted in data analysis tools. Users can reserve seats on China, Seoul, Singapore, and Tokyo. Advanced buses registered by private bus companies and multi-lane, free- flow toll gates are being used find the location of the buses with suggested in Turkey while Vietnam is using ‘black box’ travel routes. Singapore has been developing cruise control safety systems. A number of the concept of Mobility-on-Demand (MoD) as countries in the region are using cutting-edge one of the solutions to the first-and-last mile technologies to facilitate smooth traffic flow, problem. keep travelers updated with trip traffic information, and automatically collect tolls. Big data Whether or not autonomous vehicles live up to Mobility as a Service (MaaS) their promise, most city dwellers circulate on Recent changes in technology, socio- public transport now and will continue to do so demography, and user behavior are helping a in the future. Data that reveals behavioral move towards multimodal transport services – patterns can provide rich insights for transport combining existing transport modes. MaaS planners to enhance mobility services to serve offers a seamless service across all existing residents’ needs. For example, many Seoul transport modes by providing customized trip residents travel the city at night, such as information and services. MaaS is expected to students, small business owners, and night- provide cost-efficient mobility options to shift sanitation workers (Seoul Solution, 2014). users, thus reducing expenditures associated Pre-existing night bus routes, typically with personal vehicle purchase and designed based on an empirical understanding maintenance. of the desired origins and destinations of night Flexible demand mobility services and shared mobility are presented as the way forward to

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CASE STUDY on innovation and cities

Helsinki, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, the Paris Region, Stavanger, and Tallinn have all been announced as being part of AI4Cities, a three-year EU-funded project bringing together leading European cities looking for artificial intelligence (AI) solutions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and meet climate commitments.

Through AI4Cities, these cities and regions will go through a Pre-Commercial Procurement (PCP) process, an innovation procurement tool that enables the public sector to steer the development of new solutions directly towards its needs. First, the buying authorities will define the needs and requirements for solutions in the energy and the mobility fields that they would like to see developed in order to move towards carbon neutrality. Then, they will challenge start-ups, SMEs, bigger companies, and other relevant stakeholders to design innovative solutions applying the use of AI and related enabling technologies, such as 5G, Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, and big data applications.

AI4Cities is a living example how sustainability and innovation go hand in hand, providing practical open-source solutions to the challenges ahead using the tangible tool of public procurement. travelers, did not adequately serve the travel travel time on roads with automated traffic needs of these residents. Taxis were the only signal controlled by City Brain has been option, but they also charged late-night fees reduced by three minutes. The system has now and sometimes refused to take passengers or moved beyond coordinating traffic signals and illegally demanded overpriced fares. Cell has begun to automatically detect road phone data were overlaid with taxi ride data accidents and illegal parking, facilitating more for planners to understand the pattern of effective municipal responses to potential traffic demands and to plan the new night bus gridlock triggers. The City Brain system will routes that best serve the travel needs of soon be applied in Kuala Lumpur and several people. other cities (Beall, 2018). By contrast, the system has been criticized for its adherence to Artificial Intelligence privacy protection. Real time sensors coupled with big data analysis can prove effective traffic China management tools even if they raise major Construction of the ‘digital city’ has been privacy concerns. Chinese e-commerce giant proceeding since 2006, with a key component Alibaba developed a cloud-based system called being advances in transportation, and can be City Brain in its headquarters city of Hangzhou. highlighted through three features. First, The integrated platform deploys artificial through congestion monitoring of the intelligence to gather traffic data from the network. Second, monitoring the status and transportation bureau, video footage from dynamic operator of public transport. And traffic cameras, location data of buses and cars third, monitoring passenger flow. These three from GPS and many others to learn traffic factor can help government decision makers flows at more than 1,000 locations (Toh and make plans, assist operators for optimize Erasmus, 2019). With an arrangement in place operation plans, and make it possible for that ensures the public sector retains passengers to get travel information from ownership of citizen data, in 2016 the city smart mobile phones. permitted Alibaba to control 104 traffic signals in the Xiaoshan district (Beall, 2018). Average

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National level actions include formulating the Smart Cities mission, unlike AMRUT (the information development policies, deploying Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban network constructions and platform Transformation) which will be driven by urban constructions, and formulating and issuing local governments (MoHUA, 2015). (Ahluwalia, relevant national standards. An inter- 2019). ministerial coordination working group for new smart cities was established to jointly Russian Federation develop an evaluation index system and Country leaders pay great attention to the strengthen the policy release of various digital transformation of the economy in departments. To be successful, it is necessary general and the transport sector in particular. to integrate and further develop big data, the Since 2017, Russia has been implementing the digital economy, Internet plus, and smart city Targeted State Program ‘Digital Economy’, of tools to strengthen top-level designs and which developments towards smart cities play urban planning to form multi-faceted and a large part. In December 2018, the country multi-field collaborative working practices. adopted the National Project ‘Digital Economy of the Russian Federation’ which guides plans In 2019, MOHURD issued Technical Standard up to 2024. The key goals include: for the Urban Comprehensive Management and Services Platform. This draft standardized • To increase internal expenditure on the functions of the urban integrated the development of the digital management service platform in terms of economy from all sources (as a share platform requirements, database of the country's gross domestic requirements, data sharing and exchange product) by a factor of three compared interface, and the operation and maintenance. to 2017; The Information System for Digitized • To create a stable and secure ICT Supervision and Management of City comes infrastructure for high-speed with a framework coving four structural levels: transmission, processing, and storage national, ministerial, provincial, and urban. of large amounts of data available to all organizations and households; India • To use mostly domestic software by ‘Smart City Mission 2015’ is an ambitious governmental agencies, local mission that relies on technology-based smart governments, and organizations. solutions for improving the quality of urban life by providing a clean, sustainable environment Overall, there are eight areas of activity: urban in 100 selected cities (Ministry of Urban governance, smart housing, innovations for Development, Government of India, 2015). the urban environment, smart urban The Government of India has committed Rs transport, intelligent systems of public and 480 billion over a five-year period for the 100 environmental safety, infrastructure of selected cities. The state governments are communication networks, tourism, and expected to contribute around the same services. The smart city project is aimed at amount, bringing the potential fund up to improving the competitiveness of cities and around Rs 1,000 billion. The mission has a creating safe and comfortable living conditions broad remit of retrofitting and/or for citizens. redevelopment of certain pockets of existing cities or developing green-field smart cities. Intelligent transport solutions with city-wide impact are also on the agenda. A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) has been set up to drive

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Case STUDY ITS in Russian Cities

Kazan City has adopted an adaptive traffic management system based on the Italian OMNIA system, from the Swarco company. Almost half of all traffic lights are connected, with the ability to change lights in real time. So far, this has improved the capacity of the main streets by seven per cent and increased speed by an average of 5km/h, reducing travel time by up to nine minutes.

In Khabarovsk City, the automated traffic management system is managed by the specially- created Municipal Unitary Enterpriser (MUE) Research and Production Center for Traffic Management (Pic. 1.3.7.). The center can visually observe 219 to witness congestion, collect data on traffic volumes, and change traffic light signals in real time.

Figure 47: Center for Traffic Management in Figure 48: Special monitor in the Khabarovsk Center for Khabarovsk Traffic Management

The city also has 107 cameras that automatically record traffic violations. Fines for are transferred to the regional Road Fund. According to available estimates, the number of people killed in accidents as a result of this measure has been reduced by up to 50 per cent.

In Sochi, following the 2014 Winter Olympics, many facilities built to monitor and manage the growth in traffic were transferred to the city authorities.

The automated Traffic Control System (ASUDD) is designed for adaptive control of traffic and pedestrian flows in manual and automatic regimes, and allows for data collection, accumulation, and processing of statistical information about traffic flows. It also allows for real-time video monitoring and provides road users with up-to-date information through boards and specialized signs.

In Moscow, traffic is managed through a specialized Situation Center (CODD), with connections to 40,000 traffic lights, 2,722 TV cameras, 2,098 video recording cameras and 27 traffic patrol cars. Since its deployment, the average daily speed of traffic on major urban motorways has increased to 54km/h (from 45km/h in 2010 and the number of people killed in road accidents has dropped by 47 per cent (from 6.6 per 100,000 population to 3.5).

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Vietnam Vietnamese cities rely on some form of semiformal transport, often minibuses in medium and small cities and ride-hailing services in major cities. These transport systems provide a much-needed service for many, at no cost for the city. But these services also bring a host of challenges, contributing to traffic congestion, pollution, and poor road safety.

Major cities (HCMC and Hanoi) face the Figure 49: Diesel bus emitting black smog in HCMC. challenge of high growth in the use of taxis and Source, author 2020 motorcycle taxis (so called xe-om) as semiformal transit services. In recent years, center, and a simulation research and forecast the number of taxis and xe-oms using ride- institution. The city has set up the Centre for hailing apps (so called RHA) have sharply Smart Transport Monitoring and Control as increased, offering better quality and lower part of its smart city strategy. The first phase cost mobility services to urban citizens. Xe-om for the center began before the 2019 Lunar RHA services such as Grab, Go-Viet and Be New Year, covering the four areas of traffic compete with bus services for short distances monitoring, traffic information, traffic control, as they are door-to-door, accessible, and and detecting traffic accidents or violations. faster. Bus services are cheap, but xe-om RHA For the purposes of monitoring, the center services offer discounts to compete. However, makes use of 762 surveillance cameras with the implementation of social distancing scattered around the city, together with over due to the Covid-19 pandemic, xe-om RHA 60 high-definition screens for viewing. services have grown to serve the basic needs For detecting and resolving traffic accidents of the population. Thousands of citizens can and violations, data is collected through 9 use Grab, Go-Viet and Be apps to deliver goods automated speed-checking devices, together and food According to Google and Temasek’s with 6 automated freight-checking machines. latest economy SEA report, Vietnam’s ride- The data is then sent to the HCMC Department hailing market was estimated to be worth of Transport and relevant authorities for fines, about USD 500 million in 2018 and is expected if applicable. In the next stage or from 2020, to reach the USD 2 billion benchmark by 2025. the city will launch its Intelligent Transport System (ITS) via an investment of $250 million in ITS technologies to manage infrastructure Smart city strategy for maximizing utilization operations, enhance capacity management, of existing resources and capacity ensure traffic safety and promote sustainable The transport system in Vietnam’s biggest traffic development (HCMC DOT, 2017). metropolis (HCMC) is undergoing a facelift as Vietnam’s largest urban area rolls out its ambitious smart city strategy “Ho Chi Minh City’s smart strategy for 2017-2020, vision to 2025” according to the political decision. The strategy aims to adopt Industry 4.0 technologies in everyday life in the city, including a shared public database, administration center, an information security

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Figure 50: On-street car parking management and pricing in Ho Chi Minh. Source: Thanhnien, 2017

Hanoi, HCMC, and three other medium cities A way forward (Can Tho, Da Nang and Hai Phong) have Innovation is at the heart of smart city formulated policies to control and gradually development, as cities strive to use technology ban the use of motorcycles in urban central creatively in master planning, building areas. Hanoi’ ’Zoning of Motorcycle Use to infrastructure, managing environmental 2030’ will gradually restrict and ban challenges, and delivering essential municipal motorcycle use from the central area with services. Technological innovation is also key consideration to the progressive development to industrial growth and competitiveness, of public transport systems. During 2020 to which powers sustainable economic 2030, the city aims to build eight new MRT development. However, smart cities that are lines and double the existing bus network. poorly planned and governed tend to cause Motorcycle use will be banned zone by zone more problems than they solve. In cases when public transport serves 35 per cent to 40 involving new and emerging technologies, per cent of total travel demand, with a there are also concerns over safety before the complete ban once public transport reaches 60 technologies become widely adopted. Smart per cent. solutions, such as ride-hailing, have raised safety concerns and share responsibility in Hanoi and HCMC are also aiming to use many incidents. Most cities lack an adaptive financial instruments to restrict the growth in legal and institutional governing framework private car ownership. First, a registration fee for such new systems in general. While smart rate has been set at 12 per cent of the systems have the potential to benefit cities, it purchase price (higher than the 10 per cent is also important to recognize that smart fixed elsewhere in the country). This will systems are, at best, a means to an end. increase to 15 per cent in 2025 and higher in Without the relevant supportive systems and 2030. Second, parking management is frameworks, they also have the power to practiced through limiting capacity and strictly distort the existing social fabric. controlling illegal parking. Third, a congestion charge scheme has been proposed for the Asian and Pacific cities have made central area of HCMC. While initially the aim considerable progress in harnessing smart was to utilize a public-private partnership systems to enhance their economic (PPP) model, instead it will be fully publically development, address urban challenges, and funded to increase public acceptability create a sustainable living environment with a high quality of life for their residents. In this

process, they have adopted diverse approaches and mechanisms that are

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customized to their specific developmental The entire point is to respond more effectively contexts. The success of a smart city should not and dynamically to the needs of residents. be determined based on how advanced the Technology is simply a tool to optimize the technology is, but on how such applications common infrastructure, resources, and spaces. empower the city to solve more problems and Few cities want to lag behind, but it is critical develop towards a more sustainable future. not to get caught up in technology for its own When used well, they empower and equip sake. Cities need to focus on improving cities with new capabilities and the capacity to outcomes for residents and enlisting their achieve sustainable and resilient development active participation in shaping the places they for individuals. Success therefore requires a call home. And it all starts with defining concerted effort from all stakeholders to plan sustainable goals. and guide the use of smart systems in cities.

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2 GOALS FOR SUSTAINABLE labor, specialization, and full use of comparative advantage possible. Studies also URBAN TRANSPORT IN ASIA- show that improvement in all transport infrastructure sectors will result in a reduction PACIFIC in trade costs as well as encourage increased trade flow. Introduction Transport contributes to social development Sustainable development is the desired overall by enabling labor mobility and facilitating trajectory of development for people, the access to markets, employment, health care, economy, and the planet. Transport is educational opportunities, and other social therefore to operate within boundaries services. Many rural communities are isolated defined by sustainable development. Key by distance, terrain, and poverty from these elements to be observed when measuring for economic and social opportunities. Transport Sustainable Development are: connectivity helps to narrow these gaps and • the basic WCED (1987) definition of make access more inclusive. According to the Sustainable Development – ‘Meeting World Bank Rural Access Index, nearly one- the needs of the present without third (more than one billion) of the world’s compromising the ability of future rural population, 98 per cent of whom are in generations to meet their own needs’, developing countries, do not have adequate • the Definition of Sustainable Transport access to road transport systems. Rural – OECD, Vancouver, 1996 connectivity is of outmost importance in • the three dimensions or pillars of poverty reduction, health, education, and sustainable development, the social, employment generation as well as overall rural environmental and economic one, also development of the region known as the ‘triple bottom line’, or as A reduction of energy consumption in the People, Planet, Prosperity in the 2030 transport sector can have huge benefits for the Development Agenda, environment. The transport sector accounts • the Sustainable Development Goals for nearly 28 per cent of total global energy (SDG’s) that were also adopted in the consumption and 64.5 per cent of global oil 2030 Development Agenda, and the consumption. The transport sector’s share of associated targets, measurement, and global oil consumption has grown nearly three reporting frameworks. times during the past four decades, a trend that is continuing to increase. More than 460 A way forward million tons of oil equivalent of energy is To examine the prosperity and quality of life of consumed by the transport sector in the Asia- nations, looking solely at economic factors Pacific region, of which 87.24 per cent is by such as GDP or economic growth is not road transport. The share of energy sufficient. Other factors of major significance consumption by road transport is expected to for people’s daily lives also need to be remain dominant included, aspects such as health, housing, employment, education, income, air and water Transport has a major role to play in economic quality, to name a few. This makes it important development at national and international to compile measurements that give a good levels. It provides access to economic and overview and can serve as the basis for an social activities and opportunities for assessment of the real prosperity and quality individuals as well as businesses. It helps link of life. suppliers and consumers, making division of

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These indicators are intended to complement traditional economic measures, such as GDP, and monitor trends in people’s wellbeing. They are meant to look at the broader picture and inform government policy formulation. The indicators are linked to the UN Sustainable Development Goals, they are based on official statistics and allow for international comparison. Developing such indicators is a step towards ensuring a common understanding of what factors make our lives better.

With regards to transportation, the indicators measuring the feeling of safety at night, particulate matter, and greenhouse gas emissions are especially relevant in order to assess the sustainability of a transport system, including the environmental and social dimensions. These should be complemented with other indicators looking at, for instance, the connectivity, accessibility, affordability, reliability, efficiency, and inclusivity of the system.

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2.1 THE 2030 UN AGENDA FOR

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Development Goals will find the path to Introduction sustainable development runs through its The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development cities (UCLG, 2018). (also known as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by the United The Agenda comprises 17 Sustainable Nations General Assembly in September 2015. Development Goals with 169 associated Unlike the Millennium Development Goals, the targets which are integrated and indivisible. SDGs apply to all countries, both developed Never before have world leaders pledged and developing, and set bold, aspirational common actions and endeavors across such a goals such as eliminating poverty, ending broad and universal policy agenda. hunger, and ensuring universal primary and Realizing gender equality and the secondary education. While the Millennium empowerment of women and girls will make a Development Goals had only one target with crucial contribution to progress across all the an urban focus – to achieve substantial Goals and targets. The achievement of full improvement in the lives of a minimum of 100 human potential and of sustainable million slum dwellers by 2020 – the Sustainable development is not possible if one half of Development Goals dedicate an entire goal to humanity continues to be denied its full human cities in Goal 11: Make cities and human rights and opportunities. Women and girls settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and must enjoy equal access to quality education, sustainable. Goal 11 recognizes for the first economic resources, and political participation time that urbanization is a transformative as well as equal opportunities with men and force for development and cities should be boys for employment, leadership, and enabled to take the lead in addressing many decision-making at all levels. global challenges. Most of the 234 statistical indicators to measure global progress towards It also recognizes that sustainable urban the Sustainable Development Goals have an development and management are crucial to urban dimension and about one third of the the quality of life of our people and commits to Goals’ indicators are measured at the local work with local authorities and communities to rather than national level (UN-Habitat, 2018). renew and plan cities and human settlements In short, any country serious about meeting its so as to foster community cohesion and obligations to achieve the Sustainable personal security and to stimulate innovation and employment.

Finally, it states that the SDGs and targets are "We resolve, between now and 2030, to integrated and indivisible, global in nature and end poverty and hunger everywhere; to universally applicable, taking into account combat inequalities within and among different national realities, capacities, and countries; to build peaceful, just and levels of development and respecting national inclusive societies; to protect human policies and priorities. rights and promote gender equality and

the empowerment of women and girls; and to ensure the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources." 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

International framework The third global agreement is the mentioned Aside from the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Development, a set of international The fourth major convention is the Paris agreements are directing the transition to Agreement on climate change, which was sustainable urban ecosystem. In chronological adopted in December 2015. In Paris, countries order, the first of these global agreements is pledged to voluntarily reduce their greenhouse the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk gas emissions in order to keep the mean global Reduction 2015-2030, adopted at the Third temperature rise below 2°C and ideally below United Nations World Conference on Disaster 1.5°C from pre-industrial levels (United Risk Reduction in Japan, in March 2015. The Nations Framework Convention on Climate agreement acknowledges that responsibility to Change, 2016). Since the agreement was reduce disaster risk should be shared with negotiated, 194 States and the European other stakeholders, including local Union have signed up. Some cities, meanwhile, governments and the private sector. have seized on the Paris Agreement as a platform to argue for the importance of local The second agreement is the Addis Ababa level action to combat climate change. Action Agenda, adopted in July 2015. The Scientists have estimated that cities emit at Agenda underscores the necessity for new least 70 per cent of the world’s carbon financial architecture that can support the emissions, and likely more when accounting global sustainability agendas. It explicitly for goods and services produced elsewhere recognizes and supports the role of local but destined for urban consumers (C40 Cities, governments and calls for domestic public 2018). resources, domestic private finance, international private finance, international development cooperation and sustainable debt to help meet the estimated US$1-1.5 trillion annually need to fill the infrastructure gap in developing countries.

Figure 51: Projected urban population in Asia and the Pacific, 2019 to 2050. Source: The Future of Asian and Pacific Cities 2019: Transformative Pathways Towards Sustainable Urban Development, UN ESCAP.

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Figure 52: Recent international agreements towards sustainable development. Source: The Future of Asian and Pacific Cities 2019: Transformative Pathways Towards Sustainable Urban Development, UN ESCAP,

The fifth agreement is the New Urban Agenda, Regional trends and challenges adopted in Quito, in October 2016. The New The Asian and Pacific region became majority Urban Agenda sets out a 20-year vision to urban in 2019 for the first time in human achieve sustainable cities that are well history. With more than 2.3 billion people in planned, regulated, and financed. The New the region living in cities, the need for a Urban Agenda supports the previous three sustainable urban future has never been agreements by offering a road map for greater. implementing Sustainable Development Goal 11 and enhancing the role of cities in creating While recognizing that the Asia-Pacific region sustainable development, fighting climate is exceedingly diverse, ranging from small change, and reducing disaster risk. It calls for island developing states to powerful global compact cities, polycentric growth, transit- economies, four major development oriented development, adequate public space, challenges can be identified: natural resource and reining in sprawl. The New Urban Agenda management; climate change; disaster risk; was adopted as a collective vision and political and rising inequalities. These four overarching commitment to promote and realize challenges are endemic to the region, from the sustainable urban development, and as a spillover impacts of forced migration across historic opportunity to leverage the key role of Western Asia to the existential threat of sea cities and human settlements as drivers of level rise in the Pacific islands. sustainable development in an increasingly Four essentials that cities must get right can be urbanized world. identified: Urban and territorial planning; strengthening resilience to future risks; supporting the effective interplay between people and technology; and financing tools, all of which are essential to deliver sustainable

smart cities in our region. A sustainable future

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"A city should not just happen anymore. Every block, every building and neighborhood requires careful planning. Cities can play a major role in supporting a more sustainable and inclusive future in our region. Yet, this depends on decisive action in cities and urban centers right across Asia and the Pacific"

Armida Salsiah Alisjahbana, Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations and Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) occurs when planning lays a foundation; widely. Transport development has been road- resilience guards against future risk; smart oriented and has not optimized the cities deploy the best technology for the job; comparative advantages of each mode of and financing tools help pay for it all. Getting transport from the perspective of the three these essentials right in cities today is vital in dimensions of sustainable development, but order to adapt to the demands of tomorrow. transport remains a main driver of growth. While transport is the second largest producer A way forward of carbon dioxide emissions globally, the Regional and subregional cooperation in sector has the potential to significantly specific areas can support and complement contribute to sustainable development by the effectiveness of national mechanisms. The optimizing the environmental and social means of implementation – namely finance, comparative advantages of various transport technology, capacity-building, trade, and modes. While Internet access is high across the systemic issues – are key to implementation of region, there is also a widening digital divide. the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Improvements in regional connectivity in Development. Regional discussion and terms of transport, information and cooperation, including through regional and communications technology and trade will subregional organizations, can facilitate access boost economic growth and are of critical to normative work; support capacity-building, significance in achieving sustainable technical cooperation and sharing of good development. practices and home-grown approaches, including among countries that share similar characteristics (such as less developed countries, small island developing states or middle-income countries); and facilitate member states’ access to the means of implementation and efforts towards consolidating regional and global partnerships for sustainable development. Similarly, the externalities and spillover effects of many of the Sustainable Development Goals provide opportunities for regional approaches and engagement.

While trade has been a key engine of growth and development, there is growing recognition of the need to make it more inclusive and ensure that its benefits are spread more

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CASE STUDY: UN-HABITAT’s Action Framework for the Implementation of the New Urban Agenda (AFINUA) (2017)

Action area 1: National urban policies: Design and implement solid, consensual, and results- based national urban policies that strengthen multi sector and multi-scale coordination.

Action area 2: Urban legal frameworks: Establish robust and transparent urban legal frameworks with efficient instruments and mechanisms that guarantee compliance and enforcement capacity, accountability, and public participation in urban planning and development.

Action area 3: Urban and territorial planning and design: Integrate forward-thinking urban and territorial planning and design with participative instruments and mechanisms capable of addressing the challenges of current and future urban systems.

Action area 4: Urban economy and municipal finances: Strengthen municipal finances, local fiscal systems, and the instruments and capacities to innovate and develop new and improved financing mechanisms for urban investment.

Action area 5: Local implementation: Improve capacities and local instruments to guide sustainable urbanization and promote solid partnerships between the diverse actors and sectors involved in sustainable urban development.

Action area 6: Monitoring, reporting and revision mechanisms: Reinforce human, technical and financial capacities in all sectors in order to monitor advances towards sustainable urban development and SDG alignment for the monitoring, reporting and revision of associated policies, programs, plans and projects.

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2.2 THE 2030 UN AGENDA FOR underpin these advances. Young people cannot attend school, women cannot be SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT assured opportunities for employment and Introduction empowerment, and people with disabilities Provision of sustainable urban transport is and elderly people cannot maintain their becoming a major issue due rapid urban independence and dignity without safe development worldwide. The adoption of the transport that is accessible itself and that 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development enables access to all that people need. provides a new impetus to address global Personal security for all passengers is critical. development challenges including for Goals of biodiversity and ocean health also transport in urban areas. have significant intersections with the Accomplishing the Sustainable Development promotion of smart, sustainable transport Goals will rely on advances in sustainable practices across regions and across modes. transport. Global progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions cannot be realized without decisive action in sustainable transport, and countries cannot provide food security or healthcare without providing reliable and sustainable transport systems to

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Environmental Social Economic

Air pollution Accidents Costs of transportation to customers/consumers Consumption of land/urban Declining sprawl community Costs relating to accidents livability/ Depletion of the ozone layer Depletion of non-renewable community resources and energy supplies Disruption of ecosystems and partitioning habitats Traffic congestion Human Global climate change (psychological and Transportation facility physiological) costs Hydrologic impacts health impacts Transportation-related Introduction of exotic species Inequalities associated with health costs Light pollution negative environmental and health impacts Noise pollution Mobility Release of toxic/hazardous barriers/inequalities for substances the disadvantaged

Solid wastes Time wastage

Vibration pollution Visual pollution

Visual intrusion and aesthetics Water pollution

Figure 53: Overview of some sustainability related impacts from transport. Source: Monograph Series on Sustainable and Inclusive Transport - Assessment of Urban Transport Systems, UN ESCAP

SDGs and transport public transport (11.2); and Target 13.1 aims at strengthening resilience and adaptive capacity In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable to climate-related hazards and natural Development, sustainable transport is disasters. Other recent and emerging global mainstreamed across several SDGs and and regional commitments such as the Habitat targets, especially those related to food III summit and its outcome the New Urban security, health, energy, economic growth, Agenda and the Ministerial Declaration on infrastructure, and cities and human Sustainable Transport Connectivity in Asia and settlements. The importance of transport for the Pacific further emphasize the urgent need climate action is further recognized under the to tackle urban transport challenges. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Some SDGs are directly and indirectly connected to sustainable transport through targets and indicators. For instance, the SDG on ensuring health and well-being includes a target addressing deaths and injuries from road crashes (3.6); the SDG on inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable cities includes a target on improving accessibility for all expanding

Figure 54: Sustainable Transport impacts on achieving the SGDs. Source: Intergovernmental Eleventh Regional Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) Forum in Asia

A way forward: The New Urban Agenda and The New Urban Agenda presents a paradigm transport shift based on the science of cities; it lays out The New Urban Agenda represents a shared standards and principles for the planning, vision for a better and more sustainable future construction, development, management, and – one in which all people have equal rights and improvement of urban areas along its five main access to the benefits and opportunities that pillars of implementation: national urban cities can offer, and in which the international policies, urban legislation and regulations, community reconsiders the urban systems and urban planning and design, local economy and physical form of our urban spaces. municipal finance, and local implementation. It is a resource for every level of government, In this unprecedented era of increasing from national to local; for civil society urbanization, and in the context of the 2030 organizations; the private sector; constituent Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Paris groups; and for all who call the urban spaces of Agreement, and other global development the world ’home’ to realize this vision agreements and frameworks, the Agenda recognizes that a critical point has been Urban planning reached in understanding that cities can be the It will encourage the implementation of source of solutions to, rather than the cause of, sustainable urban and territorial planning, the challenges our world is facing today. If including city-region and metropolitan plans, well-planned and well-managed, urbanization and support better coordination between can be a powerful tool for sustainable transport and urban and territorial planning development for both developing and departments, in mutual understanding of developed countries. planning and policy frameworks, at the national, subnational, and local levels,

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including through sustainable urban and • Better and coordinated transport and metropolitan transport and mobility plans. To land-use planning, which would lead achieve this, subnational and local to a reduction of travel and transport governments will need assistance in needs, enhancing connectivity developing the necessary knowledge and between urban, peri-urban and rural capacity to implement and enforce such plans. areas, including waterways, and The Agenda also commits to promoting safe, transport and mobility planning, inclusive, accessible, green and quality public particularly for small island developing spaces, including streets, sidewalks and cycling states and coastal cities; lanes, squares, waterfront areas, gardens and • Urban freight planning and logistics parks, that are multifunctional areas for social concepts that enable efficient access interaction and inclusion, human health and to products and services, minimizing well-being, economic exchange and cultural their impact on the environment and expression and dialogue among a wide on the liveability of the city and diversity of people and cultures, and that are maximizing their contribution to designed and managed to ensure human sustained, inclusive and sustainable development and build peaceful, inclusive and economic growth. participatory societies, as well as to promote living together, connectivity, and social Road safety inclusion. It will take measures to improve and integrate Accessibility road safety into sustainable mobility and transport infrastructure planning and design. It will promote access for all to safe, age- and Together with awareness-raising initiatives, it gender-responsive, affordable, accessible, and will promote the safe-system approach called sustainable urban mobility and land and sea for in the Decade of Action for Road Safety, transport systems, enabling meaningful with special attention to the needs of all participation in social and economic activities women and girls, as well as children and the in cities and human settlements, by integrating young, older persons, persons with disabilities, transport and mobility plans into overall urban and those in vulnerable situations. and territorial plans and promoting a wide range of transport and mobility options. This It will also work to adopt, implement, and will be achieved with: enforce policies and measures to actively protect and promote pedestrian safety and • A significant increase in accessible, cycling mobility, with a view to broader health safe, efficient, affordable, and outcomes, particularly the prevention of sustainable infrastructure for public injuries and non-communicable diseases, and transport, as well as non-motorized we will work to develop and implement options such as walking and cycling, comprehensive legislation and policies on prioritizing them over private motorcycle safety, given the disproportionally motorized transportation; high and increasing numbers of motorcycle • Equitable ’transit-oriented deaths and injuries globally, particularly in development’ that minimizes the developing countries. displacement, in particular, of the

poor, and features affordable, mixed- income housing, and a mix of jobs and services;

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Figure 55: Contribution of urban transport and road safety to SDGs. Source: Review of Developments in Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017, UN ESCAP

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2.3 UNESCAP SUSTAINABLE URBAN TRANSPORT INDEX

Introduction However, there is not one dedicated The growth and concentration of motor Sustainable Development Goal for transport vehicles in Asian cities has led to increased defined in the 2030 Development Agenda. demand for urban mobility. Renewed Transport will nevertheless be important for commitments of Asian cities are required in achieving many of the SDG’s, and several of the order to achieve SDG target 11.2 on urban specific SDG targets do address transport mobility as well as to enhance overall directly. In absence of comprehensive sustainability of urban transport systems and standard frameworks and tools to measure the services. Cities and countries need to track the state of urban transport systems in an Asian progress made in improving urban mobility. context, UNESCAP has developed the Sustainable Urban Transport Index (SUTI) with To know if transport is becoming more 10 key urban transport indicators (UNESCAP, sustainable and how can we enact policies to 2016). strengthen sustainability, data that measure both the details of transport activity and its The Sustainable Urban Transport Index (SUTI) side-effects and externalities is required. This The SUTI is based on ten key urban transport data can be transformed into useful tools used indicators representing transport system, for the diagnosis, choice, and implementation environmental, social, and economic of cures for transport problems, as well as the dimension of sustainability. The result of impact of implementation, evaluation of assessment can support city policy makers to progress, and corrective rebalancing. make evidence-based policies and measures to improve urban mobility. It helps summarize, track, and compare the state of urban mobility in Asian cities.

In the process of development of the SUTI, a Planning and Development of Sustainable conceptual framework has been drafted based Urban Transportation Systems held in on existing literature and policies on Kathmandu on 22-23 September 2016, which sustainable development and transport, led to a consolidated concise list of ten including the Sustainable Development Goals. indicators for the index. The final step was to The framework ensures that the index reflects construct the index. This involved decisions on

Figure 56: Sustainable Urban Transport Index. Source: Review of Developments in Transport in Asia and the Pacific 2017, UN ESCAP topics that are important for measuring ways to normalize, weigh, and calculate its sustainable urban transport. The tool was elements. designed to assess and evaluate sustainable Indicators describe the levels of clean air, urban transport systems for cities in the Asia- safety and access or their opposites, air Pacific region pollution, accidents, and congestion. Other Secondly, indicators were identified, reviewed, indicators measure economic aspects of and selected for the index. This was based on a transportation, while others measure the review of existing indicator reports and social and equity characteristics of the system. studies, the application of indicator selection Finally, a group of indicators describe the state criteria, and the review of a draft set of of governance. Above all, these indicators indicators the Expert Group Meeting on allow stakeholders to quantify the past,

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Figure 57: Basic characteristics of the four pilot cities. Source: Intergovernmental Eleventh Regional Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) Forum in Asia present, and current changes in transport and In Kathmandu additional efforts are required its sustainability. to improve pedestrian infrastructure and facilities, Colombo needs to improve quality Ultimately, the goal of developing a system of and reliability of public transport system, while transportation indicators is to build powerful Hanoi and Greater Jakarta need to put tools for policy making. These tools summarize additional efforts to increasing the mode share trends and relationships that describe the of the public transport system. More Asian most important activities, outputs, and side cities have shown interest in the application of effects – both positive and negative – of SUTI. A workshop held in Colombo confirmed transportation activities. These tools describe the relevance and significance of the SUTI tool the progress of transportation from vision to to evaluate and assess the state of urban reality. In addition, the same indicator base transport systems and services in Asian cities supports communication with stakeholders. and as well as to make comparisons among SUTI has the potential to serve as a peer cities. quantitative tool for countries and cities of the region to assess urban transport systems and services. It can help identify policy gaps, prioritize additional measures and investment strategies required to improve urban transport systems and services. It is expected that more cities and countries would gradually adopt the standardized data collection methods and apply the indictors and index.

The index can also serve as a tool to monitor Figure 58: SUTI spider diagram for Jakarta. progress towards the achievement of When looking at the details, Greater Jakarta Sustainable Development Goal target 11.2. performed well compared to other pilot cities. Regional application and challenges Greater Jakarta has invested in two mass SUTI saw a pilot application in four Asian cities: transit systems and has developed an Greater Jakarta; Kathmandu; Hanoi; and integrated urban transport plan. The spider Colombo completed in 2017. The four pilot diagram shows a good road safety situation. cities were able to collect data, analyze, and Based on the analysis, Greater Jakarta city assess the state of urban mobility in their city authorities have identified that additional using SUTI. Once complete, all 10 key efforts are required to: (i) extend public indicators can be viewed at a glance. transport accessibility (currently at 49 per cent); (ii) increase the mode share of public transport (currently at 27 per cent); (iii)

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improve quality and reliability of public transport services; and (iv) improve air quality including strategies to reduce pollutant particles (PM10 has been ranked one of the highest in the region). C05

Despite many studies and attempts, Kathmandu does not yet have an approved urban transport master plan. Yet despite this, the analysis shows that Kathmandu has a good road safety record and has a relatively high share of public transport, despite a low level of user satisfaction. The city should work on developing its comprehensive urban transport master plan incorporating walking and cycling infrastructure. Based on the analysis, Figure 59: SUTI spider diagram for Kathmandu Kathmandu city authorities have identified the need to: (i) improve pedestrian facilities to public transport as many trips are made on address the high mode share of walking (40.6 personal vehicles. Hanoi city authorities have per cent); (ii) improve quality and reliability of identified the need to further increase the public transport systems (28 per cent public mode share of public transport and improve air transport mode-share); (iii) increase quality. Based on the analysis, additional investment in the development of mass public infrastructure for walking and cycling, and transport system; and (iv) improve air quality, intermodal transfer facilities could be which regularly exceeds the Nepal’s National incorporated in the already approved Ambient Air Quality Standards (120 ug/m3 for transport master plan. Hanoi is developing two PM10). externally-funded mass transit systems. However, the city scored low on public In comparison with other pilot cities, Hanoi has transport investment as externally funded low greenhouse gas emissions, high projects were not included in the analysis. affordability and accessibility (60 per cent) of public transport, as well as a relatively good Colombo is identified as having a good urban road safety record. It has low mode share of transport master plan, a high-quality public transport network, good air quality, low

Figure 10: SUTI spider diagram for Hanoi

Figure 60: SUTI spider diagram for Hanoi Figure 61: SUTI spider diagram for Colombo

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greenhouse gas emissions, and affordable needs and challenges, but each also treasures public transport fares. Based on the analysis, unique creativity and strategies tailored to Colombo does have identified areas for further their own locales. Sharing knowledge and improvement, such as increasing the mode experience is key to replicate and multiply the share and accessibility of public transport, and success stories across the region's cities. the quality and reliability of its public transport services. To begin to address these issues, A way forward Colombo has plans to develop an elevated light Dimensions that require further attention rail transit system. include the availability, collection, and processing of data, and to examine how the Now that the international frameworks and index is to be deployed and used in practice. It mechanisms are in place, it is time to look at would need policy support from cities to apply regional best practices and lessons learned to the SUTI consistently in the Asia-Pacific region. ensure a faster and smoother transition to a Moving forward, the SUTI could improve based sustainable future and avoid repeating on feedback from cities and a further common mistakes. Every city has its specific calibration of the 10 parameters. C26

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3 FINDINGS AND LESSONS FROM FOUR COUNTRIES

Guangzhou, Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing, and 3.1 CHINA other cities have introduced the TOD model in China has been implementing various urban development planning to improve public strategies to improve urban transport with transportation and address the negative different results, a number of which can be impacts associated with an increasing number examined to identify the main trends and of privately-owned cars. challenges faced in Chinese cities today. Social inclusion in transport Urban transport planning At the end of 2017, shared bicycle schemes Transportation planning in China includes a had helped to reduce carbon emissions by five-year development timetable nearly seven million tons (the 41st Statistical comprehensive transport network. The Report on Internet Development in China). departments involved in national level Riding to and from work is becoming a new planning include the National Development choice for commuters along the route, with and Reform Commission (NDRC), the Ministry numerous successful examples in Chinese of Transport of the People’s Republic of China cities. As just one example, the Huilongguang- (MOT), and the Ministry of Housing and Urban- Shangdi bicycle lane (the first bicycle special Rural Development of the People’s Republic of lane in Beijing) only solves the commuting China (MOHURD). While these organizations problem between Huilongguang and Shangdi lead urban development at the national level, and has a commuting population of around regional and city governments do have a 11,600. degree of flexibility in how they operate and adhere to the national laws. Since 2019 the Mobility as a Service trend of regional integrated planning of urban Some 87 cities in China have taken measures agglomeration has been strengthened. For to improve public transport infrastructure, example, Shanghai and Jiangsu have jointly completed rapid commuting system, create a formulated a public transport service policy diversified public transport service system, and that links the two places. enhanced the construction of urban intelligent public transport system. The punctuality rate

CASE STUDY Transport Community (TC) mode of Shunde District, Foshan City.

In 2010, public transport reforms were implemented in the Shunde District of Foshan City, involving multi-organizational cooperation between the government, a third-party management company (the TC Management Company), and transport operators. The project utilized government investment to kickstart rapid increases in public transportation. The government bears the full revenue risk of public transport line ticketing, increases financial subsidies for public transport services, rapidly expands the public transport service network, and optimizes the quality of public transport services. This has especially led to improvements to less popular and remote lines, and reduced the phenomena of ‘missing’ bus stops. Second, competition has been introduced to promote service improvement. Before the reforms, more than 80 per cent of bus lines in the Shunde District were operated by the Shunqi Company. The introduction of two new operators – Xinxieli and Hongyun – and the strict implementation of regulations to ensure no one operator can have a mart share of more than 50 per cent, promotes operator competition, and operators now have to improve their service offer to attract customers.

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CASE STUDY Zhengzhou launched customized public transport services

In Zhengzhou, a customized bus service sets its route according to the actual needs of passenger, adopting a one-stop direct bus service. A dedicated 96556 telephone reservation platform allows users to make bookings, which can also be done on the WeChat service platform. In March 2017, the number of passengers served had passed 180,000. of urban buses and trolleybuses have planning has not yet been fully integrated. improved in 13 cities, alongside the average Second, the country may have focused too operating speed during morning and evening heavily on large-scale construction projects commutes. The punctuality rate of buses in when smaller, localized and context-specific Hohhot and Xi'an has improved, while solutions may have been effective. Despite operating speeds in Shijiazhuang and Jinan in constructions of large-scale rail and tram the morning and evening peak period have systems, the intensity of passenger flow risen drastically. remains too low. Third, despite being a former kingdom of bicycles, many cities in China are In recent years, the use of mobile payments seeing rapid increases in the number of private has developed rapidly. By the end of 2019, cars, causing further issues of congestion and some 275 cities in China had connected their air pollution. Fourth, compared to all-in-one transportation cards, with more than international guidelines, China's work on 24 million cards issued nationwide, covering street design is still in its infancy. While there bus, subway, taxi, ferry, light rail, public bicycle have been moves towards new concepts in and other travel modes. s. More than 100 urban road layouts and new bicycle lanes, cities, including Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, more still needs to be done. Finally, although Guangzhou, Wuhan and Zhengzhou, are China has made impressive progress towards accepting mobile payments as part of their MaaS systems, the country overall is lagging public transportation offer. By April 2018, the behind its competitors. Currently, only purchase amount of QR codes on the Shanghai provides up-to-date schedules for Guangzhou Metro exceeded the cash purchase the stops along routes, with many cities only amount. providing information on the start and end Challenges stops. We can extract some lessons from the process of urban transportation planning in China. First, the urban master planning pays little attention to actual transport demands, and use of the urban land use layout could be better incorporated into overarching plans. The relationship between urban road system planning, land use planning and transport

CASE STUDY: The auction policy on private car license in Shanghai.

Shanghai is the only city in China that carries out a quota auction of private car license plates. Under the ‘new car quota’ control policy, Shanghai’s car ownership was 4.1 million by the end of 2019 (by contrast, Beijing had nearly six million registered cars. The auction is a method of total vehicle control that can help tackle congestion, however there are issues that can be difficult to tackle, such as problems with the re-auction of second-hand license plates.

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3.2 INDIA For a bottom-up approach, meanwhile, a Management of urban transport in India is larger onus is placed upon resident’s welfare fragmented and the norm is multiple associations, CSOs and other stakeholders. government agencies at different levels of Citizen participation can be seen as a form of government being responsible for various co-production, which can address the needs of infrastructure and services. However, both various segments of society and allow for free top-down and bottom-up methods can be flow of information between service used to promote sustainable transport in the producers, planners, and users. Bangalore and country. Pune offer robust examples of highly aware and technically sound group of CSOs who At the state level Maharashtra state offers a engage closely with policy and project unique example of how to develop effective initiatives. urban transport policies that can set targets and approaches, provide for technical Trends capacity, leverage funding, and introduce Some 70 per cent of India's urban population other implementation support. Transport and lives in towns with a population less than urban planning are competencies of the state, 100,000. Together they account for 265 million and the national government can only suggest of the total urban population of 377 million in changes or nudge through incentives and Urban India. The main problems experience funding programs. A tool used effectively by a infrastructure, the lack of planning and few cities is the creation of a Unified developmental norms, and poor governance Metropolitan Transport Authority at the sub- structures. Despite the deployment of national state level (which generally encompasses large level urban transport and renewal policies, cities and their surrounding environments). In many smaller and medium sized towns remain Hyderabad and Kochi, for example, the UMTA neglected. acts as the planning and coordinating body for all entities.

CASE STUDY: Karnataka’s Bus Services.

The state of Karnataka is emblematic of many regions in India, with a large urban capital (in this case Bengaluru) surrounded by smaller cities and rural areas with poor transportation links. For years, Karnataka has suffered by poor and degrading bus services, which have suffered from overcrowding, overcharging, and often unreliable timetables. To combat this, the North Eastern Karnataka Road Transport Corporation (NEKRTC) started providing city bus services inter-city services to its provincial areas. Traffic and transportation surveys were carried out to identify suitable new corridor; municipal corporations were created to deploy new supporting infrastructure; new specifications were standardized for new and existing buses; and ITS was rolled out in phases. As a result, Karnataka and its surrounding areas have enjoyed a modal shift towards public transport, reducing congestion and creating marginal profits for cities (a rare scenario in India). This form of transport integration can act as a model for the entire country, as each Indian state has a small number of dense urban centers but with a significant population residing in surrounding areas with often poor transport links.

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CASE STUDY Guidelines for the design of streets in Shanghai.

In October 2016, the first urban level street space design standard was issued in Shanghai in an attempt to ‘re-humanize’ street design. Design goals focus on the four areas safety, green, vitality and wisdom. The Guideline establishes a multi-party coordination mechanism, strengthens the coordination and communication of the planning, transportation, and police departments, and strengthens the integration of urban and traffic design.

Urban Transport Management and UMTA plans and coordination of seamless Institutional Organization transport in Kochi In India, urban transport management is The creation of an Urban Mass Transportation divided between the state and city levels of Administration (UMTA) in Kochi offers an governments, with often overlapping roles of example of the full integration of public agencies leading to duplication of transportation under one roof. The city-level responsibilities and even gaps in coverage, transport authority can focus purely on urban often leading to inefficiencies and power transport, and comes from a recommendation struggles. Multiple laws at the central and sub- of the 2006 National Urban Transport Policy of national /state government levels also create India. Despite this policy being enacted back in conflicts, resulting in a fragmented 2006, little progress has been made on the institutional structure for urban transport. creation of UMTAs elsewhere in India.

Very few cities have created Urban Mass The UMTA manages buses, metros, Transportation Administrations (UMTAs) with Intermediate Para Transport (IPT), and ferries, legal status, with others operating committee- and offers seamless ticketing using common like structures. . In 2011, there were 53 million- mobility cards, the usage of ITS across various plus cities, but only 15 UMTAs across the modes, and has powers to upgrade streets and country. Discussions to create UMTAs are provide better ‘last mile’ connectivity. ongoing across India, however the Although there are numerous stakeholders implementation timeframe is not clear. For a involved (such as the Kochi Metropolitan UMTA to be effective, the legal and regulatory Development Authority, Kochi Metro Rail framework (passed at a state assembly) should Limited, and the Kerala State Transport support its creation and sustenance. Department) the single-authority model can allow for more efficient decision-making It is clear that advocacy is stronger, and media structures. and citizen engagement more intense, when a wide variety of organizations can come Participatory Planning: SUMNet (Sustainable together to promote common initiatives. For Urban Mobility Network) example, the Indian grant foundation SSEF has SUMNet is a democratic, secular and created and supported a coalition of CSOs and membership-based coalition of individuals, NGOs, called SUMNet (Sustainable Urban voluntary organizations, and civil society Mobility Network), who have made strides networks and movements, that seeks to working on joint issues of sustainable mobility, improve the democratic processes of decision- road safety, and accessibility issues. making. The aim is to allow wider input over transport decisions to make transport

universally accessible, safe, secure, economically viable, and environmentally sound. The group helps local communities to

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shape policies around public transportation, emerged as a recent trend in India. Mumbai aiming to introduce democracy at various and Ahmedabad have undertaken bold scales (from the project level right up to the decisions to manage densification. federal government) and improve public Ahmedabad envisions better streets, a higher education. This is a replicable model that can quality public realm, and better infrastructure bring in the expertise of external organizations for new residential zones. The Government of (such as NGOs). Successes include deploying Jharkhand meanwhile has an inclusive TOD pedal ricksaws as part of smart city policy (2017) to focus on safe and accessible deployments, enforcing Intermediate Para walking and cycling facilities, integrated with Transport in tier 2 and tier 3 cities, and reliable and high-quality public transport. providing reliable income streams for However, successful and sustained changes on transport operators. For more information visit the ground invariably require the backing of https://www.sumnet.in/ well-framed policies.

To improve connectivity between The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs metropolitan cores and their urban (MoHUA, previously MoUD) came up with a peripheries, a number of priority areas have National TOD Policy in 2017 to urge state been identified- government to formulate their own TOD policy. Various Indian cities have taken up the • Reform of the land valuation process challenge, such as New Delhi, Navi Mumbai, for ease in land transactions and local Kochi, Ahmedabad, and Naya Raipur. The revenue generation (property taxes, policy focus is on the creation of high capacity land sales, and leases) mixed land use development within walking • Integrate urban planning processes to distance of transit lines, with an influence zone complement land to be used as ranging from 500m to 800m of transit lines. financing tool (FSI limits as an effective The policy promotes the usage of public density management and transport, to increase the accessibility and infrastructure financing mechanism). safety of all road users, to reduce travel demand, to prevent urban sprawl, and • Resolve the role of urban planning attempts to limit greenhouse emissions. coming under multiple jurisdictions However, initial attempts in Delhi have led to • Provide financial autonomy of India's some concerns as to the actual environmental Urban Local Bodies impacts, such as tree loss. Table 4 highlights India’s TOD experiences. Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Transit Oriented Development (TOD), mainly seen as a solution in developed countries, has

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City TOD agency Transit Benefits/Features Observations and Learnings

Delhi Delhi Metro • Higher FAR provisions • Metro remains unaffordable Development (500m) • Mixed land use shares defined to large section of society Authority • Visual surveillance on streets • low density around the through active frontage corridors and mixed land • Mandatory housing for use is not evident Economically Weaker Sections • No active frontage (EWS) witnessed on ground; loss • Charges collected are used in of green cover development of public transit • Many areas around transit • Parking @ 1.33 ECS/100 sq m of lines are already housed by floor area dense EWS in form of slums • 20 per cent of area as public open – redevelopment increases space open for all costs, gentrification, and • 10 per cent space for green loss of these riders. cover/recreation • Big parking lots found at • i. Integrating informal transport at various metro stations metro stations • f. Poor quality NMT infrastructure, often encroached by hawkers

Ahme Ahmedabad BRT • FSI of 4-5.4, offering high density • Inclusivity an issue because daba Urban (400m) • Preparation of 'Local Areas Plans' of high land prices around d Development for TOD influence zones/areas transit lines. Only higher Authority • Sharing of underground parking and and middle-income housing connectivity between buildings present. encouraged • No active frontage changes • Active frontage for more NMT witnessed inclusion • Poor planning for last mile • e. Charges collected are used in connectivity development of public transit • NMT inclusion not visible • f. Transfer of Development Rights effectively in the design. (TDR) as a mechanism to transfer Less and poor-quality FAR to other parts of city footpaths. Cycle paths demolished for increasing ROW.

Beng Bengaluru Metro a. Charges are used in development of a. Little concern for road users in aluru Development (No public transit the influence areas Authority standar b. Good quality pedestrian b. Existing land use does not ds yet) infrastructure provision initiated in include enough residential various areas housing along metro lines

c. Station area plans (SAP) developed for 500m influence zones to improve NMT connectivity

Figure 62: Review of TOD implementation in three Indian cities. Source: Transit Oriented Development: Lessons from Indian Experiences, Centre for Urban Equity (CEPT, 2017)

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All the Indian cities opting for TOD have Mass Transit Systems promoted intense development around transit In larger cities, despite being capital intensive stations by providing an increased Floor Space a Metro system can appear to be a highly Index (FSI), promoting NMT, and redesigning desirable solution to congestion and transport public spaces. However, Indian cities already problems. . Metro is mostly built either have higher densities than elsewhere and TOD elevated or underground, sharply increasing must be examined from a different perspective the access time, which can actually slow down to improve quality of life (Petkar & Sneha, trips shorter than 5 to 6km (or 40 per cent of 2013). One main concept that underpins TOD trips in Indian cities. Nevertheless, in many is the idea that walking and cycling should from Indian cities the creation of a new, shiny, the main access and egress trips from transit modern and slick Metro system is often lines. In India, however, paratransit is a major considered synonymous to development. carrier of passengers from metros and trains Millions have been spent in developing Metro (Ann, Jiang, & Yamamoto, 2019). It is systems (including monorails and trams) in important to integrate the low-income Indian cities and more are under construction. demographics and a combination of grocery, Yet the modal share of the metro in most cities retail, and other amenities in to land use and remains dismal. the usual TOD policies must be re-examined to The Planning Commission has recommended develop a more comprehensive approach that all Indian cities with a population over two based on Indian conditions. million start planning rail transit projects, and In India, TOD has largely been ineffective and cities with a population in excess of three has often led to isolated development (Joshi, million begin constructing Metro systems. Joseph, Patel, & Darji, 2017). It is often difficult For buses, many services are offered by the to integrate the variety of different agencies state-owned Road Transport Undertakings, involved in transport, and the lack of a single with private operators plying their vehicles overarching agency can be a major barrier. The under stage carriage permits. In many cities, land alongside transit corridors in India may government-owned transport corporations belong to several agencies at the local and run buses on intra-city routes as well as on state level, making acquisition costly and time inter-city routes. Examples include State consuming, as well as necessitating the owned city specific corporations run demolition of existing buildings to develop Bangalore, Mumbai and Delhi (e.g. BMTC, BEST high rise, adding to the problems associated and DTC). In the States of Gujarat and with gentrification. Maharashtra greater powers have been devolved to the local bodies allowed some municipally-owned bus companies that can

Figure 63: DIMTS Buses at a Depot in Delhi. Source: author

run city services. City bus systems such as the and the Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC). Cluster buses run by DIMTS in Delhi, BEST in Delhi Integrated Multi Modal Transit System Mumbai, BMTC in Bangalore, and APSRTC and Limited (DIMTS) was appointed for the project, TnSRTC in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are and eventually form of managed private fine examples of professionally run services. operation was introduced. The private entities are awarded a cluster through a competitive Previously, many cities have suffered with bidding process for 10 years, and all operators issues from their privately-operated bus are required to provide a scheduled bus service services. In Delhi, for example, the private bus based on a unified timetable. system failed to link up connecting services with the metro rail system, as the Private Stage Carriers (PCSs) would only serve profitable routes. To rectify this, the local authorities decided to corporatize the operation of buses in Delhi, regrouping the 657 routes of Delhi into 17 clusters (balanced and non- overlapping) to be serviced by a private entity

CASE STUDY: The Janmarg BRT

The concept of dedicated bus-only lanes has slowly been deployed across India. The country’s first high-quality Bus Rapid Transit system (BRT) was inaugurated in 2009 in Ahmedabad and is known as the Janmarg BRT. Ahmedabad is one of the fastest growing cities in Western India (population of 5.6 million in 2011) and hosts various important national and scientific institutes. The city partnered with CEPT University and ITDP India to introduce the BRT system and today has a network of 88 km of dedicated BRT corridors. Coupled with digital fare collection and accessibility for wheelchairs, the system has led to a 12 per cent shift of travelers away from cars, and a 25 per cent shift from auto rickshaws. The bus-only lanes have reduced journey times by 40 per cent. Janmarg set a national benchmark and has inspired similar systems across India, including the Rainbow bus-rapid-transit in the twin cities of Pune and Pimpri-Chinchwad that was launched in 2015.

Figure 64: Janmarg BRT buses lined up at a bus stop

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CASE STUDY: The Best Bus Service in India: Bengaluru City

Bengaluru is a rapidly growing city known as the ‘Silicon Valley of India’. The city’s public transport is almost wholly serviced by its buses, with a recent introduction of a metro rail service on a key transport corridor. Despite this, the city bus system (operated by the Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC)) is believed to be one of the best in country.

The city has five million registered vehicles in city (one for every two people) and the figures are increasing. During peak hours the average travel time is 8 to 10km/h, and the city is one of the most congested cities in the world. To tackle these issues, the operator launched a scientific rationalization of routes based on OD data and demand. GPS data was also analyzed for optimization of timetabling, and a wide-spread advertising campaign was launched. As a result, the BMTC is now India’s only metropolitan bus service that breaks even, earning slightly more than it spends on the network. The largest bus fleet in the country is responsible for nearly five million trips per day, with India’s second-best fuel efficiency rates.

Figure 65: BMTC buses lined up at a depot. Source: Deccan Herald

Mass Rapid Transit: The Delhi Metro. after 18 years of service Delhi’s roads are still Delhi remains one of the most polluted cities in heavily congested. the world with widespread congestion and Gender inclusivity poor-quality bus services. In the 1990s, the While urban transport investments are largely creation of a Metro system was seen as one gender blind, and are made with limited way to provide world class public transport to understanding of the interrelationships citizens. Its phase-based implementation saw between gender and transport, women’s the network begin in the city center, before safety on public transport has grown in expansions to outer areas and nearby satellite importance since an incident in Delhi in 2012, towns. Today, its network of 373km makes it in which a 23-year-old woman was raped and one of the largest Metro systems in the word, murdered on a private bus. The incident shook with 4.7 million passengers daily. society, and since then gender has rose up the Yet, despite seeing nearly all parallel bus political agenda. Ultimately transportation can routes removed, the system only makes a little help women access economic and social more than its operational costs (Centre for opportunities, as they may turn down better Science and Environment, 2019) and even jobs away from their home in favor of lower paid but more local work if local transport is

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inefficient or too expensive. Providing safe and Infrastructure (Planning and Engineering) secure travel opportunities for women can Centre (UTTIPEC) issued guidance to re- play a key role in achieving India’s Sustainable emphasize the streets as belonging to people, Development Goals and ensure women’s right not just vehicles. Only 14 per cent of the city to the city and its public spaces. A gendered drives, yet the roads are dominated by lens on urban transport suggests more focus vehicles. The new guidance offered on trip chaining, modal shares, trip distances, prominence to public transit and non- time poverty, sexual harassment, and motorized modes of travel, as well as calling employment in the transport sector. for easy last-mile access to MRTS stations. Similarly, Nanded, in the Maharashtra state, Non-Motorized Transport launched a Street Improvement Strategy that Urban areas in India are uniformly dotted with saw 50km of the streets improved for different low income settlements or regularized types of road users, with separate lanes for unauthorized slums (15 to 60 per cent of the pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles. The country’s population live in slums (Cities for all, city of Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) 2014)). A large proportion of low-income meanwhile, launched a Low-Carbon Mobility households are dependent on walking, cycling, Plan which includes more footpaths and a or bus services for their commute. The cycling network. inherent dense, mixed land-use urban fabric with narrow lanes and compact structures In Chennai NMT planning involved the have kept average travel lengths low, redesign of 26 streets to provide safe walking irrespective of the city size. infrastructure. Chennai Corporation’s Council adopted the NMT policy in 2014. The car-free In many Indian cities there are large numbers Sundays in Besant Nagar, launched in 2015, of NMV. It may appear that there is little need helped transform streets into public spaces. to create a dedicated NMT network, however Chennai now has 75km of ‘Complete Streets’ with increasing motorization and congestion and acts as a best practice model for other and a lack of road user education and an erratic cities. The state of Tamil Nadu decided to scale driving environment, it is becoming up a similar program for 10 of its cities. It is key increasingly necessary to design appropriate to examine the approach followed, as these facilities for non-motorized traffic. projects are design and implementation Whilst countries such as Japan mix pedestrian projects, rather than merely construction and cycle movements, the characteristics of activity. It is important to engage with Indian NMT makes it more difficult. For experienced design consultants to ensure example, certain categories of NMT cater to success. To help, the Smart Cities Mission India hawkers, vendors, and cycle rickshaw trolleys came up with a Complete Streets Toolkit in for goods and freight. To be truly effective, the 2019 to guide 100 Indian smart cities in ubiquitous cycle-rickshaw needs to be developing safe streets. This toolkit includes accommodated in areas separate from training and capacity building for city pedestrians. The infrastructure for walking and engineers and town planners. The mission cycling is often neglected in Indian cities, funds various street development projects as making the role of urban designers vitally part of any smart city proposals. important in street development.

Fortunately, a number of Indian cities have begun to tackle these issues. In Delhi, The Unified Traffic and Transportation

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3.3 RUSSIAN FEDERATION awareness-raising and information campaigns There are a number of initiatives being to gain public acceptance. implemented and tested across the Russian Strict parking policies can also help with traffic Federation to improve urban traffic conditions management. Following the example of Kazan to make cities more livable. A number of these and Moscow, many major cities in Russia now can be highlighted to show examples of best impose restrictions on sidewalk car parking practice, as well as to examine some of the and paid parking zones with differentiated problems faced which, although may have a rates. At the beginning of 2019, paid parking Russian flavor here, are common experiences zones were introduced in 17 major Russian in many cities around the world. cities. Other measures in the traffic management toolkit include the introduction Traffic management of modern traffic light control systems, one- Implementing specific schemes and measures way traffic design in city centers, and traffic in the field of traffic management is a common pacification interventions. practice in Russian cities. To start, one useful tool is to offer dedicated lanes for surface Non-motorized mobility and active modes public transport. The organization of dedicated The small (150,000 inhabitants) city of infrastructure for public transport is an Almetyevsk in the Republic of Tatarstan offers important tool to improve the quality of an example of successful non-motorized services (speed, frequency, and traffic safety). mobility projects. In 2016, its administration, in In recent years, dedicated lanes have been cooperation with the ‘Copenhagenize Design introduced in many cities, and they should be Company’, planned and built 50km of bicycle organized mainly on sections with sufficient paths. The implementation of cycling as a public traffic intensity, which usually transport mode was supported by the majority correspond to trunk routes. Their (75 per cent) of citizens. The new routes were implementation should be complemented covered with special asphalt which is not with the introduction of priority passage on damaged by the roots of plants and which can regulated intersections and video monitoring last for years with little maintenance. The city to deter private cars. It is important to organize has installed more than a hundred new road signs and separate sections of traffic lights, as

CASE STUDY: Congestion in the Kazan urban road network

In recent years, the problem of traffic jams caused by mass motorization has become particularly relevant for Kazan, as it is in all major Russian cities. On average, the number of cars in the city increases by 20,000 each year. By 2019, the number of registered cars in the city reached 423,000, with a motorization level of 340 cars per 1,000 inhabitants. In order to eliminate traffic jams and to increase street capacity and speed, Kazan has created more parking spaces, cancelled left turns at some intersections, restricted the entry of freight motor transport into the city center, implemented an adaptive traffic management system, and deployed dedicated lanes for public transport.

The dedicated lanes today amount to 10 per cent of the total length of the urban road network. The priority rights of buses at intersections with traffic light control have been implemented on five bus routes within the framework of the city ITS, combining functions of the traffic management system and an automated PT management system. Work is also underway on a project to develop high-speed modes of transport, such as a fast tram and new Metrobus lines.

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Change of social risk index in the Russian Federation (2000 – 2019)

% 30 FTP 2006 - 2012 FTP 2013 - 2020

10 y = -0,572x + 1168,8 R² = 0,7042

5 Road safety strategy target to 2024 year (4 deaths per 100,000 population)

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Figure 66: Change of social risk index in the Russian Federation for the period from 2000 to 2019 well as installing footrests and handrails for types of road transport at various levels. It can cyclists to keep their balance during forced offer real-time information to citizens and stops at intersections. In two years, more than organizations about transport services in the 600 bike parking facilities have appeared in the region; offer administrators access to raw data city, all of them equipped with lights to be used for assessing the transport situation; and at night.9 provide prompt information to the emergency services. Digitalization of urban transport services and the use of navigation systems data Navigation systems data and traffic safety One of the most important sources of digital ERA-GLONASS is the Russian State emergency information in urban transport management response system for accidents, and is systems is data from satellite navigation technologically compatible with the European systems and mobile operators that allow for eCall system. The system was designed to the positioning of vehicles, individual users, enable emergency services to respond as and cargo units. Since 2009, the Russian quickly as possible to car accidents and other Federation has introduced the global incidents. Thanks to its introduction doctors, navigation satellite system GLONASS into civil firefighters, or rescuers can quickly receive operation. This satellite positioning technology information about incidents, reducing the rate allows for the roll-out of intelligent transport of death and injuries. Digital technologies have systems, such as monitoring the operation of also proven their effectiveness in ensuring transport and the management of various transport security. At the beginning of 2020

9https://zen.yandex.ru/media/poehalitv/kak- almetevsk-stal-velosipednoi-stolicei-rossii- 5ac777c61aa80c8b515f18f4

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CASE STUDY Transport planning in Perm City

Perm, a Russian city close to the Ural mountain range, is engaged in a number of reorganizations of its authority structure, particular in relation to traffic management. The Perm Directorate of Road Traffic is responsible for engineering work relating to the installation and management of traffic management and traffic control facilities, as well as the appropriate arrangement of streets and roads. In 2018 and 2019 the city launched a number of transport-related schemes, aiming to build on an existing multi-modal transport macro-model of road traffic:

• Integrated Scheme of Traffic Management in the Perm region for the period between 2019 and 2033, including proposals to develop transport services; • Recommendations for the integrated development of transport infrastructure of the Perm agglomeration and municipalities; • Promotion of inter-municipal communication relating to public transport.

approximately 4.6 million cars were equipped development, as well as the deployment of with panic buttons. During 2019, the system new urbanism and its 10 principles issues such received about 26,000 calls. as covering pedestrian accessibility and mixed use). Challenges Despite the progress made in reforming Insufficient dissemination and citizen transport systems in Russian cities, there are participation in transport decisions still a number of outstanding issues that have In some cases, there is a lack of proper to be solved to improve the efficiency and discussion in terms of urban and transport sustainability of urban transport and improve planning with residents and external the quality of life for residents. stakeholders. As an example, a number of city authorities refuse to use trolleybuses in their Inconsistency of urban planning and transport networks, yet refuse to provide any underlying policies rationale. In other cities, parking restrictions The growth of multi-story housing can often be imposed without any development (as a result of renovation consultation, especially in peripheral urban programs in many Russian cities), coupled with areas. It may appear that parking policy is a lack of transit-oriented development (TOD), being used as an instrument to raise funds has led to an increase in population density rather than regulating and redistributing without any corresponding development of transport demand. jobs and services. This, in turn, increases the transport demand in a system already High rate of civil works without proper mobility suffering from limited capacity. Such management measures inconsistency in urban development and Large road infrastructure projects (new transport translates into an increase of motorways and reconstruction of the existing ‘hypermobility’ of the population and road network) in conditions of transport increasing congestion of the transport demand growth may lead to destruction of the network. There is a clear need for widespread natural urban environment and deterioration implementation of principles and models of of quality of life without any long-term modern urban planning which can reduce and reduction in congestion. rationalize transport demand (such as the introduction of a polycentric model of city

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Outdated and disconnected urban transport Urban transport during COVID-19 priorities in strategic documents The COVID-19 pandemic has created new Most strategic documents still focus on the challenges for urban passenger transport motorized development of society, instead of systems. Public transport facilities and vehicles redistributing priorities in favor of the are potentially one of the most exposed places development of public transport (primarily in epidemic situations: up to 85 per cent of all electric) and non-motorized modes (cycling, potential points of contact in cities occur on walking). Synergies across documents need to public transport systems. Public policies to be further developed to promote public prevent and reduce the spread of the epidemic transport as an efficient and sustainable model include regulatory measures in the transport that can be used across the country. industry. During the peak of the epidemic, passenger traffic in Moscow and other large Insufficient promotion of active mobility. Russian cities decreased by more than 70-80 Active mobility should be considered as an per cent. However, city administrations still important and equal element of urban need to take all possible measures to ensure transport systems when conceiving and that public transport remains safe without implementing transport plans. However, the significantly restricting its operation. network of bike paths remains insufficient and pedestrians are still exposed to major risks when using public spaces. There is also an absence of clear information on the negative impact of motor vehicles on both the environment and public health.

At a federal level, the necessary competencies and responsibility are not clearly established and remain divided in a number of important areas. Mobility management; monitoring the environmental characteristics of active vehicles; and the development of methods and procedures to assess the impact of urban transport on the environment are all issues that need federal input, as leaving vital policy areas to city and state authorities may reduce the level of effectiveness of important policy tools.

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buses serve about 8 per cent and 10 per cent, 3.4 VIETNAM yet the transit supply levels in these cities are A number of common trends can be observed still far below international standards. in Vietnam. Travel demand is increasing in Internationally, standards suggest there cities due to fast urbanization. Motorcycle and should be about 1000 buses per million people, car ownership are both rapidly increasing as however in HCMC and Hanoi the figure is 250- personal income rises. Yet despite accelerated 350 buses/million people. motorization the road network is further Both HCMC and Hanoi have plans for a mass lagging behind and public transport services rapid transit network by 2030 with a vision to are still under development. It seems that extending out to 2050. According to the transit transport policies are not keeping up with the masterplan, a network of eight MRT lines, rapid urbanization occurring in both big and three tram ways, and six BRT routes will be medium cities, resulting in increased traffic developed by 2030 (Figure 67). So far, congestion and growing problems with air however, network development has been slow pollutions and progress is often delayed. The first two High growths in urban population MRT lines, which were planned to be Vietnam is the third most populous country in operational in 2018 and 2020, are still under Southeast Asia (after Indonesia and the construction. Due to delays in project approval Philippines) and the 15th most populous and construction, the operation of MRT 1 may country in the world. The national population start in 2022 and MRT 5 is to be pushed back increased by 10.4 million people over the last from 2020 to 2026. The construction starts of decade and is now 96.2 million. The urban the first BRT line sponsored by the World Bank population is 33.1 million people, equivalent to has also been delayed from 2016 to 2020 due 34.4 per cent of the total population. This rapid growth in the urban population has been contributed by rural-urban migration and decisions to change administrative boundaries means that Vietnam’s urban population is forecasted to grow to about 52 million people by 2025.

Limited and slower development of transport infrastructure and services Urban road infrastructure is currently quite limited, but is slowly expanding and cannot keep pace with the fast urbanization and accelerated motorization. The road network density in HCMC and Hanoi is about 1.9-2.2 km/km2, just one third to half of the planning standard (4-6 km/km2), causing congestion and average traffic speeds of around 6-7 km/h during rush hours in the central business districts.

Buses are the primary public transport mode in cities and provinces, however bus networks Figure 67: Planned mass transit network in Ho Chi Minh serve less than 1 per cent of the travel demand. City. Source: JICA, 2015 Exceptional cases are HCMC and Hanoi, where

Figure 68: Development plan for Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Region. Source: Hanoi DOT, 2019 to the prolonged approval of feasibility studies driving force for current and future and detailed design plans. development.

Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Region: Connectivity The city has seen a trend of manufacturing and Accessibility Issues shift away from the central city and out Covering the Southern Key Economic region towards secondary cities in the vicinity, with a radius of nearly 200km from the central however the development of secondary cities point of HCMC, the Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan is still limited (World Bank, 2019). While Region (or the South East Region) features employment has been moved outside HCMC, multi-central poles in which HCMC is a main the number of firms located inside the city hub and provincial level cities are linked poles have still increased over time (Figure 69). earmarked for multi-directional development. While the hub and pole model has even more Satellite cities are concentrated in five main growth as an aim, so far most growth and poles (Figure 68). This model is designed to urbanization has occurred in just two of the exploit the potential of the sub regions around five poles (the east and north), with only a HCMC, and urban economic corridors are limited emergence of secondary cities (World being developed under specialized economic Bank, 2019). development zoning. Industrial economic urban corridors are being built to connect national and international regions to create a

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Figure 6911: Shares of firms and employments in Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Region. Source: Chen, 2019

Limited development of secondary cities is transport corridors, such as railway and explained by weak connections, low density expressways, have not been developed to urban development, weak rural-urban links, connect the region with the Central Highlands and fragmentation and a lack of coordination and Mekong River Delta, the two areas with in infrastructure development. Rapid large-scale agricultural production, restricting urbanization, occurring through decisions to the amount of products that can be change rural to urban land, coupled with transported to international markets via limited infrastructure development, have seaports and border gates. The limited caused low and stagnant densities and capacity of the existing road infrastructure impeded agglomeration economies. Much causes congestion and higher transportation development has taken place in the peri-urban costs, while a loose decentralization and lack areas beyond the urban core, and the low of coordination in developing regional density developments with weak regional infrastructure, economic corridors, and connections do not contribute to the well- metropolises, undermines the efficiency of functioning of an economically and physically existing infrastructure. integrated metropolitan region (World Bank,

2016). Additionally, the transport infrastructure developed in rural areas mainly serves livelihoods, not commercial agribusiness demand. Strategic inter-regional

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4 HOW TO MAKE URBAN TRANSPORT SUSTAINABLE IN ASIA-PACIFIC

scales simultaneously as inter-related and Introduction inter-dependent, yet separate enough to Holistic and systemic thinking are key for contain, comprehend, and manage at the sustainable transport in cities. All the more so design and administration level. in a sustainable city, one should see proper integration of the whole population with From these holistic guidelines for sustainable dignity and opportunity given to all classes. cities and their transport systems, we can Most of all, there must be real community – sketch priority areas and ways in which Asian which is also the only resilient protection countries can intervene to make against slow and expensive social transportation systems more sustainable and disintegration and the specter of an eventual inclusive. collapse of the city from ‘vision’ to ‘failed Integrated land use and urban transportation experiment’. That sense of community planning transpires through shared public Urban transportation planning should consider transportation services, for instance. land use planning and the growth patterns of Community is vital, not as an add-on or a cities. Integrated transport master plans meeting hall tucked into the corner of a should be developed considering future formless mass of dwellings, but as something growth and expansion. Short, medium, and supported by design for the essentials of long-term transportation plans need to be community. developed and implemented. The plans should In that sense, technology is not the end target, consider integration of all modes of transport but instead best practices help the structuring such as roads, subways, light rail transit (LRT), both of the design, management, and the bus rapid transit (BRT), railways, bicycle routes, maintenance of the city on the basis of people, and walkways, and allow for seamless good communication, and appropriate intermodal transfer of users. Various modes of systems, such as ITS for traffic management. public transport within a city should not be designed and developed as competing modes Resilience is the third key to our cities as it is – but as complementary modes. Usually a trip achieved by ensuring flexibility and avoiding needs to use a combination of modes including rigid design or management approaches that walking – which depends on patterns of spatial might exclude future innovation or solutions development and the availability of transport that may not be visible (or even conceivable) at services. Multimodal transport and transit the outset of the city’s development. stations need to be accessible, with walking Resilience works in synergy with its and cycling and parking facilities for bicycles environment as adaption to the ecosystem is available nearby. key to ensure resilience. A city cannot be sustainable in any meaningful sense of the Public transportation systems word unless it works with nature to restore Once the various elements of urban biodiversity and maintain ecosystem health. transportation infrastructure are developed based on an integrated urban transportation We believe that an urban ‘fractal’ design, that plan, then public transportation services looks at cities through various granularity and should be provided to the urban population, level of scope and size (street, neighborhoods, including the marginalized urban poor. There city), combined with continual scenario could be various forms of interconnected planning, is a way of addressing small and large public transport such as bus, BRT, LRT, subway

and metro systems, trams, urban railways, and CO2 emissions reduction and 37 per cent so on, depending on the size and economy of increase in travel speed. The introduction of the city. In order to reduce dependency on electronic road pricing in Singapore reduced private transport, policies to increase the share total traffic within cordon area by 14 per cent of public transport modes are essential. Public and increased travel speed by 22 per cent transport should be planned to be safe, secure, reliable, frequent, convenient, affordable, and Non-motorized transport comfortable. The elimination of subsidies for Non-motorized transport (NMT) is a viable competing modes of transport such as private alternative mode of transport which reduces cars and taxis is essential for a vibrant and air pollution and CO2 emissions and conserves functioning public transport system, as is the fossil fuel. Two popular forms of non- enforcement of laws against unsafe and motorized transport are walking and cycling. undesirable forms of transport. Coordination The range of NMT infrastructure is vast but among various public transport modes and includes pedestrian sidewalks, cycle tracks, sky routes, integrating timetables, and providing walks, pedestrian zones, provision of free or real-time information to users can enhance the rental cycles in cities, bicycle parking areas efficiency of operations and services. One near stations, car free zones, and car free days. important aspect of using various modes is fare The construction of sky walkways below some integration and integrated ticketing, which of the sky train lines and the installation of makes it more efficient, attractive, and more elevators has increased mobility and use of convenient for users. Many cities are using public transportation in cities such as Bangkok. integrated ticketing in public transport 4.1 OVERALL STRATEGIES TO BOLSTER Transportation demand management (TDM) Mobility management measures include a SUSTAINABLE URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT wide range of measures including TDM, among It is essential that, in order to meet the urban others. Modal shift (demand distribution) can mobility challenge, cities need to implement be induced through TDM measures such as one of the following three strategies public transport improvement. Demand dependent on their maturity and the share of reduction (‘Avoid’) can also be achieved using sustainable transport in their modal split: TDM measures. Mobility management 1. Rethink the System: Cities in mature measures might include strategies or policies countries with a high proportion of directed to modify the transportation offer, for motorized individual transport need to instance. shape political agendas to fundamentally Transportation demand management redesign their mobility systems so that measures such as the promotion of public they become more orientated towards transport and discouraging private vehicles can public transport and sustainability. be employed to improve operational efficiency, limit traffic congestion, and improve 2. Network the System: For mature cities traffic flows in urban areas. Common policies with a high share of sustainable transport include parking restrictions and pricing, modes, the next step must be to fully congestion charging, area licensing schemes, integrate the travel value chain to foster electronic road pricing, car sharing, seamless, multimodal mobility while designation of high occupancy lanes, and the ensuring ’one face to the customer’ and to improvement of public transportation increase the overall attractiveness of services. The introduction of congestion public transport by service extension. This charging in Central London led to a 19 per cent group contains the majority of cities in

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Europe as well as Hong Kong, Singapore, developing countries, through Seoul, Tokyo, Toronto, and Buenos Aires. partnerships with international organizations, multilateral development 3. Establish a Sustainable Core: For cities in banks, and governments at all levels, to emerging countries with partly ensure equitable access to markets, jobs, underdeveloped mobility systems, the aim education, and other necessities. must be to establish a sustainable mobility 5. Reinforce efforts toward preventing road core that can satisfy short term demand at traffic deaths and injuries. a reasonable cost without replicating the 6. Foster an informed, engaged public as a mistakes from developed countries. With crucial partner in advancing sustainable access to emerging transport transport solutions. infrastructure and technologies, these 7. Establish monitoring and evaluation cities have the opportunity to become the frameworks for sustainable transport, and test-beds and breeding grounds for build capacity for gathering and analyzing tomorrow’s urban mobility systems. sound and reliable data and statistics. 8. Promote diversified funding sources and The United Nations Secretary-General’s High- coherent fiscal frameworks to advance Level Advisory Group on Sustainable Transport sustainable transport systems, initiatives, promotes a similar strategy, tailored as and and projects. named the ‘Avoid-Shift-Improve’ approach as 9. Increase international development a useful framework for assessing transport funding and climate funding for measures and for taking action in support of sustainable transport. sustainable passenger and freight transport. 10. Promote sustainable transport We believe that applying these principles will technologies through outcome-oriented promote a combination of multimodal, government investment and policies that collective-shared mobility solutions and encourage private sector investment and sustainable transport systems. The Advisory action through various incentive Group submits the following ten structures. recommendations for Mobilizing Sustainable Transport for Development. A National Sustainable Transport Strategy A National Sustainable Transport Strategy 1. Make transport planning, policy, and (NTS) is a document generated by a investment decisions based on the three government to provide a holistic framework sustainable development dimensions – for developing a country’s transport system in social development, environmental the short-, medium-, and long-term. Given the (including climate) impacts, and economic broad scope of national transport issues and growth – and a full life cycle analysis. impacts, an NTS will thus be relevant to all 2. Integrate all sustainable transport levels of society and government. An NTS will planning efforts with an appropriately- refer to all modes and types of transport, balanced development of transport including road, rail, maritime, air, and modes: integration vertically among levels waterway; urban and rural; and freight and of government and horizontally across passenger. It is thus an all-inclusive strategy. modes, territories, and sectors. 3. Create supportive institutional, legal, and The strategy seeks to provide an overarching regulatory government frameworks to framework that is comprised of the following promote effective sustainable transport. components: (i) national transportation goals 4. Build technical capacity of transport and/or objectives; (ii) policy principles; (iii) planners and implementers, especially in strategies; and (iv) interventions, policies, and

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actions. A strategy is the highest level of goal, missing the integrated, strategic view projection for a country and consequently is an that a NTS can offer. umbrella document for other more localized or The cross-cutting nature of transport lends less comprehensive documents, such as itself to a strategic approach, as the successful regional or modal master plans or lists of development of a transport system will require projects. the mobilization of all levels of government, in The difference between a national transport addition to across various agencies. Indeed, as policy document and a national transport transport is vital to other development sectors, strategy can be observed when examining the the planning and strategizing for the sector policy documents of Poland and Pakistan. 10 should be undertaken by using a multi-sectoral While both documents provide key challenges, approach. 11 As noted in Australia’s National objectives, and policy principles, neither Transport Policy Framework, there is often document presents a clear link to national significant overlap in the nature of issues and goals or KPIs to achieve the stated objectives. solutions between sectors (such as land use in Neither document establishes a framework for the case of transport). In Australia’s case, the progress or tangible actions that will be taken. “uncertainty and duplication that arises from In both policies, the objectives are organized jurisdictionally-based policies imposes by mode, as opposed to by national transport additional costs and adversely impacts on the

Figure 70: Example of an NTS from Malaysia

10 The World Bank (2011) and The World Bank 11 Bedward (2013). (2007), respectively.

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Figure 71: The factors needed in a successful National Sustainable Transport Strategy ability of the private sector to efficiently invest with an appropriate approach to and and operate in the national transport considerations for the NTS. The process itself environment.” Therefore, in order to promote of generating an NTS can be a highly valuable the efficient use of government resources and and illuminating experience, forcing avoid gaps in addressing these issues, the governments to uncover and holistically generation and adoption of an NTS across address deeply embedded, and previously sectoral and geographic jurisdictions is critical. overlooked, issues. The redundancy that occurs from a siloed, agency-specific approach is largely avoidable

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Figure 72: How to create a Framework for a National Transport Strategy

How to transcribe a National Sustainable few example policy principles that could be Transport Policy into Actions adapted for a NTS.

In order to achieve its objectives, and The strategic objectives for a transport sector ultimately contribute to achieving national must be operationalized within the larger goals, a sustainable transport sector will need context of a monitoring and performance to adhere to previously agreed policy management framework, consistent with the principles. These will ensure policymakers are approach defined below. Meeting the making decisions guided by the same objectives identified should be a whole-of- framework, with the purpose of achieving government undertaking, with responsibility national transport goals in a cohesive and for their achievement spread across different complementary manner. Figure 71 presents a agencies, requiring collaboration and joint working.

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CASE STUDY: Planning Coordination for Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Region

In the Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Region, spatial development planning and management systems are built upon existing and governing structures with central and provincial levels (Figure 73). Regional coordination is managed through the development plan of the south east region, which includes HCMC and seven surrounding provinces. Central government influences HCMC by issuing national sectoral plans covering areas such as transport and energy, adopting regional and provincial plans such as 10-year land-use plans, urban construction plans (UCP), and provincial socioeconomic development strategies (SEDP). The SEDP sets political goals for future urban growth, while UCPs materialize goals with spatial arrangements and connect sectoral and utility plans.

National spatial planning & management system

National or inter-provincial plan

Provincial/ Plan, policy, strategy to manage urban development regional/ special area plan National sector

Implementation monitoring plan, strategy, Resource policy for plan (soco – Land use Transport development at economic) plan plan different sector and level Urban region, city and rural plan, sector Operational integration plan Other sector Other plans infrastructure ??? plans

Tactical & operational integration

Strategic Tactical integration

Strategic Integration Figure 73: Ho Chi Minh Metropolitan Region Plan. Source: Ha and Nguyen, 2018 (AUC2018)

Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans are key strategy. Therefore, these plans should be instruments for planning and can help foster developed in cooperation across different balanced development and a better policy areas and sectors (transport, land-use integration of different urban mobility modes. and spatial planning, environment, economic ThisCASE planning STUDY: conceptPlanning highlightsCoordination that for urban Ho Chi Minhdevelopment, Metropolitan social Region policy, health, road safety, mobility is primarily about people. It etc.); across different levels of government and emphasizesIn the Ho Chi Minhcitizen Metropolitan and Region, stakeholder spatial developmentadministration; planning as and well management as with authorities systems in engagement,are built upon as existingwell as fosteringand governing changes structures in withneighboring central and areas provincial – both urbanlevels and(Figure rural. 15). mobilityRegional behavior coordination. is managed through the development plan of the south east region, which includes HCMC and seven surrounding provinces. CentralPlanning government instruments influences come HCMC as by a issuing second Thenational Sustainable sectoral Urban plans Mobility covering Plan areas concept such as transportinstrument and and energy, shall adoptinginclude all regional measures and that considersprovincial theplans functional such as 10 urban-year land area-use and plans, urbanfocus construction on the plans ’smarter (UCP),’ andplanning provincial of proposessocioeconomic that action development on urban strategies mobility (SEDP). is Theinfrastructure, SEDP sets political i.e., planning goals for that future helps urban reduce embeddedgrowth, while into UCPs a wider materialize urban and goals territorial with spatial arrangementsor optimize and transport, connect sectoral encompassing and utility both plans. UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 113

CASE STUDY: Connecting the Flows in Tokyo

As Tokyo’s urban landscape has evolved, developments have become increasingly sophisticated and complicated. There has been an increasing concentration of people in the city center for both work and recreation. The city’s metro system is one of the world’s busiest, serving 3.3 billion passengers annually.

To prevent crowding and disorder in key locations, the city created connections to allow pedestrian traffic to flow better. Efficient, layered connections were built to link sprawling underground pedestrian networks at metro stations. Walkways were widened, and some were doubled in width. These were connected to improved street-level infrastructure, and all were designed to link seamlessly.

A new core retail area was established linking Tokyo and Yurakucho stations and serving a combined 1.2 million passengers daily in 2016. Spaces were opened for events and exhibitions. The Central Business District (CBD) became a highly accessible, attractive public space drawing large crowds, with visitors to the office district more than tripling on weekends.

Planning matters. A key enabler was the established, widespread underground network at key transport nodes – all that was needed was to connect them. By creating compact, mixed-used developments around public transport nodes, workplaces and social activities were brought closer to people. An increase in human traffic can be induced and accommodated through infrastructural enhancements, creating a busy yet vibrant and orderly environment.

public transport and non-motorized modes planning in our strategy. On one hand, the suchCASE as STUDY:cycling andConnecting walking. the Flows in Tokyo provision of new and improved public transport is essential to reduce emissions of SmartAs Tokyo’s infrastructure urban landscape planning has and evolved, design widevelopmentsll have become increasingly sophisticated greenhouse gases. ‘Public transport’ can influenceand complicated. both the There demand has been for an andincreasing the concentration of people in the city center for both include buses, rail, light rail, metro, and efficiencywork and of recreation.transport. The The needcity’s to metro travel system can is one of the world’s busiest, serving 3.3 billion underground systems. Attractive, accessible, bepassengers reduced when annually. the various forms of land use and reliable public transport systems can (such as residential houses, offices, shops, To prevent crowding and disorder in key locations,provide the the city basis created for alternative connections mode to allow use in public services, etc.) are not separated in pedestrian traffic to flow better. Efficient, layeredcities. connections On the other were hand, built t tohe linkencouragement sprawling different city quarters but mixed within close underground pedestrian networks at metro stations.and Walkways facilitation were of widened,increased and levels some of walkingwere proximity of one another – a strategy termed doubled in width. These were connected to improvedand street cycling-level is infrastructure, essential in any and all successful were ‘mixed land use’. A smart mixture can designed to link seamlessly. sustainable transport strategy. Cycling and significantly reduce the need to travel (or walking as modes do not produce any direct distancesA new core travelled) retail area – wasand established, thus energy linking Tokyo and Yurakucho stations, and serving a emissions. As emissions from motorized consumptioncombined 1.2 and million emissions. passengers In addition, daily smartin 2016. Spaces were opened for events and exhibitions. transport are highest at a cold start of the infrastructureThe Central Business design canDistrict also (CBD) include became non- a highly accessible, attractive public space drawing engine, short trips are disproportionately motorizedlarge crowds, transport with visitors modes to like the walking office district and more than tripling on weekends. polluting. These shorter trips are most suitable cycling from the very beginning of urban Planning matters. A key enabler was the established,for widespread non-motorized underground modes. network at key design and planning. Good access to public transport nodes – all that was needed was connect them. By creating compact, mixed-used transport can be a major contributor to cutting developments around public transport nodes, workplacesRegulatory and social instruments activities were brought closer emissions as public transport is, in most cases, to people. An increase in human traffic can be inducedRegulatory and accommodated instruments through can beinfrastructural implemented more energy efficient. enhancements, creating a busy yet vibrant and orderlyby environment. the public administration or the political bodies at the national, regional/provincial, or Planning for public transport and non- local level and can include fuel consumption motorized modes is the most granular level of

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regulations, physical restraint measures, traffic more polluting vehicles) will be banned from management measures, regulation of parking, entering. Such restrictions have obvious and limitations placed on speed. Measures aim benefits for local air quality improvements, but to either discourage travel or deny access could also reduce greenhouse gas emissions if completely to certain traffic/vehicles. the area is large enough and can encourage people to use alternative modes. However, In order to achieve a ‘quick-win’ in reducing this instrument assumes that emission emissions from vehicles, city authorities can standards are evident for vehicles being used implement measures that physically restrict within the city, and will require a high level of access for certain motorized vehicles. When administration and technology to set up and implemented successfully, such measures can enforce the restrictions. be effective in reducing traffic volumes and associated greenhouse gas emissions. Traffic management measures and the Furthermore, they can increase the regulation of parking spaces are also effective attractiveness of public transport, improve the regulatory instruments. Where the quality of public space and the quality of life in implementation of physical restraint measures cities. is difficult, transport authorities may wish to use traffic management measures in order to Low Emission Zones (LEZs) are areas into which smooth traffic flows. This helps ease access is permitted only to vehicles or classes congestion, and therefore improves fuel of vehicles meeting a prescribed standard of efficiency and reduces emissions. As with road emissions. Local transport and planning space, the provision of parking is closely linked authorities can determine an area within a city to demand. Parking in developing cities is a from which certain vehicles (usually older, particular problem, where highways and

CASE STUDY: Management of the Transport System of Perm City

Perm is a large city with a population of over a million. It is a major administrative, industrial, scientific, and cultural center of the region and is the fourth largest city in Russia by area. There are several administrative (executive) bodies that deal with the planning and organization of its transport systems:

• Department of Transport of City Administration, which is responsible for organizing public transport services within the borders of the city of Perm; • Department of Roads and Municipal Improvement of the City Administration, which is responsible for organizing construction, reconstruction, repair, and maintenance of local roads, traffic management, road safety, and parking facilities; • Department of Urban Planning and Architecture of the City Administration, which ensures sustainable development, urban zoning, and planning. The department also creates a spatial development strategy.

These administrative bodies are part of the system of local self-government and their activities are subordinate to legislation. The executive body performs its functions on the basis of and in compliance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Federal Legislation, Presidential Decrees, Laws of Federal subjects, and municipalities. Administrative bodies organize the execution of decisions of a representative body of local self-government, resolve issues of local significance, and carry out executive and administrative activities in the territory of the municipality.

CASE STUDY:UN ESCAP Management - Recommendations of the towardsTransport safe, System green, smart of Perm and inclusive City urban transport Page 115 Perm is a large city with a population of over a million It is a major administrative, industrial, scientific, and cultural center of the region and is the fourth largest city in Russia by area. There are several administrative (executive) bodies that deal with the planning and organization of

walkways are often littered with parked changes of transport users through raising vehicles. Parking supply restrictions can make awareness of alternatives modes. Typical car use unattractive and contribute to modal examples are public awareness campaigns, shift. These restrictions are often implemented mobility management, and driver education. alongside parking pricing measures. Public awareness campaigns and mobility Economic Instruments management Whilst economic instruments have often been Public awareness campaigns can take many used for financing infrastructure costs in the forms. Most often they are used to inform the past, one key aim of economic instruments as public about the travel alternatives available to they are currently used is to discourage the use them or about the environmental, economic, of private vehicles (or others) or encourage and social impacts of (motorized) transport. more (energy-) efficient use of transport Marketing of sustainable transport solutions is through the implementation of charges or essential when attempting to secure public taxes on transport. The use of these economic acceptance, and therefore should always be instruments often aims to internalize external taken into consideration when promoting costs, such as taking into account the effects of sustainable transport policies. greenhouse gas emissions. The instruments discussed here include road pricing, fuel Driver behavior training and education / eco- taxation, vehicle taxation, and parking pricing. driving The way in which a vehicle is driven or Road pricing, fuel taxation, and vehicle maintained has a direct impact on fuel taxation are the most common instruments. consumption, and subsequently operating The motivations for road pricing are various. costs and emissions. Through the provision of They include raising revenue to pay for ‘Eco-Driving’ education and training, driver infrastructure, reducing congestion, and behavior may be altered to achieve greater reducing emissions. In general, road pricing fuel efficiencies. Estimates show that average increases the cost of running a vehicle thus fuel savings (and emission reductions) are in encouraging the use of alternative modes. the range of 10 to 15 per cent. Individual fuel Political administrations may consider the use saving potential may even be up to 25 per cent. of taxes on fuel at the national level. Fuel taxes Key methods of improving fuel efficiency can increase the price of travelling and thus have relate to driving style/behavior (speed, braking an indirect effect on individual travel behavior and acceleration, engine idling, carrying and decisions. Fuel taxes are a way of charging capacity, and cold starts) and vehicle the users of transport infrastructure relative to condition, engine maintenance, tires, oil and individual use. The main principle behind air filter, and vehicle age). vehicle taxation is to charge vehicle ownership. Vehicle taxes are often regarded as an ‘access Technology based strategy fee’ to use the road network, and can be an The key aims in order to achieve reduced important source of tax revenue. greenhouse gas emissions from transport are to change travel behavior and/or the Awareness, communication, and information technology used. Planning, regulatory, instruments economic, and information instruments can be There are a number of information used to achieve behavioral change and/or instruments available to decision makers to technological change. complement – or act as an alternative – to more resource intensive instruments. These ‘soft’ measures may induce behavioral

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CASE STUDY: Parking policy in Russian cities

Perm City. The number of cars in the city in 2019 was 252,969 (240 cars per 1,000 residents). Parking policy is implemented through the ’Parking Space of Perm’ framework, which was launched to solve the problem of chaotic parking of cars on the streets and create conditions for convenient movement of pedestrians and vehicles. The cost of car parking in specially designated parking spaces is 20 rubles (about US$0.26) per hour, while a motorcycle or moped costs 10 rubles per hour.

Kazan City. A unified city parking space system, using Russian-developed software, combines payment, control, and information subsystems to be able to manage 30,000 parking spaces, covering not just the city but neighboring authorities.

For user convenience, 10 electronic information boards are installed on entrances to parking lots. These are linked to the Kazan parking space portal and display information about the number of available parking spaces. Payment can be made by using parking meters located near parking lots using bank cards or international payment systems, a transport card, sending an SMS message, or by using the mobile app ‘Kazan Parking’

Parking fees depend on parking occupancy rates, and are set taking into account the turnover of parking spaces and their load, which should not fall below 50 per cent and should not exceed 85 per cent during peak hours.

In 2016, as part of the expansion of the unified urban parking space, the Executive Committee of Kazan organized the first flat municipal paid parking for 150 parking spaces combined with cycling parking for 50 places. Any car owner can rent a bike for free while parking their car.

CASE STUDY: Parking policy in Russian cities

For user convenience, 10 electronic information boards are installed on entrances to parking lots. These are linked to Kazan parking space portal and displays information about the number of available parking spaces. Payment can be made by using parking meters located near parking lots using bank cards or international payment systems, a transport card, sending an SMS message, or byusing the mobile app ‘Kazan Parking’

Parking fees depend on parking occupancy rates, and is set taking into account the turnover of parking spaces and their load, which should not fall below 50 per cent and should not exceed 85 per cent during peak hours.

In 2016, as part of the expansion of the unified urban parking space, the Executive Committee of UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 117 Kazan, organized the first flat municipal paid parking for 150 parking spaces combined with cycling parking for 50 places. Any car owner can rent a bike for free while parking their car.

Figure 74: Sustainable Transport Instrument Overview. (1) Level of Implementation and responsible stakeholders

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Figure 75: Sustainable Transport Instrument Overview (2) Contribution to GHG reduction, co-benefits

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Policy crafting, governance, and stakeholder Because transport is a complex issue with engagement implications for a wide range of sectors and Policy instruments go hand in hand with the populations, economic actors, and individuals, need to develop national frameworks, policy makers are most successful when they strategies and guidelines for sustainable pursue an integrated approach to achieve transport systems. Countries need to evaluate sustainable transport – horizontal integration existing policies and their transportation among sectors, institutions and modes, and systems, identify policy gaps, adopt innovative vertically among levels of jurisdiction and strategies and polices, and adopt appropriate authority. The need to effectively integrate technology and integrated approaches for transport and land use policy and planning has sustainable and inclusive transport long been recognized, but in too many cases, development. policy development and planning is still carried out in silos. By approaching land use and National and local governments as well as transport planning as two sides of the same municipalities and city councils are key (access) coin, decision-makers will be able to stakeholders in developing a sustainable and create more effective transport corridors, inclusive urban transportation system. A parking and street designs, efforts to enhance targeted program should be planned to multimodal transport, and ‘placemaking’ establish or strengthen institutional linkages (creating public spaces to foster community and coordination between national, local, and interaction and enhance quality of life). city agencies. In addition, private sector Integrated planning will help cities develop transport operators and logistics service low-carbon, affordable, resilient mobility providers are involved in the development and solutions, advancing the goal of compact, operation of transport systems, as well as the connected, and coordinated cities to address concept of sustainability in business practices, the challenge of urban sprawl and the and their operations and services need to be associated public and farmland grabbing that utilized fully. undermines the economic viability of rural areas.

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CASE STUDY: NUTP 2006 and urban planning and transport changes

Following Indian independence in 1947, urban transport did not become part of the government's agenda until its sixth Five Year Plan (1982-87). The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) envisaged better public transportation facilities in the cities along with the promotion of Non- Motorized Transport (NMT). The primary aim was to improve the mobility of people rather than vehicles. The coverage of the policy was focused on cities with a population of more than a million, meaning it oversaw cities containing almost 70 per cent of India's urban population.

One major objective of the NUTP was to integrate land use and transport planning through formulation of plans at city level. Another major recommendation was the setting up of local institutes to take control of all transport related activities (Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority, UMTA) under one umbrella.

The formal metro and bus systems in many Indian cities have only been in development for around a decade, following the introduction of various government schemes and policies such as the JnNURM (National Urban Renewal Mission) and the NUTP. Before this, a majority of Indian cities were dependent on unorganized modes of transport such as tempos, auto rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, and small buses.

JnNURM allocated approximately 11 per cent of its mission budget ($20 billion) to urban transportation. Approximately 138 projects were undertaken with one third of the funding being allocated to Mass Transit Systems, with half allocated to road and highway construction (Anon, 2019).

UMTAs were set up at the city level, with nodal transport agencies created at state level, alongside the creation of Urban Transport Funds (UTF). However only 4 per cent of funds were allocated to NMT projects, with most going to parking schemes, road construction, and the metro system. This has led to the exclusion of pedestrian and bicycle users, who constitute 40 per cent of total mode split in India.

There has been growing recognition that cities need technical support, leading to the create of Centers of Excellence in Delhi, Chennai, Ahmedabad, and Warangal to undertake research and help build manpower capacity

CASE STUDY: NUTP 2006 and urban planning and transport changes

Motorized Transport (NMT). The primary aim was to improve the mobility of people rather than vehicles. The coverage of the policy was focused on cities with a population of more than a million, meaning it overlooked cities containing almost 70 per cent of India's urban population.

The formal metro and bus systems in many Indian cities has only been in development for around UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 121 a decade, following the introduction of various government schemes and policies such as the the JnNURM (National Urban Renewal Mission) and the NUTP. Before this, a majority of Indian cities were dependent on unorganized modes of transport such as tempos, auto rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, and small buses.

Governance frameworks for effective policy operators, financial institutions, businesses making and enterprises of all sizes, community Well-intentioned policies formulated at the organizations, research institutions, and global or national level may not be adopted or individual experts. Public consultation is a properly implemented at the local level if they mandated element of transport legislation in are not coherent with local priorities. This is many countries, and some countries are particularly important for the SDGs, as they will pursuing participatory budgeting. Stakeholder need to be implemented on the ground, in engagement can help to identify the need and many cases at the sub-national and local levels. demand for transport services. These Many countries also lack guiding national approaches also help ensure that a range of policy frameworks for cities. The ‘New Urban perspectives is considered, adding legitimacy Agenda,’ an outcome of the Habitat III to decisions, enabling co-decision making, and Conference, calls for “a renewed local-national creating a sense of ownership among partnership, in which stakeholders and local stakeholders and citizens. and sub-national governments are strategic Public education and public information partners of national governments, building a campaigns represent important tools to strong national system of cities and well- achieve behavioral change. If young people – balanced territorial development, in support of and people of all ages – can learn in school and national development targets.” National urban through the media and outreach campaigns policies that focus on mixed land use, compact about the benefits of sustainable transport, city forms, and transit-oriented development they will be more likely to make sustainable can advance sustainable transport objectives. choices in the future. These choices will be Stakeholder engagement and public reinforced further if public transport options awareness are attractive, accessible, and safe. Transport policies shape and are shaped by a wide range of stakeholders, including governments, transport authorities and

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4.2 DECARBONIZE AND REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

What does it mean to thrive for functional, easily relocate from one part of a city to decarbonized, vibrant cities? another, and that real estate is affordable. Cities have always played a central role in Asian cities need to do a lot on these fronts. economic development by bringing workers Tests using Google Maps in 278 natural cities and entrepreneurs together, spurring show considerable congestion during peak innovation, and sharing resources (including travel times in many large cities, such as Metro infrastructure) more efficiently. This should be Manila, Dhaka, and Bengaluru. Moreover, in good news for developing Asia: by 2050, there 199 of the cities a full quarter of the surveyed is projected to be 2.96 billion people living in trips could not be made by public transport at the region’s towns and cities – 64 per cent of all, while for the other three quarters, travel by the entire population. This is up from 1.84 public transport including walking to and from billion (or 46 per cent of the population) in the transport hub was three times longer than 2017. by car. This clearly shows that Asian cities must Unfortunately, while the region’s cities are invest much more in efficient public transport sure to grow in size, they may fail to fulfil their if businesses are to attract workers and potential as engines of growth and job creation flourish. The transport system must combine due to underinvestment in urban trains, buses, taxis, ride sharing, and less infrastructure, a lack of affordable housing, formal services like jeepneys and and unsynchronized spatial and economic autorickshaws – but regulating them well – to planning. improve mobility.

First, policymakers must achieve a more ’Public spaces’, in the simplest terms, are the accurate and granular understanding of how spaces between buildings and facilities that are their countries are urbanizing. New data open to the public, consisting broadly of three sources are needed because official statistics types of urban spaces: streets and pedestrian often fail to capture the true urban footprint of access; open and green spaces, including cities since they rely on municipal boundaries parks, plazas, waterbodies, and waterfronts; drawn decades ago. Satellite imagery, and public facilities like libraries, community however, shows clearly that developing Asia’s centers, and municipal markets (UN-Habitat, cities are expanding without regard to those 2015). They range from informal street corners boundaries, forming what we call ‘natural where people gather to prominent city plazas cities’. This means urban planning cannot and landmarks. Global experience has shown simply stop at the city limits. Efficient transport how these varied types of public spaces can networks that extend from neighborhoods to directly contribute to cities’ functionalities, workplaces prevent fragmentation of a city’s including social interactions, urban health, labor market. labor markets, and urban environment, to name a few. Second, policymakers must think of cities as labor markets. To be sure, cities are much Streets are public spaces that range from more than places of work. However, they narrow pedestrian alleys in historic cities to cannot thrive unless they function well for large boulevards, such as La Rambla in both enterprises and workers. This requires Barcelona and the avenues of Beijing. The that travel within the city or city cluster is fast design of streets as public spaces necessitates and cheap, that firms and households can significant improvements to enhance personal

and traffic safety and to allow the under- meeting the travel/transport needs, privileged and users with special needs such as and/or shifting to off-peak travel, and the disabled, elderly, women, and children to • Improving the environmental participate fully in public realm activities. performance of transport through Streets also provide critical spaces for intra-city technological, operational, regulatory, mobility and support livelihoods for the urban or pricing, and/or infrastructure poor. The share of street vending as a improvements to make transport percentage of total employment can vary from vehicles and equipment and the around 5 per cent in many cities to 20 per cent provision of transport more energy in others (UN-Habitat 2013). efficient and less carbon intensive.

Given that motorized vehicles are a big source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, cities that Cities around the world have a need to prioritize their streets for walkability and establish sustainable transport systems, to cycling over motor vehicles can tackle climate provide efficient and safe mobility for their change by reducing carbon emissions. citizens with minimal environmental impacts. Copenhagen, for example, aspires to combat With limited opportunity to build new climate change by becoming carbon-neutral by infrastructure, many cities need to increase 2025 – a core strategy being the targeting of 75 the efficiency and capacity of their transport per cent of all trips to be on foot, by bike, or systems and are turning to innovative and public transport (City of Copenhagen 2012). technically advanced systems to contribute to The traditional approach to meeting the this objective. demand in passenger and freight transport has Cities, regions, and countries around the world been the provision of additional infrastructure, often share similar urban mobility challenges but this supply-side oriented approach has not with some cities being more or less progressive delivered sustainable outcomes. As an than others. While there are advantages to alternative, the concept known as ‘Avoid-Shift- sharing best practices, examples, and lessons Improve’ is built on the principles of learnt, it is beneficial for city officials and other sustainability, and the current report posits relevant stakeholders to have a robust that a nationally- or context-tailored version of methodology in place, which they can follow to the approach provides an appropriate guiding implement and harmonize successful urban framework. mobility policies, measures, and technologies. • Avoiding inefficient or unnecessary

travel or transport, where appropriate, e.g. by improved and integrated urban planning, compact city form, transport demand management, less complex and extended supply chains, and e- communication options (mobile phone use, teleworking), • Shifting travel/transport to improve trip efficiency through most efficient or environmentally friendly mode or

combination of modes, capable of

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CASE STUDY: Active transportation development in Russian cities

The urban infrastructure in Moscow, including cycling and pedestrian infrastructure, has been significantly transformed over the past 10 years. Many streets, motorways, squares, embankments and public spaces have been improved and as a result the space for pedestrians has been doubled

The City Program ‘Improvement of Streets and Urban Public Spaces ‘My Street’ for 2015-2018’ was adopted by the Moscow Government after public pressure from residents. Citizens help to control the conditions of city infrastructure, roads, houses, and parks by sending their proposals to the ‘Our City’ portal. This is the program of complex improvement of Moscow’s streets, which includes the renewal of pedestrian zones, sidewalks, facades and lighting, cycling paths, tree planting, and arrangement of small architectural forms.

The cycling infrastructure now includes 850km of cycling paths on the streets and in parks. The Velobike rental system includes 530 rental stations and more than 5,300 rentals, while a scooter rental system has 3,250 scooters available city-wide.

In Perm, meanwhile, there are 20 bike parking and 18 bike rental points, yet there is no common cycling network in the city. New bike paths are paved only during general reconstruction. The bicycle is not considered to be an independent mode of urban transport by city authorities and the share of bicycles in the population's transportation is extremely small.

Figure 76: Bike rental point.

CASE STUDY: Active transportation modes development in Russian cities

The City Program ‘Improvement of Streets and Urban Public Spaces ‘My Street’ for 2015-2018’ was adopted by the Moscow Government after public pressure from residents. Citizens help to control the conditions of city infrastructure, roads, houses, and parks by sending their proposals to the ‘OurUN City’ESCAP portal. - Recommendations This is the programtowards safe, of green,complex smart improvement and inclusive urban of Moscow’s transport Page streets, 125 which includes the renewal of pedestrian zones, sidewalks, facades and lighting, creation of cycling paths, tree planting, and arrangement of small architectural forms

Cycling infrastructure now includes 850km of cycling paths on the streets and in parks. The

In India, for instance, while overall car • build the capacity of concerned public ownership is low compared to other cities institutions on urban transport issues around the world, even current levels have In China, as in neighboring India, car ownership resulted in severe congestion and a is rapidly increasing. The growth of the urban deteriorated urban environment including population is therefore accompanied by a road fatalities, air pollution, greenhouse gas deterioration of air quality and increased (GHG) emissions, economic loss and so on. congestion. It is recognized that investing in There are clear needs to: road infrastructure has only increased the • decrease the burden imposed by demand for motorized travel, moving away private vehicles from China’s traditionally more sustainable • impose restrictions on vehicles entering travel modes such as walking and cycling. central area roads to create walkable Measures that are now widely accepted as spaces supportive include: • manage parking in the city in • Increasing electric vehicle usage with conjunction with efficient public the development of standards and transport as an alternative enabling infrastructure • define an integrated approach to land • Assessing the transferability and use and planning implementation of road-user charging schemes

CASE STUDY: Khabarovsk public transport system

Khabarovsk is one of the largest political, educational, and cultural centers of the Russian Far East. The city is located in the center of the intersection of international railway and air transport routes near the border with China and has been experiencing growing congestion problems in recent years. To tackle this, city authorities aimed to improve the urban road network, develop a suitable public transport system, and improve traffic management and control.

Khabarovsk has a developed route network of public transport, which ensures the accessibility of transport services for all residents. Passengers are transported on 62 city routes. In order to increase accessibility, the city administration constantly renews its rolling stock at the expense of low-floor or specially equipped vehicles. Over the past 10 years, 69 vehicles adapted for the transportation of low mobility groups have been purchased. Currently 90 per cent of vehicles operating on municipal routes are fully or partially accessible to passengers with disabilities, and transport companies train personnel to provide services to people with disabilities.

Figure 77: Accessible buses in Khabarovsk

CASE STUDYUN ESCAP: Khabarovsk - Recommendations public transport towards safe, system green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 126

Khabarovsk is one of the largest political, educational and cultural centers of the Russian Far East.. The city is located in the center of the intersection of international railway and air transport routes near the border with China and has been experiencing growing congestion problems in recent

• Implementing Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) become more accessible, affordable, and projects efficient. This development benefits most • Exchanging knowledge on Sustainable stakeholders, including most levels of Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) and government, a larger private sector, and most capacity-building importantly civil society. Monitoring and participation are now easier, but regulatory Integrated Urban Planning and Mobility frameworks in many places have not caught Management up. Integrated urban and territorial planning are key prerequisites for creating a city’s future Countries in the region are moving forward vision. Recent successes in Indonesia, with national spatial frameworks, city-region Malaysia, the Philippines, and other Asian planning, and local planning for urban countries in areas such as strengthening local regeneration. National territorial planning planning and developing national systems of frameworks are becoming stronger and more cities, have helped Asian and Pacific cities rise ambitious, extending their economic to the top of global liveability rankings and the development goals and incorporating a range peer influence of planning education and of sustainability issues. Systems thinking about institutes in Australia, Japan, the Republic of networks of cities is in vogue and they are Korea and Singapore. becoming greener. City-region planning arrangements are becoming more effective at More planning is now done in the region than coordination as they seek to bring effective ever before, with more professional planning and resilient benefits from continuing city capacity, better government institutions to expansion. support planning policy and decentralization in many countries propelling more and better Malaysia is a good example of recent progress local planning. Through technological in integrated urban planning. Malaysia’s innovation, planning data and tools have also national planning framework has become

CASE STUDY: Leaving Cars Behind in Singapore

Singapore already has a robust system of integrated land use and transport planning, but accommodating a growing population on limited land has required a shift towards more space- efficient modes of transport.

More incentives are being introduced for people to use public transport and embrace new options such as personal mobility devices (PMDs). Folding bikes and PMDs are now allowed on trains and buses all day, and numerous bike-sharing services have kicked off. From 2016, property developers are required to submit a walking and cycling plan in development applications.

Public transport usage now makes up 66 per cent of all peak-hour journeys. Various transport forms are common these days, including Uber and Grab ride-share services and Personal Mobility Device (PMDs). Riding a PMD is even seen as fashionable. Since the passing of the Active Mobility Bill in 2017, PMD users have increased significantly to at least 25,000, with about 25 per cent using their devices daily.

By welcoming new technologies while helping stakeholders and users adapt to change, Singapore is focusing on people’s needs and working with the market to find mutually beneficial solutions. This allows for greater systemic innovation, and is a prerequisite for achieving ‘mobility as a service’.

CASE STUDY:UN ESCAP Leaving - Recommendations Cars Behind towardsin Singapore safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 127

more comprehensive and integrated in recent Urban and territorial planning is also years and its National Physical Plan is an increasingly important for reducing important component. Across the board, vulnerability to natural disasters and building Malaysia has acquired a reasonable resilience to shocks and stresses. Because of institutional capacity for strategic spatial sea level rise and land subsidence, adaptation planning with regulatory controls at the planning strategies for many large delta cities national, state, and local levels. in the region require expansion planning towards safer areas, in addition to adaptation The region’s most recent and far-reaching action in inner cities and along waterways, transformation in sustainable national spatial such as in Ho Chi Minh City's 2013 Climate planning frameworks occurred in China. In Change Adaptation Strategy. Many adaptation March 2018, the central government moved features are about local as well as technical the mandate to regulate the national planning solutions, from tidal barriers to pavement strategy to a strengthened Ministry of Land permeability improvements (Vietnam Climate Resources, ensuring that a single agency would Adaptation Partnership, 2013). Ho Chi Minh oversee the utilization of both land resources City’s experience highlights how planning for and natural assets across the entire regulatory water can accommodate high-quality urban spectrum of land use and strategic planning development and design, but can result in (China Centre for Urban Development, UN- gentrification if not distributed equitably to all Habitat, 2018). The change is similar to high-risk parts of the city. For this reason, Indonesia’s in 2014, but the impact is comprehensive planning at a city-region scale potentially more far-reaching as China has a is important. strong spatial planning framework.

CASE STUDY: Moving the Masses in Yangon

In Yangon, people spend hours each day travelling on heavily congested streets. A lack of planning and funding led to poor road infrastructure and an overstretched public transport system. The private car population doubled from 2011 to 2015 due to relaxed import limits. Indiscriminate roadside parking eats up road capacity and worsens the public transport experience.

The Project for Comprehensive Urban Transport Plan for Greater Yangon (YUTRA) was formed in 2013, with long-term plans up to 2035. Public-private partnerships oversee implementation of proposed solutions and provide much-needed funding. Aside from a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, circular railway improvements are planned to cut waiting times from 45 minutes to 10 minutes.

A BRT Lite scheme was launched in 2016 to gradually replace the notoriously dangerous ‘BM’ buses. Street infrastructure has been improved to enhance safety and flow, and to shape courteous road behavior. This includes constructing flyovers, planting concrete blocks to delineate lanes, and installing smart traffic lights. Citizens have responded positively and are demanding more.

Improvements take time, especially for backward infrastructure such as Yangon’s railway signal systems, dating back to the 1960s. But with a comprehensive, detailed plan to introduce various forms of rapid transport (bus, light rail, and metro) and a new inflow of investments, the city can use its existing transport corridors to reduce dependency on cars and develop shared mobility.

CASE STUDY: Moving the Masses in Yangon UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 128 In Yangon, people spend hours each day travelling on heavily congested streets. A lack of planning and government funding led to poor road infrastructure and an overstretched public transport system. The private car population doubled from 2011 to 2015 due to relaxed import limits. Indiscriminate roadside parking eats up road capacity and worsens the public transport

Figure 78: Three Strategic Directions for Cities. Source: Arthur D Little

Urban and territorial planning is the basic Multiple performing cities around the world building block for creating better urban places. indicate that a sustainable urban Cities that were guided by plans in the past can transportation system can be achieved point to better outcomes in the present. They through (i) organization of urban space – land provide adequate housing, efficient transport, use planning and finding better solutions to and plentiful jobs aligned with the meet the needs through action in other areas, expectations of a growing or shrinking (ii) making common services and opportunities population. Ideally, these plans do not stop at accessible by walking and non-motorized the city limits but consider the entire transport by reducing adverse impact on the metropolitan area across local jurisdictions environment, (iii) development of a balanced and even extend into rural areas, accounting integrated transport system that ensures for the full economic geography of a city- efficient travel using multiple modes, (iv) region. However, even for cities that grew technological standards and (v) organization of chaotically or otherwise have not benefited freight distribution and delivery facilities and from thoughtful planning, it is never too late to services. start. Planners must be flexible and deal with One of the major goals of sustainable current circumstances, as only in the case of transportation is to reduce travel demand, new towns are planners starting from a blank especially reduce the trips made by motorized slate. Whatever the current state of a city, its transport, which includes not only private future will be better assured if guided by a vehicles but also motorized public transport plan. Ultimately, planning is a lynchpin in and to increase the amount of non-motorized establishing a baseline ahead of an uncertain transport such as biking and walking. To future of global shocks and stresses, ranging achieve this, cities should start diverting from from climate change to natural disasters and designing car-oriented cities to pedestrian and automation. bicycle friendly cities. The usage of non- motorized transportation can be promoted by designing compact mixed-use developments in

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the city. It is also very important for cities to Sustainability targets may be met in the future integrate transportation planning and land use by new vehicle technologies. planning. Mobility marketing campaigns are best Making urban centers as accessible as possible organized by specialized marketing companies requires making choices about the use of – in close cooperation with the municipality – urban space. Loading and unloading spaces, and need to have a clear message. People bus lanes, cars, parking, pedestrian facilities, should be approached in a personal way or as cycle lanes, and parking all compete for urban members of a well-defined group: peer road space and cities have to manage these pressure is more effective than general competing demands according to local information provided online or on paper. priorities and circumstances. Urban vehicle A scheme’s full impact on travel behavior may access regulations can help optimize urban not be measurable within the project. Ideally, access, improve air quality, and contribute to measurements of impacts should continue in the goal of phasing out conventionally fueled the long term, and funding should be available cars in cities by 2050. for this if the full impacts are to be captured. Mobility management Eco-driving is effective and should be included Measures in the field of mobility management in national driver training standards, as well as are generally successful in reducing the in training programs. As a public transport number of private car trips, particularly when operator will save money as a result, some they target specific groups. In the long term, savings can be returned to drivers as an sustainability will be achieved by a mixture of incentive to employ eco-driving techniques. measures. Mobility management largely Making transportation resilient focuses on reducing demand and changing the Transport systems, can be designed to become modal split in favor of more sustainable more resilient to the impacts of climate change transport. It is important that measured and disasters. Some of the strategies and objectives are very clearly defined. policies that could be considered for CASE STUDY: Walking the Talk Bandun

Bandung is Indonesia’s third-largest city by population, but only 20 per cent of the Greater Bandung population use public transport. The city’s hilly topography limits mobility options. In areas such as the Jalan Cihampelas shopping district, vendors line the streets, causing traffic congestion.

To relocate the many street vendors and provide an accessible and safe shopping space, the Teras Cihampelas elevated deck was built to allow visitors to walk from the nearby zoo to Jalan Cihampelas without having to enter the congested city center.

Pedestrians can now stroll freely and safely on the skywalk, away from traffic. The 450m-long elevated deck has space for close to 200 street vendors. There is a bolder plan to build Bandung Skywalk, a series of bridges and skywalks across the city, creating better connectivity over the hilly terrain between east and west Bandung.

Urban mobility extends beyond moving people around by machines or cars – it is also beneficial to offer people a range of travel options. The Skywalk plan focuses on walking as the more attractive option, by allowing people to walk safely in the city without having to cross busy traffic intersections.

CASE STUDY:UN ESCAP Walking - Recommendations the Talk Bandun towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 130

development of resilient and sustainable cost effective and environmentally friendly transport infrastructure include integrating solutions. Drains can also be built with extra potential impacts of extreme events and capacity to cater for surges in water flow. The disasters into the planning process, and Bipartisan Policy Center offers a list of policy reviewing and incorporating higher design options. Transport planners and designers may standards for structural elements considering consider and evaluate design options to life cycle cost, using innovating construction increase resiliency while planning new technology and sustainable materials and transportation infrastructure, as usually it increasing awareness and coordination among would be costlier and difficult to enhance their stakeholders, and enhancing capacity of resiliency after construction. planning and implementing officials. This would also increase the serviceability and life Car-independent lifestyles of costly structures. For example, in the US The experiences of the CIVITAS Plus cities that after Hurricane Katrina, the clearance height of implemented car-independent lifestyle bridges was increased and in Canada the measures gave rise to recommendations from design of the Confederation Bridge allows for a which other cities can benefit. Despite the one-meter sea level rise. encouraging results achieved by the CIVITAS Plus cities, there is a continued need to In mountainous areas, roadside slopes can be increase awareness and to incentivize users to made more stable through bio-engineering test new technologies and find out the positive using living plants, as in Nepal. Combined with benefits for themselves. It is essential to define civil engineering measures these can provide a long-term vision for sustainable transport,

Figure 79: Differences between traditional transport planning and sustainable urban mobility planning.

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with specific attention to the promotion of It might also be helpful to count on extra cycling and walking. This vision should investments for, and synergies with, vertical integrate measures into the overall transport transport solutions that respond to challenging network from a multi-modal perspective. topography. A detailed planning and feasibility When several cycling and walking study will help avoid unexpected costs. interventions are implemented at the same Tailored car-sharing and car-pooling business time, or within a short interval, their impacts models can help to meet the needs of both can be far greater due to the synergetic effect. private users and business users. This will Stakeholders should be involved in strong optimize the use of vehicles during the day, partnerships. Communication and active and can help to increase the number of involvement are vital at each stage of measure subscribers. One approach might be to provide implementation. It is very important to a corporate pooling card. It can also be a good communicate what is being done. The target idea to target businesses located in suburban group needs to be given information, and areas that have limited parking spaces or that members of the public need to be engaged in are not well served by public transport, since order to support modal shift and change travel such conditions can generate high levels of behavior. demand.

CIVITAS recommends taking a long-term view Collective passenger transport of evaluation and carrying out a public health Partnerships and stakeholder involvement are appraisal of the measures. Behavioral change key to successful implementation, as part of an takes time, and health and economic impacts integrated approach to urban sustainable resulting from higher levels of physical activity mobility planning. In order to integrate and can only be captured in the longer term. utilize all the functions of information and ticketing systems, partnership between public

CASE STUDY: Sharing the Ride Taipei

On average, more than one million motorcyclists commute from New Taipei City to Taipei daily. Bicycles have often had to compete with motorbikes and motor vehicles for road space, posing high risks to cyclists.

A world-class cycling environment and a public bike-sharing scheme, called YouBike, was developed in 2011. The idea was to have cycling compete with motorbikes, and to create parking spaces for bicycles that do not mix with motorbikes or scooters. The government also rationalized car usage fees and increased dedicated spaces for walking and cycling. Real-time traffic and Youbike data were made public, which allowed users to predict YouBike’s usage and availability.

Taipei is on track to build an extensive cycling network of more than 500km. Cycling is now an established part of urban mobility, with 5 per cent of all journeys made on bicycle, and 50 per cent of cyclists are women. By 2018, people will be able to access one of 400 YouBike stations within a 10-minute walk from anywhere in the city. The Taipei government aims to achieve a 12 per cent modal share for bicycles by 2020.

Taipei’s success is due to sustained efforts in understanding the public’s evolving behaviors and preferences. With sufficient infrastructure and meaningful data, commuters are encouraged to use the bike-sharing service, making cycling trendy and an everyday mode of transport. This also generates data, which the city capitalizes on to further improve its systems and planning decisions.

CASE STUDY:UN ESCAP Sharing - Recommendations the Ride Taipei towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 132

transport operators and public authorities is real-time passenger information. Modern essential. A positive attitude on the part of the technologies enhance travel comfort, relevant authorities towards public transport is especially for passengers with specific mobility a precondition for success. requirements, such as the visually impaired. This was demonstrated by the ‘talking bus Public transport users’ wishes need to be stops’ introduced in Brighton & Hove (UK). investigated in order to ensure that public Close cooperation with representatives of such transport developments meet real needs, groups is essential for the successful rather than imaginary or estimated ones. implementation of targeted measures. When introducing dial-a-ride services, in particular, it is a good idea to carry out a Measure funding is an important element of demographic study in order to identify who is agreements between public transport in the service catchment area and what level of operators and the public authorities. Although technological literacy exists. Measurable some measures apparently pay for themselves objectives should then be embedded in policy (e.g. the implementation of ticket vending documents, so that synergy can be maximized machines, e-ticketing, and even on-demand among all planned measures. transport), a substantial subsidy is usually needed. Good financial planning is therefore a The use of new and innovative technologies for must. Zagreb (Croatia), for example, has had a public transport has contributed in recent good experience with its closed-circuit years not only to improving access to public television (CCTV) system, and if funding transport but also to making fleet becomes available, cameras will be installed in management more efficient. It is essential to all its public transport vehicles ensure compatibility between the different technological systems and measures, such as Some Asian countries have limited experience global positioning system (GPS) data outputs, with the latest technologies in public transport communication systems, driver services, thus the sharing of experience and communication, ticketing, positioning and

Figure 80: Low carbon measures that could cut urban emissions

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data between cities is valuable, allowing them alternative fuels requires coherent to accurately benchmark their situation. taxation and legislative approaches for the different fuel types at regional levels, as Users moving away from car ownership by well as local political and management switching to car sharing services can bring support. about major social effects such as a growing 2. Stakeholder involvement is necessary in well-being of the population achieved through the switch towards clean vehicles and saving on car purchases; reducing the space fuels. As governments adjust regulations, taken up by parked cars; lower consumption of through exchange and debate users will resources used for the manufacture of cars and become better informed and more likely to their components; less waste associated with accept changes. Additional expertise is the operation and scrapping of vehicles; and needed both to develop effective reduced pollutant emissions (by transport awareness campaigns and to identify companies relying on environmentally friendly solutions to overcome the slow uptake of vehicles and by cutting down the excess incentive schemes. mileage of vehicles in search of parking 3. Retrofitting older municipal and public spaces). vehicles to run on alternative fuels can As of 2016, there were more than 1.000 public offer a cost-effective short- to medium- bike-sharing systems operating in more than term solution that allows current fleets to 50 countries around the world, up from 11 continue to be used beyond their current cities around the world in 2004. The latest lifespan (in terms of Euro standards), as trend in bike-sharing is large-scale free well as implementation of environmental floating, a new market led by Asian companies requirements for private vehicle fleets. which became global in less than five years 4. Cities wishing to deploy more sustainable although Germany, for example, introduced vehicle fleets should have access to the concept of free-floating bike-sharing in relevant technical and operational 2000. Bike-sharing is no longer a local or a expertise to help select, operate, and municipal issue. It has become a global maintain their fleets. Such expertise is mobility and transit issue, notwithstanding often outside the scope of the traditional complex environmental consequences. competences of their staff. The costs of hybrid vehicles remain higher than the Clean fuels and vehicles costs of conventional vehicles, thus the The successful implementation of a measure, sustainability benefits should be or a package of measures, in a given city should promoted. provide grounds for transferring the 5. Reductions in GHG emissions and experience to other cities if the following improvements in air quality should be recommendations are followed complemented by the promotion of 1. National and international standards for emission-free mobility. Affordable parking biofuels are needed in order to instill alternatives outside the city center should confidence among users and providers and be created, and footpaths provided. to promote alternative fuel consumption. Overall, this would help to reduce the Without such standards, it will be difficult number of vehicles entering the city to ensure consistent supplies. Contractual center. quality conditions are necessary in order to Greenhouse gas emissions in cities can be overcome barriers associated with fuel brought close to net-zero using proven provision. The widespread deployment of technologies and practices. A bundle of

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technically feasible low-carbon measures higher energy prices and faster technological could cut emissions from key urban sectors by learning rates, the net present value of these almost 90 per cent by 2050. investments rises to US$38.19 trillion. These figures do not include wider benefits, such as In absolute terms, these savings are greater long-run productivity gains or improved public than the combined 2014 energy-related health. emissions of the two largest emitters, China and the US. Some 58 per cent of these carbon Zero-carbon cities will be places where people savings come from the buildings sector, 21 per are healthier and more productive. The bundle cent from the transport sector, 16 per cent of low-carbon measures identified in this from materials efficiency and 5 per cent from report would make cities more compact, the waste sector. connected, and clean.

The investments required to reduce urban It also offers an opportunity to eradicate emissions would be US$1.83 trillion (about 2 poverty and improve living standards for all. In per cent of global GDP) per year, but they the future, people around the world could live would generate annual savings worth US$2.80 in neighborhoods where they can walk quickly trillion in 2030 and US$6.98 trillion in 2050. and safely to work, school, and parks, along This yields a net present value of US$23.9 quiet streets with plenty of places to meet and trillion. This estimate is conservative. With rest. Pedestrians and cyclists could enjoy

Figure 81: Technically feasible potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from cities by 2050, by sector

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protected sidewalks and paths lined with trees, combustion engine (ICE) powered vehicles. In shops, and restaurants. Speed limits on the 2018, new battery-electric and plug-in hybrid streets could be low enough that everyone electric car sales totaled two million vehicles feels safe crossing – even if they are elderly, globally, an increase of 72 per cent from 2017. disabled, or pushing a pram. In 2019, global sales of EVs were expected to reach over three million. In the adoption of EVs E-Mobility the biggest challenge is the high capital cost of Fuel efficient electric and hybrid cars are the EVs and new charging infrastructure, a emerging due to advances in vehicle longer charging time, and concerns of range. technology. These can make a greater Still, most countries are aiming to reduce contribution to lessening the problems dependence on ICE vehicles and shift to EVs for associated with air pollution and fossil fuel use their environmental and long-term economic with proper battery design and disposal. benefits. Promotion and use of electric vehicles can be cost effective and emission free. As an The price of an EV is tied closely to the cost of example, the Philippines has launched an the Lithium-Ion batteries it is powered by. The electric Jeepney and Singapore is using initial purchase price of EVs has decreased over number of smart technologies in its the last 10 years due to the falling costs of the transportation system such as control battery pack. Data reveals that EVs are still an measures, a monitoring and enforcement expensive alternative, even though they have system, and an information and revenue the most positive impact on the environment. management system. Ito et. al. estimate that, in Japan, technological innovation and population decline will reduce CO2 emissions by 30 per cent in 2050 from 2000 levels.

There is a global trend to accelerate EV adoption and reduce the reliance on internal

Figure 82: New Electric Car Sales by Country between 2013 – 2018 (‘000s). Source: FTI report on Egypt E-mobility (Note: Includes battery electric vehicle (BEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) sales).

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Figure 83: Battery Pack Manufacturing Cost Estimates. Source: Union of Concerned Scientists

Figure 84: Battery Pack Manufacturing Cost Estimates. Source: Bloomberg, 2018 adapted with Consultant’s research

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Total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis is often Incentives, including financial subsidies in used in order to investigate the cost particular, have been shown to be a major effectiveness of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), factor in encouraging the uptake of EVs. In plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and many countries, fiscal incentives can be paired battery electric vehicles (BEVs), compared to with non-financial incentives to spur the conventional internal combustion engine deployment of EVs, such as in the form of vehicles (petrol and diesel). Only when the TCO waivers on regulations that limit the of an electric vehicle becomes cost efficient availability of license plates, (e.g. China) access will consumers and users take these cars into to restricted urban areas, and exemptions consideration. from usage fees for road networks (e.g. London and Birmingham) or parking fees (e.g. By 2030, the International Energy Agency’s Singapore). The Asian Development Bank New Policies Scenario suggests global plug-in (ADB) goes so far as to state that “without vehicle sales are expected to reach 23 million, extensive incentives (financial and with and the stock of owned EVs exceeding 130 nonfinancial), uptake of EVs will be marginal” million passenger cars.

Figure 85: EV uptake and maturity curve in terms of CO2 savings (2020 and projections) based on accelerated scenarios vs moderated scenario. Source: Bloomberg, 2018 adapted with Consultant’s research

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Figure 86: Impact of various policy measures based on accelerated scenario vs moderated scenario. Source: World Bank, 2018, adapted with Consultant’s research

When considering exhaust or tailpipe Research has shown that EVs still perform far emissions, it is evident that EVs compare better in terms of GHG emissions even if the favorably against ICEs as they do not produce electricity grid is highly powered by fossil fuels. any direct emissions. However, there are GHG emissions also result from the production opponents to EVs who have argued that any of vehicles and their components, specifically total cost of ownership considerations for EVs in the case of EVs from batteries – research need to include indirect or upstream emissions seems to suggest that if the batteries are caused by energy production and distribution, sourced from Western Europe, Japan, or South as well as during the manufacturing of the Korea, the carbon footprint is lower as vehicles themselves. compared to Chinese ones. Specifically, it is stated that production location and chemistry are both factors in the carbon footprint

Figure 87: Typical Lifecycle Emissions in Europe. Source: (ICCT, 2018)

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resulting from the battery manufacturing fuel passenger cars or 300 motorcycles. process. For instance, in the US, 43 kg/kWh of Bridging the total cost of ownership gap GHGs is generated for lithium nickel cobalt between conventional and electric vehicles will aluminum (NCA) batteries and 37–58 kg/kWh enable public and private fleet operators to for lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) mitigate the initial cost barriers that they batteries, and in China (with a coal intensive experience when making a decision to invest in electricity mix), 82 kg/kWh for NCA and 105– new vehicle fleets. 111 kg/kWh for NCM batteries. A comparison Historically, Central Asian cities used to have between the carbon footprints from different extensive trolleybus networks that were battery production methods and typical ICEs in remnants from Soviet times, however the Europe is shown in Figure 87. majority of these systems have fallen into With that said, the impact of GHG emissions disrepair and been gradually replaced with caused by battery production can be reduced compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied because EV batteries can be repurposed for petroleum gas (LPG), and diesel buses. Many stationary applications after reaching the end of these routes would be ideal arenas for the of their useful life span in EVs. Moreover, EVs deployment of EVs. In Kazakhstan for instance, save on vehicle manufacturing-related Almaty is now the only city with an operational emissions, due to less materials used for trolleybus system, and the city is in discussions engine manufacturing, less or no usage of oils to finance the renewal of the fleet through the and lubricants, and a longer life span of the purchase of 200 new hybrid trolleybuses and vehicle due to less vibrations and longer- associated depot equipment. Other cities are lasting parts. electrifying their bus networks, and by 2025 there should be well over 5,000 new E-buses Lifetime mileage and GHG are both important deployed across Kazakhstan's major cities12. aspects when considering EV profitability. EVs have lower operating costs, but higher capital Given the growing number of e-bus costs. A high mileage will thus favor cost manufacturers that are establishing their recovery. E-buses and urban electric trucks, in manufacturing facilities in Kazakhstan, it is general, have higher TCO than conventional reasonable to expect that e-buses will start to units. However, TCO can be comparable to gain more traction and market share as these conventional units (i) if maintenance costs are vehicles come online. There is already a lower, (ii) if the commercial lifetime of the EV manufacturing plant in Kostanay and at the is longer, and (iii) if battery stacks are end of 2019, Yutong and Kazakhstan-based optimized by recharging the vehicle quickly vehicle manufacturer and distributor Saryarka during the day. AvtoProm announced plans to construct their plant in Nur-Sultan. The impact on overall GHG reductions will be far higher by deploying commercial EVs, such In order to accelerate the shift to low-carbon as electric buses, instead of private units due mobility the government must offer financial to higher fuel usage, higher mileage, and support to providers of public transport longer life span of commercial vehicles. services. It is recommended that these electric Replacing one urban diesel bus with an electric buses for public transport be made the unit has the same impact as replacing 35 fossil

12 http://en.egemen.kz/article/216394- kazakhstan-to-introduce-electric-buses

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principal focus of further attention and focus in Case studies from around the world the short-term. demonstrate that a rapid urban transition is possible. The vision presented here may seem As there is already a long-standing history of far-fetched when millions of urban residents the use of public transport vehicles with today live in deep poverty and degraded electric drive trains with a pool of experts and environments. Yet this report offers case technical staff within the operating companies studies from around the world – Medellín in who are familiar with pantographs and Colombia, Copenhagen in Denmark, Indore in working with low-, medium- and high voltage India, Seoul in Korea, and Windhoek in equipment (which e-buses will require), Namibia – where national and local investing and promoting greater uptake of e- governments have worked together to buses will not just ensure that jobs are profoundly improve the quality of life in cities maintained (with the necessary upskilling within two or three decades. These examples needed), but also create the synergies with show that the scale and pace of change other local industries already working within required to achieve SDG11 and reach zero- the different parts of an e-bus supply chain. carbon cities are both technically and politically feasible.

Figure 88: Key Abatement Options for Zero-Carbon Cities

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productivity gains. Digitalization is expanding access to transforming needs in emerging 4.3 LEVERAGE TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL economies as well as services by extending INNOVATION finance to less developed markets. And distributed renewable energy technology and Introduction new climate and sustainable financing is Throughout the Asia-Pacific Region and around bringing affordable power to off-grid rural the world, digital solutions can be deployed for populations. urban problems. Policymakers and city leaders now have the tools to ensure that nobody gets But proponents of digital technologies have left behind in the digital transformation of also been accused of adopting digital solutions cities. Digital transformation, technology, and that leave the most vulnerable people behind. innovation, such as 5G networks, MaaS, and AI, Can digital technologies be used to level the can help cities in Asia and the Pacific to playing field in cities? leapfrog urban challenges. Yet there are Smart technologies and in particular Intelligent questions that need to be answered: what are Transport Systems (ITS) are key enablers for the modified or new policies that can support urban mobility planning as they support policy rapid innovation in the market place? What are makers in achieving their policy objectives, the institutional structures that are required to manage concrete traffic operations, and can support an integrated approach? How can help end-users by providing them with public authorities be incentivized and partner informed choices on mobility. In particular, with providers to achieve this? innovation in vehicle technology can improve This section aims to answer these key safety and efficiency, including through access questions and show that digital technologies to the greater ICT system across transport can being widely used to make cities more modes, in personal and freight transport. efficient and liveable – even lovable.

Technology is expanding access to global markets, making frontier and exotic markets more reachable (with more linked data to manage the risks) and changing business models. Automation and artificial intelligence themselves are delivering enormous

CASE STUDY: ITS in Shenzhen, China

The Ministry of Transport in China initiated demonstration projects of intelligent urban public transport in key pilot cities in an attempt to create ‘Public Transport Metropolises’. Cities such as Zhengzhou, Xi’an, Jinan, Shenzhen, and Chongqing, have already started construction.

The demonstration projects are mainly focused on three areas: traffic, passenger travel information, and industry operation supervision and decision-making. Meanwhile, 11 engineering standards have been created to standardize various engineering operations, such as on-board intelligent service terminals, electronic bus-stop boards, data communications protocols, and a data collection communication protocol.

Shenzhen is one Public Transport Metropolis pilot city. By adopting the various standards and technologies, congestion has decreased and public transport usage has increased. A dispatching management system is being applied across urban transport enterprises, improving efficiency, safety, and coordination attempts across various organizations.

CASE STUDY: ITS in Shenzhen, China

Figure 89: Urban public transport system in Shenzhen, China. UN ESCAP (2017). Development of model intelligent transport systems deployments for the Asian Highway Network

Technology can drive progress in each From an environmental perspective, dimension of sustainable development and technology offers new and enhanced play an essential role in advancing the ‘Avoid- opportunities for cleaner, more climate- Shift-Improve’ approach. From a social friendly transport, emitting less pollution. And perspective, technology can improve the the economic drivers are clear: with more safety and affordability of transport options efficient transport technology and systems and can enhance transport accessibility for cutting down on waste and wait times, comes people with reduced mobility due to disability, higher potential for economic growth. In the age, or other factors. 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,

CASE STUDY: The use of modern technologies on Khabarovsk transport

In Khabarovsk, panels installed throughout the city provide passengers with information on the arrival times of approaching public transport. Using the satellite navigation GLONASS system, and combined with the ASK Navigation software, authorities can combine functions of population informing, monitoring, and dispatching urban public transport traffic.

City transport networks also utilize an automated electronic system for registration and fare collection, with all carriers accepting non-cash payments.

Figure 90: Khabarovsk Travel cards

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countries pledged to leave no one behind, and Capacity building and knowledge sharing can in the area of technology this means that be advanced including through test and governments, private companies, academia, demonstration platforms. As an innovation and other stakeholders will work to advance moves down the line from research to uptake, knowledge sharing, open data sources, and it is critical that policy and investment technical assistance to developing countries. frameworks adapt to the new reality, and that decision makers work to integrate There are a few technologies that have already technological innovations into society in a proven their value and benefit in the strategic way, with long-range visions and an transportation sphere – Internet of Things, Big emphasis on safety, equity, and environmental Data, Artificial Intelligence, and drones, among sustainability. It is essential that technological others – but again, these technologies and innovation should serve the vision for the city concepts, introduced without the adequate or society, and not the other way around. technology application areas and the right economics, cannot bring success and results by Digital connectivity themselves. The Internet of Things, for The digital revolution is transforming all example, should be used for better traffic aspects of life whilst having a major impact on management using Intelligent Transport mobility and transport, in both demand and Systems – specifically using new technologies supply. In terms of demand, information and to more accurately predict future traffic communication technology (ICT) is enabling demand and optimize road networks telecommuting, and video- and audio- accordingly, providing a wide range of social conferencing can replace longer-distance and economic benefits, including reduced travel. ICT innovations have also given rise to congestion and pollution, improved safety, and the sharing economy, making bike sharing, car travel experiences for all road users. Big Data sharing, and transport on demand systems can be used for improved Personal Travel more viable and attractive. Planning and Public Transport – specifically analyzing available information on travel In terms of supply, ICT improves the efficiency demand and travel patterns of the population, of transport networks through passenger to facilitate optimization of planning, information systems, real-time traffic programming, and operations of public management centers, integrated electronic transport systems, as well as improving ticketing systems, and automated control personal journey planning for the public. Any systems allowing vehicles and equipment to of these disruptive technologies need to prove communicate. Many of these developments their contribution to efficiency, safety, enhance the performance and attractiveness environment and climate change, and socio- of public transport for consumers. In freight economics. From the analysis of these policy transport, ICT facilitates the implementation of objectives, we believe that for the transport intermodal solutions, as precise tracking sector, the technology application areas which systems ease coordination and the have the most profound potential impact are development of smart hubs. ICT also facilitates new smart mobility (Automated Vehicles (AVs) load optimization, whether of passengers or in conjunction with Mobility as a Service, not freight, and autonomous vehicles are showing just AVs by themselves) and smart transport promise. The mere presence of ICT-driven systems, each requiring and leveraging solutions does not mean that the old problems different digital technologies. will vanish, however, and any roll-out of new technologies must be accompanied by comprehensive awareness-raising efforts and policy frameworks.

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Solving transport issues requires simultaneous avoid a pitfall that we have also started to implementation of multiple countermeasures. observe in Vietnam. In recent years, there have been great This approach would also include support for advances in telecommunications, automotive e-vehicles and the encouragement of active systems, electronics and computer modes such as cycling and walking. Platforms technologies, which have enabled new that include bike sharing are growing and are innovations in transport systems, resulting in being integrated in formal transit options Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). ITS can be offering commuters a wide array of intermodal an important tool for providing far-reaching choices to plan their trips. In the People’s solutions to pressing issues facing transport Republic of China the ride sharing app Didi systems, ranging from accessibility, reliability, enables users to integrate multimodal and efficiency to safety. Designing urban journeys including mass transit. The function is transport systems based on population now available in 100 cities across the country. density, usage data, and other factors allows for more efficient investments in transport Data analytics, another example, provides city infrastructure built around high-quality mass leaders with the evidence they need to make public transport. Investments in efficiently decisions. In Kolkata, a social vulnerability designed roads, airports, rail, and marine ports audit of public spaces is being conducted can reduce carbon emissions while providing through an app called Safetipin to evaluate greater mobility and access. Technological public spaces to make them more inclusive and innovations in transport power can reduce improve the city’s overall livability. This app, carbon and local emissions of nitrogen oxides which enables the assessments of perceptions (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), and particulate of urban safety in public spaces by women, matter (PM2.5 / PM10), and provide access to makes communities and cities safer by fuels and power generated locally. Examples providing safety-related information collected include: optimized networks and supply by users and by trained auditors. The audit is chains, urban logistics management, E- based on parameters including lighting, Commerce solutions, ICT for consumer- openness, visibility, crowd, security, walk- directed deliveries, and pursuit of a circular path, availability of public transport, gender economy. diversity, and feeling.

Latest State of the Art Digital Transport Transport telematics Solutions for the Asia-Pacific Region Real-time information services for motorists, A promising area for digital technologies in the including speed-monitoring alerts, public Asia-Pacific Region is indeed urban mobility. transit messaging, and warnings about Digital platforms have helped proliferate ride- children on pedestrian crossings, have sharing and augmented mobility. The urban substantial impacts on driving behavior. poor and the underserved can now pool rides, Delivering dynamic traffic messages to drivers share routes, and gather timely information on via LED displays or other means should be transport options. This of course comes at the considered a key priority in traffic monitoring risk of disinvestments in public transport and and control measures. Transport telematics an increase in carbon emissions, as we have are usually combined in a package of observed in cities such as New York and integrated measures. Some transport London. A holistic policy approach that management and control measures are set incorporates ride shares in last and first mile within a more comprehensive urban mobility trips to complement public transit is needed to plan and it is recommended that a detailed and focused evaluation be carried out for

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telematics systems, so that their effectiveness efficient means to deliver packages can be better assessed. (logistics).

Disruptive Technologies There is an onset of disruptive technologies We note that these technologies (IoT, Big Data, which are transforming the infrastructure and AI) do not operate in isolation but instead market, which can be summarized as follows: represent highly complementary technologies. • The Internet of Things (IoT) – a system of Big data is collected most effectively using IoT objects, processes, data, and people systems and drones and then processed most connected with each other via sensors, efficiently using AI algorithms and optimization and controlled remotely using the internet techniques. The main applications of these • Big Data – complex data characterized by particular technologies in transportation focus high volume and requiring the use of around demand forecasting and traffic advanced analytics for processing optimization resulting in better traffic • Artificial intelligence (AI) – computer management, asset management, travel science which enables machines to planning, and operation of autonomous function like a human brain vehicles (AVs). The key challenge in the • Traffic management using intelligent development of the identified disruptive transport systems (ITS) – using new technologies and their applications will be technologies to predict future traffic their successful integration into new business demand more accurately and optimize and governance models, maximizing their road networks accordingly, providing a combined benefits to support the end goal. wide range of social and economic Figure 91 outlines the key big data basic layers benefits, including reduced congestion and for smart infrastructure connected by IoT pollution, improved safety and travel sensors. experiences for all road users. • Personal travel planning and public transport – analyzing available information on travel demand and travel patterns of the population, to facilitate the optimization of planning, programming, and operation of public transport systems, as well as improving personal journey planning for the public. • Autonomous and connected vehicles for mobility – developing applications for AVs which can contribute to increased safety, a better user experience, economic savings, and reductions in congestion, by facilitating car sharing and ‘mobility as a service’ (MaaS). • Unmanned aerial vehicles/drones for monitoring – using technology to revolutionize the way we undertake asset management, maintenance and inspections (bridges, tunnels and construction sites) and providing an

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Figure 91: Big data’s basic layers needed for smart infrastructure

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) Principles These services offer something of a ‘countermodel’ to the non-networked private In the past two decades, there has been vehicle. Notably in Asian metropolitan areas, considerable progress in the area of integrated electronic access systems have been information, access, and payment systems of intensively developed. In Europe, the concept public transport with regard to ‘shared of Mobility as a Service (MaaS), that is “the mobility’. This is due, on the one hand, to new integration of various forms of transport technical possibilities. Features such as services into a single mobility service electronic and contactless smart cards and accessible on demand” (MaaS Alliance 2017) is increasingly digital solutions in conjunction gaining traction, with a number of cities with smart phones, are now enabling some of experiencing comprehensive data-based the following applications: multi-mode mobility systems. • Real-time information processing and The diverse means of transport options in the networking (e.g. via app); locally offered MaaS can be a variation of e.g. • Paperless verification (using check- public transport, ride- car- or bike-sharing, taxi, in/check-out procedures); car rental or lease. By providing a single • Situation-specific pricing (such as payment channel instead of numerous ticket prepaid and post-paid processes and payment operations, this comprehensive according to best price methods, peak approach makes it possible to transform an pricing, etc.); existing inflexible transport system into a more • Cashless billing of user authorizations versatile structure. (by way of e-ticketing/mobile phone ticketing, for example).

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Ultimately, MaaS is a digital platform for end- Because many urban ITS applications have to-end route planning, booking, electronic already demonstrated substantial capabilities ticketing and payment services involving all of enhancing safety, efficiency, and smooth means of transport regardless of whether operation of transport modes at relatively public or private. The concept is based on a modest cost, in recent years new technologies user-centric model that puts the demand first. have been developed, such as Vehicle-to- Vehicle (V2V), Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) ITS and Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X). By using such In Asia, urban ITS can provide tailor-made technologies, various advancements have information to assist travelers in determining been captured for connected vehicles, optimized trips by avoiding unnecessary autonomous vehicles (or self-driving vehicles), journeys, congested routes, and better and smart cities in some urban areas of the coordination of urban transport modes. In region. addition, urban ITS can meet the ever-growing needs of travelers for new flexible mobility Advanced Traffic Management System services, such as car sharing, bike-sharing The Advanced Traffic Management System schemes, or personal rapid transit. All these (ATMS) aims to improve traffic flows and advantages can enhance the efficiency of safety in urban areas by utilizing various road traffic operations and services in urban areas. facilities. ATMS uses a top-down approach

CASE STUDY: Delhi’s App-based Bus Service: Shuttl

Shuttl was founded in 2015 and is one of India's largest bus aggregators. Shuttl developed rapidly to offer rides across the rest of the Delhi-NCR, linking residents of Noida, Delhi, Faridabad and Ghaziabad to Gurugram offices. Usually, commuters face very long journeys of more than 30km each way, and there are last-mile connectivity problems with the Metro network. Shuttl offers a smart mobile seat booking facility and the use of QR codes to validate a passenger’s ticket on board the bus. The system helps reduce overcrowding on other public transport systems, reduces congestion, and is highly replicable where daily trips are longer than 20km. The model is being replicated in other Indian cities such as Kochi, Pune, and Bengaluru.

Figure 92: Shuttle service bus

UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 148 CASE STUDY: Delhi’s App-based Bus Service: Shuttl

Shuttl was founded in 2015 and is one of India's largest bus aggregators. Shuttl developed rapidly to offer rides across the rest of the Delhi-NCR, linking residents of Noida, Delhi, Faridabad and

through transport management centers where Toll Collection (ETC), Advanced Traffic Signal real-time traffic data is integrated and Control (ATSC), and Automatic Traffic processed, and the proper actions/responses Enforcement (ATE). are determined. To achieve smooth traffic Flexible demand mobility services and shared operations on urban roads, cutting-edge traffic mobility are presented as the way forward to sensing technologies, information achieve Mobility as a Service. Nowadays, an communications, and data-processing Intelligent Transport Systems application in techniques are incorporated to diagnose traffic users’ devices is as little as it takes for an patterns and problems as well as develop operator to launch a service. However, optimal traffic management strategies. Real- mobility services companies operate in a way time operational solutions capable of that is disruptive and often not sustainable at mitigating traffic issues are provided by a scale, entering in direct competition with mass variety of information dissemination transit. They follow a process of trial and error technologies, such as variable message signs, in the attempt to attract demand. mobile devices, and car navigation systems. A wide array of examples can be found in countries of the region, including Electronic

CASE STUDY: Bangalore’s Traffic Improvement Project (2007 to 2012).

B-TRAC was the country's 'first of its kind' project to tackle traffic congestion and health issues by using the latest traffic management technology and techniques. The phenomenal growth in vehicular traffic in the city led to traffic congestion and bottlenecks, with growing crashes alongside air and noise pollution. The project, managed by the city’s traffic police and the Karnataka Road Development Corporation, saw junction improvements, the deployment of ITS, and the installation of surveillance and enforcement cameras across the city. As a result of the measures, the city saw an increase in peak hour speed of 28 per cent, a reduction in crash deaths by 35 per cent between 2007 and 2012, and 13 per cent increase in revenues.

Figure 93: Bangalore City Traffic Management Centre. Source: Dummy

UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 149 CASE STUDY: Bangalore’s Traffic Improvement Project (2007 to 2012).

B-TRAC was the country's 'first of its kind' project to tackle traffic congestion and health issues by using the latest traffic management technology and techniques. Phenomenal growth in vehicular

Mumbai’s area traffic control and Bangalore’s transport systems. The goal of APTS is to traffic improvement project (BTRAC) projects enhance the efficiency and reliability of urban are good examples of early ITS-related public transport operations, and the safety and interventions in Indian cities. These were convenience of users. The adoption of APTS is mostly designed to maximize the traffic flow, transforming the traditional services of urban reduce congestion, minimize delay at public transport into more streamlined ones. junctions, and reduce overall accidents. APTS also offers more information for decision-makers to make more efficient Advanced Traveler Information System judgements on operations and management of Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) urban public transport. From the perspective keep travelers updated with pre-trip and en- of travelers, APTS provides real-time route traffic information in given areas. information on urban public transport services Traveler information ranges from incident through the Internet, mobile devices and information, such as crashes or road works, to information terminals; users can thus select real-time traffic conditions. In operational the most feasible services. Examples of APTS terms, relevant data needs to be collected and applications in the Asia-Pacific region include analyzed to provide real-time information to urban public transport management, the public. Various devices, such as Automatic Fare Collection (AFC), Automated surveillance cameras, sensors (e.g., loop Passenger Information (API), Automatic detector and vehicle detection systems), probe Vehicle Location (AVL), and Automatic cars, and mobile phones collect data. The Passenger Counter (APC) systems. Internet, radio, Variable Message Signs (VMS), mobile/online services and navigation devices Figures 94 and 95 outline in more detail the are the major distributors of processed strengths and weaknesses of each technology. information to the public in the region.

Advanced Public Transport System The Advanced Public Transport System (APTS) employs diverse information technologies and traffic management strategies for urban public

Figure 94: The strengths and weaknesses of various new technologies (1)

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Figure 95: The strengths and weaknesses of various new technologies (2)

ITS technologies in urban transport systems and central managerial systems. C-ITS enables have evolved rapidly in recent years, as a result various modes (i.e., cars, buses, trucks, trains of developments in artificial intelligence, the and taxis) and transport infrastructure to Internet of Things (IoT), and big data analytics. communicate with each other. Drivers can be Three new concepts, ’cooperative ITS (C-ITS)’, provided with information that enables them ’autonomous vehicle (AV)’ and ’smart city’, are to react promptly to unexpected situations, mostly being pursued in the region’s urban such as bad road conditions and sudden stops areas. ahead, through numerous applications.

(a) Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (b) Autonomous vehicles

In response to increasingly complex user Autonomous vehicles (also called ‘self-driving’ demands, a new concept called C-ITS was or ‘driverless’ cars) are able to travel without created that integrates each ITS application human intervention. Technically, autonomous into a fully-connected network, based on V2V, vehicles use satellite positioning systems and V2I and V2X technologies, requiring vehicular diverse sensors (i.e., radar, ultrasonic, infrared, on-board units, infrastructure roadside units, laser) to detect the surrounding environment.

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CASE STUDY: Urban transport coordination in China

In recent years, the intelligent level of urban road monitoring has been continuously improved. There are more than 300 cities and regions undergoing smart city planning in China. A total of 586 cities have built up intelligent centers of public security and traffic, among which 325 cities have set up intelligent dispatching platforms that are based on a geographical information system (GIS). Some 467 cities have implemented network controls of traffic signals.

There are 95,000 video monitoring nodes in China of which 57,000 are high definition video monitoring nodes. Meanwhile, a traffic video monitoring platform has been installed in 280 cities. Through the extensive range of urban road monitoring, traffic incident detection and processing speed has been significantly improved, effectively alleviating many urban traffic jams.

Information is interpreted on board in order to invest in physical assets and maintenance, but findCASE STUDY appropriate: urban transport routes coordination taking into system insmart China technologies can add new capabilities as consideration obstacles and traffic signage by core components are upgraded. Smart city usingIn recent wireless years, the networks, intelligent digital level ofmaps, urban road monitoringapplications has become been continuously more effective improved. when automatedThere are more controls than 300 in cities vehicles and regions, and undergoing paired smart city with planning low -intech China. measures A total of 586 and communicationcities have built with up intelligentsmart infr astructurecenters of andpublic securitycomplementary and traffic, among policy which moves. 325 cities Reducing have a scontrolet up intelligentcenter. So dispatchingfar, autonomous platforms vehicles that are basedprivate on a car geographical use is a priorityinformation in Seoul, system. for haveSome existed 467 cities mainly have as implemented prototypes; however,network controls example.of traffic signals. In addition to implementing smart autonomousThere are 95,000vehicles video have monitoringrecently started nodes to in China mobility of which solutions, are 57,000 the city high is definitionreallocating video street bemo commerciallynitoring nodes. available, Meanwhile, and a traffic cities video are monitorlan platformes to pedestrians has been and installed bicycles, in 280 and cities. strictly amendingThrough the legislation extensive to range permit of driverlessurban road monitoring,limiting parking the traffic spots incident in new public detection buildings. and vehicles on roads. Some Asian and Pacific processing speed has been significantly improved, effectivelyCity government alleviating does urban not traffic have tojams. be the sole countries are actively preparing for funder and operator of every type of service autonomous vehicles in urban areas. and infrastructure system. Public financing (c) Smart City may be reserved for only those public goods that must be provided by the government. Growing urbanization is a global phenomenon, Furthermore, more than half of the initial and cities need to rethink how to investment that needs to be made by the accommodate this migration to enable people public sector would generate a positive to live in a sustainable city with adequate financial return, which opens the door to infrastructure and services. Redesigning urban partnerships. Technology can change the infrastructure is essential to adapting cities to relationship between municipal governments evolve with regard to social needs and growing and the people they serve. Constituents can economic competition. Citizens have higher engage in two-way conversations with public expectations for their quality of life and it is the officials and agencies via social media and role of public authorities to ensure efficient interactive mobile apps. Cities can use urban transport systems, provide seamless technology to take the pulse of public opinion connectivity, and meet environmental on a wide range of issues, using public challenges through technology enhancements feedback as the basis for making continuous and capabilities. improvements to the system. To that end, Smart city technologies help cities get more smart city efforts need to be transparent and out of their assets, whether they have accountable to the public. Engaging residents extensive legacy systems or are building from from the outset, not just after specific scratch. There is no getting around the need to applications suddenly appear, can secure

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community buy-in. Smart cities also raise technology. This type of situation requires the questions of equity. Most (though not all) investigation of the potential of ITS in various applications require smartphones or work, so categories. An analysis of the current bringing more of the population online is a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and priority. The needs of all demographics and threats (SWOT) is given below in the context of neighborhoods should be on the agenda when ITS in the Asia-Pacific region. cities choose which programs to pursue. The Asia-Pacific region shows the most rapid Increased surveillance and data-driven policing economic growth in the world. About two raise concerns about ‘big brother’ always thirds of the world’s population lives in the watching and the potential to inhibit political region. Thus, there are enormous market dissent. Governments and private-sector opportunities for ITS technologies in this players now hold and share sensitive personal region. To be specific, according to the analysis data, making it critical to establish thoughtful of ITS market size, the Asia-Pacific market is protocols and safeguards about its handling expected to grow constantly from US$4.55 and protection. billion in 2015 to US$14.37 billion by 2024.

Experts worldwide are concerned about However, the lack of short- and long-term cybersecurity vulnerabilities in smart cities. plans for ITS is also one of the weaknesses The Internet of Things provides an extensive noticed in many countries in this region, which ‘surface area’ for hackers to attack. in part results from the weak regulatory Compromised security systems, medical foundations for ITS at the national and regional monitors, and self-driving cars could pose life- levels. Such plans will provide an overarching and-death risks, and the consequences could vision, detailed goals, and short-, medium- and be severe if bad actors shut down a city’s long-term action plans for ITS development power grid or water supply. Cities need to and operation. Given that several countries in prioritize their most sensitive assets and the region are in the early stages of ITS surround them with the most rigorous defense development, this weakness will create mechanisms. Mission-critical IoT applications challenges to implementing ITS in many ways. should have high levels of security before they In connection to this weakness, common are adopted on a large scale. Cities will have to terminologies and standards need to be develop cybersecurity expertise, and stay developed; regional terminologies and abreast of the constantly evolving threat standards would facilitate efficient environment. They will need to prepare for interactions among ITS applications and how to respond to breaches – including not seamless services by enhancing the only technical remediation but how they will interoperability and compatibility between maintain calm and how they will communicate. different systems. IoT firms and mobile app developers must Countries in the Asia-Pacific region have prioritize cybersecurity at every stage rather introduced ITS at different times and might than patching safeguards onto completed have differing interests, and needs from ITS tools after the fact. technologies. Given that there are a variety of Gap analysis and Future Policy ITS technologies in place around the world, Recommendations exploring prevailing or forthcoming ITS A high percentage of the younger generation applications and technologies would provide and their positive attitude on adopting guidance on formulating policy technologies bring, in part, new opportunities recommendations for ITS regulatory to address issues with regard to ITS and frameworks.

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Few Indian cities, despite having different organizations running different services, are trying to achieve integration and seamless connectivity. Kochi is in the process to set up a nodal agency for transport which will include the Kochi Metro Rail Limited, Kochi Metropolitan Transport Co-operative and a cooperative society for paratransit operators. This integration will be the first of its kind in India with common mobility payment facilities as well. The IPT services will also be regularized with provision of training, fuel subsidies, work schedules etc. (Gadepalli, Fabianski, Pourbaix, & Singh, 2018).

CASE STUDY: Alwar Vahini: Formalizing Paratransit.

Alwar is a city in the National Capital Region of Delhi (NCR), one of the most polluted areas in the country. The city is rapidly industrializing and suffers from a lack of planned transport services. Alwar Vahini is a formal IPT system organized with support of various stakeholders at the local level. Funding was received from banks and the district administrators were given a facilitating role. Throughout the project, Euro IV-compliant Tata Magic and Maximo Mahindra vehicles replaced the old fleet of 750 polluting vehicles, training was provided for drivers, and supporting infrastructure was provided (such as CCTV cameras and new transit stops). A total of 3,000 people were employed directly, including women drivers, who help to encourage women to access safe and convenient commuting services.

Figure 96: Alwar Vahini fleet

CASE STUDY: Alwar Vahini: Formalizing Paratransit. UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 154 Alwar is a city in the National Capital Region of Delhi (NCR), one of the most polluted areas in the country. The city is rapidly industrializing and suffers from a lack of planned transport services. Alwar Vahini is a formal IPT system organized with support of various stakeholders at the local

Figure 97: Framework of the SWOT analysis for ITS and technologies in Asia-Pacific. Source: UN ESCAP (2019). Guidelines for the Regulatory Frameworks of Intelligent Transport Systems in Asia and the Pacific

Finally, digital solutions are helping provide a cities. Digital technologies are fundamentally platform to enable participation in decision changing approaches to the design of urban making, help citizens access services, and systems, but the governance and business increase transparency and accountability. The models need to be aligned to ensure that all most vulnerable are often limited in their segments of the society gain from these accessibility and skills. To bridge the digital technological applications. divide, the City of San Francisco spearheaded Digital technologies can significantly modify the San Francisco Digital Equity Initiative to the effectiveness of existing assets (e.g. cars help marginalized communities gain access operating better together) and new and skills needed to leverage digital solutions innovations (e.g. electric vehicles and smart and improve their quality of their life. grids). Integrating technologies together can While digital solutions are not the answer to all yield significant co-benefits relating to data challenges that are faced by cities, they can be collection and processing, with a compounded successfully deployed to reduce inequity in disruption potential. To do that, infrastructure investments (e.g. dedicated roads for

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autonomous vehicles) will be required to fully does not adapt, businesses will not be able to leverage the benefits – without these, pursue new opportunities, including potential benefits could be partially or fully internationally, and we shall see a clear negated, thereby reducing the overall widening in productivity, giving first mover economic viability of these technologies. advantages and fostering growth accelerations only in certain sectors and locations. And as As we have seen, disruptive technologies pose technological changes embed themselves in new risks – to economic and societal inclusion, human and organizational relationships, it and to environmental and systemic could diminish societal trust and happiness, sustainability – both for governments and and disrupt traditional workplace dynamics. businesses. As they are reshaping the nature of work and increasing the risk of growing To counter this, cities must use policy tools to inequality in shifting economies, the transition integrate non-technological solutions in needs to be supported with strategic projects to promote equity, and to ensure that vocational training and digitalization of the the poor, disadvantaged, and vulnerable have labor force. Few businesses have the capacity, the tools and channels they need to fully without support, to identify and train for the participate. Projects should be monitored types of skills necessary in the fourth industrial closely to ensure that developmental goals are revolution. being met. Putting urban citizens at the center of solutions, technology-based and otherwise, Without a clear strategy, there is a clear is key to making sure that no one is left behind. technology-related risk of ’gappening’ (our neologism for a gap that is happening before our eyes) between those with the means to access new technologies and to acquire skills for the new economy – and those without. If the enabling environment to be competitive

CASE STUDY: Humanising the Streets

As Shanghai has grown in affluence, more people have aspired towards the status symbol of owning private cars. Between 2009 and 2014, motor vehicle mileage doubled. By 2014, the city’s car ownership exceeded 10 per cent of the national car population. Cars dominate Shanghai’s 12,000km of road space, leaving little room for much else.

Shanghai created a mission to return streets to its people, and make streets ’Safe, Green, Vigorous and Smart’ through a set of urban development guidelines. This sparked a shift in focus from engineering and road traffic towards design of spaces and the environment. Artistic and cultural attractions were set up to encourage walking, while smart technologies improved the monitoring and integration of public street facilities.

Shanghai’s spaces became more interactive, accessible, and aesthetically pleasing. By downplaying vehicular transport, streets were made safer and more convenient to walk and cycle. Community life and leisure activities flourished, while neighborhoods became cleaner and greener.

Shanghai got the fundamentals right by reviewing traffic planning and street design before fine- tuning in favor of pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit users. Widened walkways became common ground for public-private collaborations, bringing life and personality to the streets.

CASE STUDY:UN ESCAP Humanising - Recommendations the Streets towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 156 As Shanghai has grown in affluence, more people have aspired towards the status symbol of owning private cars. Between 2009 and 2014, motor vehicle mileage doubled. By 2014, the city’s car ownership exceeded 10 per cent of the national car population. Cars dominate Shanghai’s

4.4 ENSURE SOCIAL INCLUSION AND SAFETY ultimate goal of most transport activity. It is a How can cities improve the terms on which precondition for people's ability to participate individuals and groups take part in the life of in society as well as for the economic the cities – improving the ability, opportunity, development of cities, regions, and countries. and dignity of those disadvantaged on the The first perspective is accessibility for people basis of their identity to use city services and and goods of the urban transport network in transport? In the context of an aging the urban area and between local urban population, and lower-income, how can transport networks and regional, national, and sustainable transport address these international transport networks, in the sense challenges? Which services can support that? of ’availability’. The second perspective is Accessibility refers to people's ability to reach accessibility of the urban transport system for goods, services and activities, which is the

CASE STUDY: The UN and SDGs for an inclusive approach

Leaving No One Behind. The 2030 Agenda will succeed only if it reaches all countries, all communities and all people – if no one is left behind. As Bénédicte Frankinet, the Permanent Representative of Belgium to the United Nations, said, “the success of the [Sustainable Development] Goals will be determined by how much the lives of the most vulnerable are improved.”

Sustainable transport plays a fundamental role in overcoming the social exclusion of vulnerable groups. SDG target 11.2 explicitly calls on the international community to work toward sustainable transport for all people: By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with disabilities and older persons.

By enabling women to access markets and jobs, as well as a range of social and health services, transport promotes women’s economic empowerment and social inclusion. Essential to this is that transport systems are designed to safeguard the personal security of all travelers. Station and route planning, community awareness raising, and effective policing are critical to increase the confidence of both young and older women to move freely in public places and use public transport.

Transport services themselves must also be physically accessible to older and disabled people. Article 9 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities sets out the imperative that “in order to enable persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life, appropriate measures should be taken to ensure to persons with disabilities access, on an equal basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, including information and communications technologies and systems, and to other facilities and services open or provided to the public, both in urban and in rural areas.”

It is increasingly recognized by transport authorities, service providers, and operators that improvements to the accessibility of the transport system as a whole will mean a better quality of transport for all users. Higher quality vehicle design, infrastructure, driver training, information and many other factors contribute to a more equitable system, and in this way, accessibility is a key element in ensuring the social sustainability of the transport sector.

CASE STUDY: The UN and SDGs for an inclusive approach UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 157 Leaving No One Behind. The 2030 Agenda will succeed only if it reaches all countries, all communities and all people – if no one is left behind. As Bénédicte Frankinet, the Permanent Representative of Belgium to the United Nations, said, “the success of the [Sustainable

senior citizens and people with disabilities or Also, launched in May 2017, Singapore’s Road reduced mobility. Safety Month focuses on road safety for motorcyclists, elderly pedestrians, and Transport drives development, links people, children and on cultivating good ‘Road Sense’. connects local communities to the world, Bangladesh tackles its main causes of road builds markets and facilitates trade. In turn, crashes and injuries by launching campaigns sustainable transport drives sustainable against unsafe overtaking and riding development, fundamental to meeting the motorcycles without helmets. It is also revising needs of people in their personal and its existing Motor Vehicle Act 1983 to reduce economic lives, while respecting the ability of road accidents. future generations to meet their needs. In addition, a long-term program to improve For decades, transport policies focused on child safety has been taken by the Republic of providing mobility based on motorized Korea since 1995. After two decades of transport and improving traffic speed. Using implementing various policies a 96 per cent the word ‘access’ in the context of transport reduction in child traffic fatalities was achieved was synonymous with building new roads and in 2016, compared with the highest child other infrastructure mainly benefitting the use fatalities figure in 1988. of private cars. The motivation was access to transport. With the shift to sustainable The auto-centric street design environments transport comes a paradigm-shifting focus on are contributing to the common perception of people and their quality of life – the concept of cycling as an unsafe mode of travel and a ‘poor access through transport, as well as increased man’s vehicle’. In India, cities lack bicycle lanes attention to safety and social equity in and proper pavements. This, coupled with transport. heavily congested roads, creates a danger to cyclists. Furthermore, the low costs of bicycles In terms of road safety, and despite the limited may make it more economical to buy than to resources, various road safety activities have rent, especially with a very flourishing market been implemented between 2015 and 2017. of used, second hand, third hand bicycles and Across the region, awareness-raising other vehicles. campaigns have been undertaken to alter road-user behavior. One of the more effective Despite negligible investments in cycling disseminating channels for road safety infrastructure facilities, bicycles have not messages is media and television. In 2016, disappeared from Indian streets. This indicates Myanmar broadcast road safety video clips of that current users are captive and they have no Global Road Safety ambassador, Michelle other affordable option. Recent research in Yeoh, on prime-time national television on a India’s urban transportation sector provides daily basis. enough evidence to prove that there is a strong correlation between cycling and income levels. To improve road safety infrastructure, in 2015 As income levels increase, cycling ridership and Vietnam conducted, for the first time, a road ownership decreases in urban areas (Jain and safety audit for new road construction while Tiwari, 2011; IDS survey 2009). Cycling is Pakistan has budgeted US$9.3million to associated with high risk on Indian roads. Once address road safety blackspots on the national the captive users have economic option to highways during 2016 and 2017. In Thailand move to another mode (mostly bus or M2W), and Vietnam, tracking devices are being they shift immediately. With a diminishing installed to monitor driving hours, rest time, market, India’s cycling industry also continues and driving speed. to face challenges in sustaining a viable

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business model to stay competitive globally. As CASE STUDY: Sweden’s holistic approach cities expand, increase in travel distances are for inclusive transport also discouraging the use of non-motorized modes (NMT). Policy measures, modifications The Swedish government has prioritized a to road design standards – bicycle lane, tracks holistic approach to inclusive transport or traffic calming, along with institutional policies by collecting gender-specific capacity building and other interventions will statistics and requiring new project be needed to ensure that the share of cycling proposals to include gender analyses. As is maintained, if not increased. noted by Matthias Landgren, State Secretary to the Minister for A city for people Infrastructure, Sweden: “You need a A major structuring element of the new city holistic approach. If you don’t have that, model is abundant high-quality pedestrian you can make progress on some steps, but public space. As has been correctly addressed you will not see the full benefits.” in various Chinese cities, there should be at least as much public pedestrian space as road a lack of gender-disaggregated mobility data space. Physically protected bicycle paths, which are crucial for developing inclusive large, exclusively pedestrian avenues and solutions. A fundamental data gap exists which greenways should crisscross the city in all prevents cities, countries, and regions from directions. No child should grow farther than understanding women’s transport experiences three blocks from a park. Large tracts of land and patterns and how to address them. around cities should become parks; cross Transport systems traditionally built by men, country pedestrian and bicycle paths through for men, have far-reaching implications which the adjacent countryside should readily permit break across siloed policy areas. In many all citizens a contact with nature; all regions, women are the predominant users of waterfronts should have public access and public transport yet their needs are frequently have the basic infrastructure for it. not just ignored, but completely unknown. In urban areas women face daily challenges. In this regard, having an effective policy Women use public transport more than men framework in place will accelerate progress of and they heavily depend on these systems for ITS deployment in the region. The framework their mobility needs. The travel patterns of could provide general policy recommendations women also differ from those of men in for member countries and their development developed and developing countries alike, and partners when formulating specific national in both rural and urban areas. Differences are master plans on ITS. It is also expected that the evident in modal choice, time of travel, trip policy framework can support to build a truly purpose, routes, trip chains, and travel integrated and user-friendly transport systems distance. These distinctions stem from through ITS by facilitating broader systemic differences in access to resources, collaboration and involvement of interested household responsibilities, travel preferences, public agencies, research organizations, and and social norms surrounding mobility for private companies in the ITS area. This women. Women experience unequalled time eventually support Sustainable Development and resource constraints with respect to their Goals 9 – particularly Goal 11 (to make cities travel as a result. and human settlements inclusive, safe, More resources should be invested in pursuing resilient and sustainable), and target 11.2. a better understanding of gender differences in transport. Policy makers are challenged with

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Enrique Peñalosa, former mayor of Bogotá

“The importance of pedestrian public spaces cannot be measured. It cannot be proven mathematically that wider sidewalks, pedestrian streets, and more or better parks make people happier; much less measure how much happier. However, if we reflect, most things that are important in life cannot be measured either: Friendship, beauty, love, and loyalty are examples. There is a curious difference between parks and other public investments. If people lack transport, running water, or other traditional public services, they will feel very unsatisfied. But if they do have those services, they do not get much satisfaction out of it. On the contrary, if they lack parks or other pedestrian spaces, they will not be particularly dissatisfied. But if they do have them, they will derive out of it ceaseless satisfaction. It is so, because most government services are means to a better life; while pedestrian spaces are an end in themselves; they practically ARE a better life in themselves.

At first it may seem that in developing cities with so many unmet needs, high quality pedestrian spaces would be a frivolity. On the contrary, in places where citizens lack so much in terms of amenities and consumption, it is quicker and more effective to distribute quality of life through public goods such as parks, plazas, and sidewalks, than to increase the personal incomes of the poor. It is impossible to provide citizens certain individual consumer goods and services such as cars, computers, or trips to Paris. It is however possible to provide them with excellent schools, libraries, sidewalks, and parks. Low-income privations are not as evident during work time. It is during leisure time that the difference with upper income groups is most felt. While upper income people—increasingly turning to large, enclave-style gated communities and housing estates with freeway access near the edges of large developing cities—have cars, go to clubs, country houses, theatres, restaurants and on vacations, for the poor public space is the only leisure alternative to television and walking around in shopping malls. Parks, plazas, pedestrian streets and sidewalks are essential for social harmony. High quality sidewalks are the most basic element of a people-centered city. It is frequent that images of high-rises and highways are used to portray a city’s advance. It would be useful to reflect on this point based on previous or current experiences in Chinese cities: who are they built for and how?

Parks and public space are also important to a harmonic society, because they are the only places where people meet as equals. In our highly hierarchical societies, we meet separated by our socioeconomic differences. The Chief Executive Officer perhaps meets the janitor, but from his position of power. In walkways and parks everyone meets as equals.”

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According to the International Labour Women are significantly under-represented Organization, limited access and lack of safe within the workforce in the transport sector. transport is the greatest obstacle to women’s This is particularly relevant at higher levels, labor market participation, reducing their such as on boards of directors and in probability of involvement by up to 16.5 per leadership positions. Many barriers to the cent. Women are 47 per cent more likely to greater recruitment, retention, and suffer severe injuries in car crashes because advancement of women in transport safety features are designed for men. Eighty- professions arise from the fact that the sector one per cent of females have also experienced has traditionally been male-dominated. This harassment in public spaces, including public leads to a lack of examples of female transport and the areas related to it. New professionals at all levels of responsibility, and mobility will not be successful unless it a lack of awareness of the range of occupations considers the importance, not of the users, but that are available in the sector. the differences among the users. Gender After decades of designing streets to move disaggregated data can provide a clear picture large numbers of vehicles as efficiently as of problems that should be addressed in the possible, cities are finally rediscovering the first instance. However, the crucial issue is to benefits of designing safe and liveable streets put all users’ needs at the center of the that balance the needs of all users. It is time to problem before talking about technology. change practices and redefine what Women now travel widely for employment, constitutes successful streets. Streets should education, and leisure yet they still experience not be evaluated in isolation or as many constraints to mobility. In most transportation projects alone. Instead, each countries, women still take on the larger share design presents an opportunity to ask what of care related activities which often dictates overall benefits can be gained. their travel patterns and behaviors – and the number of trips they take usually increases Citizen participation, equity, and inclusion when they have a family. McGurkin found that It is clear at this point that people will play a having a child under five years old increases central role in the construction of the city. trip chaining by 54 per cent for working women Their behaviors, induced by design choices and and by 19 per cent for working men and participation mechanisms, will build a common therefore women are economically sensitive to and always evolving identity. The city won’t be the cost of transport. Additionally, young alive unless their citizens are. women, including mothers, have become Their concept of sustainability (which includes more active in out-of-home, non-work resiliency, integration, efficient soil use, use of activities and their trip chaining has become local resources, accessibility, identity, health, more complex, compared to their male functionality, etc.) translates into planning counterparts. guidelines, where the idea of ‘adaptive Women use private and public transport planning’ stands out. In fact, we need to be differently than men. Specifically, women tend able to review the proposed design to make shorter, more frequent trips, often periodically to address the identified issues carrying items or are accompanied by children. and take into account the new neighbors’ This can mean that women face higher opinion. At the same time, areas that will only mobility costs than men. Ultimately there are be developed after many years should unique constraints and often more complex accommodate transitory uses (the so-called trip-based activities that need to be better ‘meanwhile urbanism’). understood.

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Social Equity Safe Streets Save Lives More than 1.2 million In an era of increasing inequality, cities must people die on roads around the world every ensure that their most valuable public spaces year. That is equivalent to roughly one person offer safe and equitable use to all, regardless dying every 30 seconds, or over 3,400 people of ability, age, or income, empowering the dying every single day of the year. Many of most vulnerable users with safe and reliable these deaths occur on urban roads and are mobility choices. A city serves its citizens preventable crashes caused by behavior better through street design that increases induced by street design. access to jobs and schools, benefits individual Creating safe streets is a critical responsibility health, improves sanitation, and encourages shared by designers, engineers, regulators, strong communities. and civic leaders. Even in the cities with the Social Interaction best safety records, the threat of traffic Well-designed streets connect people with violence makes movement around the city a their communities, providing opportunities to potentially dangerous daily activity. Highway- meet people, see friends, and feel socially like street designs that prioritize automobiles connected. Streets with reduced traffic over vulnerable users and encourage high volumes and speeds extend the territory of the speeds fail to provide safe environments. private spaces that line the street, increasing Studies from around the globe have shown the opportunity for social interaction. that most traffic deaths, especially the easily Empowerment and Social Inclusion preventable pedestrian deaths, occur on a Streets should be spaces of empowerment for small percentage of arterial streets. These the vulnerable. For people burdened with streets are rendered dangerous by design. poverty or living in cultures that face social They contain the following characteristics: inclusion challenges, streets should provide an • Wide streets that invite speeding and inclusive place for diverse users. lack safe crossings. Human experience • Streets that act as front yards but Human experience of neighborhoods and allow aggressive behavior by those cities is shaped by streets. The ease at which passing through. people move from one place to another, • Highway-like surface streets where access services, enjoy their surroundings, and motorcyclists and public transport feel safe impacts their mental health and passengers are at risk from large speed comfort. differentials, and where sidewalks are missing or substandard. Public Health and Safety The combination of high traffic speeds and Every year, millions of people die unnecessarily volumes, long crossings, and large distances from preventable causes, such as traffic between marked crossings make them fatal violence or chronic diseases related to poor air corridors for vulnerable users. quality and lack of physical activity. Street design must promote safe environments for all Safety and Access users and offer healthy choices that facilitate People feel more comfortable using safe active transportation, such as walking, cycling, streets. Urban streets must be designed for and using public transit. Streets should slower traffic speeds and include sidewalks, improve access to healthy food options, lighting, furniture, and shade to support a safe mitigate noise levels, and provide landscaping experience. Streets provide links to critical and trees that improve air and water quality. services such as health care and education and

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require safe, secure, and accessible routes. assistances to bus operators such as Street design should provide spaces that preferential interest rates. As a result, many enhance urban safety and support crime cities and provinces have started to invest prevention. more in their infrastructure operators. But public transport development is still Social inclusion in Vietnam – how to combine challenging as there is a lack of comprehensive affordability and coverage. Affordable fare policy for public transport in local areas. policy There are contrasting stories to tell on public HCMC has been a success over the past few transport fare and subsidy policies in Vietnam. decades, however it tells a challenging story Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City are exceptional now. The city has a bus network of more than cases, where public transport has been 140 routes, of which 107 routes are subsidized. continuously subsidized and plays a significant In addition, there are 45 bus routes that serve role in urban transport. In the other cities and commuting workers under the form of provinces, bus services have played a marginal subsidized service contracts, and 155 schools role, sharing less than 1 per cent, with all local are providing school bus services with governments (except Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh government subsidies. City) gradually reducing subsidy levels due to Though operation costs and subsidies have budgetary constraints. Until the end of 2016, increased in recent years, the subsidy-cost the Ministry of Transport strongly requested ratio has dropped from 68 per cent in 2002 to all cities and provinces to provide bus fare 34 per cent in recent years. In the meantime, subsidies, increase investment in public transport infrastructure, and provide

CASE STUDY: Moving on from motorbikes Ho Chi Minh City

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is the economic heart of Vietnam. With robust economic growth and an increasing population, it has become a ‘motorcycle-dependent city’ with nearly six million motorbikes and various affiliated problems. Pedestrian walkways are congested due to poorly regulated motorcycle parking. In 2014, 65 per cent of the 875 traffic accidents involved motorbikes, resulting in 713 deaths.

HCMC has an ambitious plan to build an extensive public transport system, which will include Mass Rapid Transit and Bus Rapid Transit corridors. With this, public transport is slated to make up 25 per cent of city travel by 2020 and 60 per cent after 2030. To reduce traffic accidents, the new Traffic Safety Year 2017 campaign hopes to build a healthier, safer traffic culture.

It continues to be an uphill task for public transport to gain a foothold in HCMC. Besides having to raise capital to build the new public transport system within a short timeframe, the city faces difficulties such as fragmentation of funding, land acquisition and resettlement challenges, as well as administrative issues.

Time is a key factor in real estate development. Complex projects require a longer, phased implementation, with flexibility in timing. Construction costs in HCMC’s growing infrastructure sector will make progress uncertain until contract experience is gained, and local industry capacity and skills are further developed.

In the long run, with more funding and project management, HCMC is in a good position to become a society of shared mobility, completely bypassing the car-dependent stage.

CASE STUDY: Moving on from Motorbikes Ho Chi Minh City UN ESCAP - Recommendations towards safe, green, smart and inclusive urban transport Page 163 Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is the economic heart of Vietnam. With robust economic growth and an increasing population, it has become a ‘motorcycle-dependent city’ with nearly six million motorbikes and various affiliated problems. Pedestrian walkways are congested due to poorly

Figure 98: Bicycle transport by tourists in Hue and Hoi An, Vietnam. Source: Saigon local tour, 2019 subsidy by ridership rate has been decreasing. reduce traffic congestion and environmental It can be said that the fare and subsidy policy pollution, enhancing health, and creating a has been successful in providing affordable friendly environment. In fact, since the central public transport services to social groups, area of the cities is featured by many narrow especially students and low-income workers. roads, promoting non-motorized transport like But setting the fares too low may risk the a bicycle system is certainly a trend. The city future development of mass rapid transit governments have committed to improve systems (such as the MRT and BRT lines). infrastructure and facilities for safe and HCMC needs to consider reforming its fare and comfortable bicycling and reorganize the subsidy policy in the coming years with urban transport network to facilitate the consideration to the introduction of new integration of public transport and bicycling railways, BRT lines, and doubling the city bus systems. network.

Introducing public bicycle system in tourism cities Hue and Hoi An are the first cities in Vietnam that have developed a public bicycle system for tourism. Riding a bicycle helps visitors discover a better sense of the unique character of Hue and Hoi An. In addition, the system helps

Figure 99: Walking Streets surrounding Turtle Lake in Hanoi City. Source: Vietnam time, 2020

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Figure 100: Flow-density relationship in a motorcycle traffic system. Source: Tuan & Nguyen, 2019

Designing motorcycle exclusive lanes to ensure focused efforts on the thematic priorities in road safety and efficiency this report. Empirical studies show that motorcycle only 1. Plan the foundations of a sustainable lanes (3.5m wide) can serve up to 12,600 future. All cities must strengthen their motorcycles per hour (Tuan and Nguyen, capacities, adopt inclusive planning 2019). This can lead to a transport capacity of processes and develop long-term spatial one motorcycle-exclusive lane of around and investment plans that effectively 15,000 passengers per hour, about six times of consider urban growth, quality-of-life the maximum capacity of car exclusive lanes. goals, resource implications, and smart Given the limited road infrastructure, approaches. motorcycles might be a solution to increasing 2. Guard against future risks. To ensure road congestion due to growing care usage. sustainable growth and development, it is However, motorcycle riders are one of the critical that cities adopt resilience most vulnerable road users in Vietnam and strategies that break down governance other developing countries. Segregating siloes to improve policy efficacy, provide motorcycle traffic from car traffic would opportunities to scale up nature-based improve road capacity and safety (Tuan & Nguyen, 2019). In HCMC, for example, motorcycle lanes have been introduced along many urban arterial roads, such as Pham Van Dong, Vo Van Kiet, and Hanoi Highway, where traffic speeds are high and car traffic is increasing. This has helped reduce traffic congestion and fatal road crashes involving motorcycle riders.

Moving forward Figure 101: Exclusive motorcycle lanes on Vo Van Kiet. To realize the future vision of inclusive, safe, Source: Resviet, 2019 resilient, and sustainable cities will require

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infrastructure solutions, and engage the creativity of the urban poor as solution providers to guard against potential shocks and stresses, including natural disasters. 3. Capitalize on frontier technologies to develop people-centered smart cities. City leaders must develop smart cities road maps across different urban systems that capture the innovation of technological entrepreneurs, bridge the digital divide, support smart mobility and include the perspectives of local stakeholders, while ensuring their safety. 4. Mobilize financing to invest in sustainable urban solutions. Local governments must access or adopt innovative investment tools, such as land value capture instruments, PPPs and environmental user fee models. These can serve as important levers to catalyze economically impactful capital investments that create long- term value for citizens, businesses and the city as a whole.

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5 RECOMMENDATIONS lead departments of transportation, planning, natural resources, finance, public security, and This section includes a practical and clear others as well as make our roads and streets roadmap of recommendations extracted from truly serve for people's travel and green travel the best-case studies in the Asia and Pacific rather than cars. region with the objective to show how national and municipal policy makers can take action towards sustainable transport. Some recommendations directly apply to the 2. Proactively plan for a just and socially decision-making level while the rest will only inclusive urban transport transition be successful if they originate through participatory processes, making sure they Key measures include strengthening tenure respond to people's needs. Within each group, security for the urban poor; enhancing climate they are presented in gradual implementation resilience and gender equality by educating all level, starting with core ones. young people; using revenues from fossil fuel subsidy reform or carbon taxes to compensate people who bear the costs of climate action; supporting local governments to make well- located, serviced land available for growing 1. Ensure political leadership in transport urban populations; supporting community-led related decisions upgrading of informal settlements; and Our review of best practices and lessons from anticipating, protecting and supporting the Asia clearly shows the need for policy support workforce of the future, including by and local leadership for successful measures in developing transition plans for fossil fuel- making urban transport sustainable. Asian based workers and industries. A circular and cities have managed to implement sustainable systemic approach is paramount if we want to measures thanks to strong political will to create a living, human city where everything is overcome transport congestion, ensure used, reused, and interconnected. Isolating greater and more appropriate space sharing specific solutions will only have a limited and among means of transport, and provide probably short-term impact. Integrated increased safety and security for travelers. The development can lead to huge economies in popular appeal of a measure depends on the terms of logistics and will help build a more positive attitude of public authorities towards resilient model of city, from its main modifying urban transport planning – and as infrastructures to its individual buildings. such, the political leadership of city-level In small and medium-sized cities, more decision makers is key to shaping the future of attention should be paid to people's travels transport in our cities of tomorrow. rather than any infrastructure construction. In Governments at all levels should establish the the future, the planning direction of urban concept of people-oriented urban transport transport should be changed from development and embed the idea of people- ‘infrastructure’ to ’people's travel’ as well as oriented throughout all aspects of urban from station construction to service transport planning, construction, operation, improvement. In the emerging cities, the and management. Urban transport urban transport system should be built management should be regarded as a ‘Mayor according to its own characteristics to avoid Project’, and a ‘Mayor Strategy’ should be the repetition of the "’Road Construction- established so as to have a strong leader to Traffic Congestion-Road Construction’ way in

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mega cities. In addition, it is very important to bring substantial, long-term, economy-wide make full use of the golden age of urban benefits while improving social equity. formation to form a transportation facility In Asian cities, it is also necessary to pay close system suitable for the development of green attention to the development of e-bikes. The travel modes such as walking and cycling so as practice of e-bikes in many cities in southern to avoid the lock-in effect of transportation China has proved that it can serve the short- infrastructure in large cities. distance travel of subtropical and temperate cities well. It has good application scenarios in small and medium-sized cities in hills and

mountains. At the same time, it also has its 3. Foster transport decarbonization in our unique advantages in reducing energy cities consumption and pollutant emissions, therefore, decision makers should not simply Decarbonization of all modes of transport by implement a policy to ban them. 2050 is possible – but action is needed now. Cost effective solutions for passenger and The walking and cycling environment needs to freight transport are available and have been be improved. It is necessary to improve the tested at scale (electrified mobility solutions, standards and management system for the shared and integrated with walking, cycling, construction of pedestrian and bicycle and public transport). Our analysis shows that facilities. Pedestrian and bicycle lanes shall be concerted national and urban policy together set up in accordance with the regulations for with business action is required to avoid the new construction and reconstruction of unnecessary trips, shift to efficient modes, and urban roads. It is encouraged to set up special improve vehicles and fuels. Aligning national bicycle roads in areas where conditions permit. policies behind compact, connected, clean China's practice has proved that the biggest cities, can make the difference in the Asia obstacle to the increase of the proportion of Pacific region. active travel lies in the right of way and traffic order, which need to be solved through Key measures include reforming energy policies and infrastructure construction. It is markets to decarbonize the electricity grid; necessary to continue to solve such problems reaching net-zero operating emissions in all as the common slab setting of non-motor buildings with minimal use of carbon offsets; vehicle lanes and sidewalks, and build a safe, decarbonizing the electricity grid; banning the continuous, and comfortable slow traffic sale of fossil fuel- powered vehicles and ending system. the subsidies to the whole carbon economy; adopting green alternatives to steel and cement; and shifting away from building detached housing in established cities. Senior decision-makers in India, for example, are 4. Target urban transport financial suggesting that the sale of fossil fuel-powered sustainability with new business models passenger cars and two-wheelers will be Overall, the findings of the analysis support prohibited from 2030. These policies for safe, that cities must aim to achieve financial clean, efficient, and affordable mobility for all sustainability for their urban transport systems must be part of all low carbon transport by combining both innovative multitier actions. Our calculations show that financing and wiser investments. Innovative investments in sustainable low carbon financing refers to the revenue side, which can transport offer great value for money, and increase if different financial instruments are

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combined and managed effectively. Wiser a perfect chance to privilege those operators investments, associated with the expenditure that follow sustainable best practices. side, means strategically choosing to develop cost-effective projects that contribute to solving short-term difficulties while working to achieve long-term transport sustainability goals. More specifically, the revenue-side 5. Improve technological innovation perspective acknowledges that the observed supported by awareness and expertise underfinancing of the transport sector stems In several cities that we observed, some from the existing price distortions that have innovative measures relying on technological tacitly contributed to the subsidizing of certain and digital innovation have proven to be useful mode inefficiencies, particularly those of the in the implementation of local transport private car. policies for people. In many policy initiatives, Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) have been Public transport development is still used to assess traffic flow, carry out remote challenging as there is a lack of a monitoring, and provide instant information to comprehensive tariff policy for public users. Knowledge and expertise in relation to transport in local areas. The fare and subsidy ITS technology is vital in order to ensure the policy in mega cities of Asia have been quite smooth implementation of a mobility plan. successful in providing affordable public Information technologies include digital and transport services to social groups, especially mobile applications to provide citizens with students and low-income workers. But setting real-time information, ease the use of different too low fare levels may risk the future transport modes, engage stakeholders in development of mass rapid transit systems decision making, and actively involve them in (specially MRT and BRT lines) as it would be campaigns and incentive programs. Special difficult to introduce new fares much higher attention has to be paid at how these than the existing fares and it is more difficult to mechanisms are designed and deployed in continue improving the quality of current order to protect a user's privacy, by using services. Therefore, the mega cities need to secure, decentralized, and anonymized consider reforming fare and subsidy policy in structures. Knowledge and expertise is also coming years with consideration to the crucial to this regard. introduction of new railways, BRT lines, and improving city bus networks, as well as the fare The demand for app-based taxi services is integration between these transit modes. rapidly growing, which is hindering the growth of traditional taxi demand. The popularity of Therefore, an ideal financing strategy should app-based delivery services in general and aim at setting financial instruments at prices app-based food delivery services in particular that charge users for the total costs of using a has grown strongly in recent years. Currently, given infrastructure or transport service; this the fast pace of life and the development of pricing will correct market distortions, educate the modern urban wave have led to significant user behavior, and increase revenue to a level changes in the eating habits of many people. equal to or above expenditures. In terms of App-based taxi services and App-based COVID-19, transport flows have been seriously delivery services have led to significant disrupted and a balance between ensuring changes in the travel behavior of citizens. In connectivity and providing a safe experience is terms of legislation, there is an on-going crucial. Public or private transport providers debate over the identification of RHA services, might need temporary financial support, being as to whether they are a taxi service or a

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platform service. This distinction is to support participate in their social lives. Cities need to authorities in regulating new mobility services promote the accessibility of urban roads, bus and create fair competition among service stations, and vehicle facilities, as well as providers. Regardless of the results of this develop new modes of transportation and on- debate, such new mobility services are offering demand travel services that adapt to the aging solutions to intermodal connectivity, demand trend. responsiveness, and urban resiliency against disruptions, notably the one caused by the COVID-19 outbreak. As such, it calls for a true collaboration between authorities and 7. Intertwine urban governance with ridesharing companies to gain mutual benefits transport master planning to meet growing travel demand and achieve sustainable urban mobility. As a result of devolution and decentralization, cities and urban authorities are receiving more autonomy and authority to plan, make decisions, and implement projects. At the same time, these authorities need support in 6. Involve stakeholders and obtain public exercising their power, such as developing support in transport plans legal and regulatory frameworks, enhancing Our assessment of the successful institutional coordination, ensuring effective transformative project in cities shows the need public participation, and making effective and for comprehensive communication and timely evidence-based decisions. There are information tools to reach stakeholders. The many examples of city leaderships that have opinions held by members of the public and led the transformation of cities and developed transport users about proposed sustainable exemplary public transport systems, which can urban transport measures must be assessed in be followed to enable world-class sustainable order to achieve greater acceptance and reach public transport systems. Any delays in a better understanding of people’s travel decision-making and project implementation patterns and how transport planning can make translate in to increased costs to economies. In a positive change in travel behavior. By order to improve project governance, involving users, it is more likely that behavioral accountability frameworks, inspection and change will be achieved, as demonstrated in monitoring guidelines, and quality assurance numerous cities. The community has to be plans should be devised and strictly followed. supported by flexible design and empowered Each city should develop an integrated through citizen participation mechanisms. This sustainable urban transport master plan that will distinguish a residential development from meets the mobility needs of urban residents, a living city and applies to the dialogue with the based on the use of public transportation neighboring towns, which should also benefit systems with future growth and expansion in from transportation projects. mind. The plan should incorporate all modes of Cities should pay attention to the care of transport, including active modes such as vulnerable groups in the development of city pedestrian facilities and cycling, while traffic, especially to enable the disabled, the promoting road safety, barrier-free access, elderly, and children to enjoy safe, inclusiveness and intermodal transfer facilities. comfortable, and convenient public transport It should be developed through a public services. The city traffic system, especially consultation process, with the support of public transport facilities, vehicles and experts, to ensure citizen-ownership. The services, should enable them to fully master plan should serve as a blueprint for all

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related projects and programs, taking into In large cities, it is necessary to promote the account the expansion of urban areas, changes establishment of a compact urban in demand, and travel patterns. development pattern with intensive land use, mixed functions, and public transport Once the master plan is developed, there must orientation. In order to promote the be commitment from all stakeholders to development of public transport, it is implement it through the mobilization of necessary to speed up the formulation of resources, prioritization, and development of comprehensive development and utilization projects. Many Asian cities have invested in policies of public transport land. For example, and developed urban public transport systems the ‘three-in-one’ development mode of through private sector participation. There are construction, operation, and property has examples of metro and suburban railways been implemented in Shenzhen: by giving the being developed by the private sector in Hong transport operators reserved land rights along Kong, China, and Tokyo that fully integrate key transport corridors, a coordinated land-use and transport planning to maximize development strategy of rail transit value capture. Implementation of urban construction, operation, and resource transport plans also needs a high level of property can be implemented. coordination among multiple agencies at all levels of government (national, provincial, and urban/local).

In the process of rapid urbanization, special attention should be paid to the prediction of traffic demands, and the formulation of planning should rely on the forward-looking prediction of traffic demands. It is necessary to scientifically formulate urban land and space planning, urban comprehensive transportation planning, public transportation, and other special plans. It is necessary to adjust and control the traffic distribution from its source through planning to achieve a balance of urban occupation and residence, to reduce invalid travel, and to achieve energy conservation and emission reduction.

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