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The Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council Contesting the Mediterranean in the 1930S Van Kessel, T.M.C UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Cultural promotion and imperialism: the Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council contesting the Mediterranean in the 1930s van Kessel, T.M.C. Publication date 2011 Document Version Final published version Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): van Kessel, T. M. C. (2011). Cultural promotion and imperialism: the Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council contesting the Mediterranean in the 1930s. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). 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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:29 Sep 2021 CULTURAL PROMOTION AND IMPERIALISM The Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council Contesting the Mediterreanean in the 1930s Tamara van Kessel CULTURAL PROMOTION AND IMPERIALISM The Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council Contesting the Mediterranean in the 1930s ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het college voor promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Aula der Universiteit op woensdag 1 juni 2011, te 11:00 uur door Tamara Maria Constance van Kessel geboren te Rome, Italië Promotiecommissie Promotor: prof. dr. W. den Boer Co-promotor: prof. dr. R. van der Laarse Overige leden: prof. dr. H.A. Hendrix prof. dr. J.T. Leerssen prof. dr. P. Mandler prof. dr. P.W.M. de Meijer, emeritus prof. dr. M.J. Schwegman prof. dr. M.J. Wintle prof. dr. F.P.I.M. van Vree Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE VII INTRODUCTION 1 Cultural foreign politics contesting the centre of the world 1 Europe divided by crises and ideology 1 Cultural promotion: a tool in international politics 6 Cultural foreign politics from a transnational perspective 7 National identity constructed from abroad 8 Clashing empires and political systems in the Mediterranean 10 Modelling modernity 11 Citizenship, race and religion 13 Outline of the chapters 14 1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN CULTURAL POLICY 17 The Allgemeiner Deutscher Schulverein (1881) / Verein für das Deutschtum im Ausland (1908) and the Deutsche Akademie (1925) 17 Uniting the Volksdeutschen 17 Thierfelder and German language and culture for non-Germans 21 Accommodating to Hitler’s regime 23 The Alliance Française (1883) 25 Mission civilisatrice and France’s new orientation after 1870 25 The Ministère des Affaires Étrangères and the impulse of the Great War 29 Decline and revival of the Alliance 32 The Dante Alighieri Society (1889) 34 Italian irredentism, emigration and national expansion 34 Effects of the Italo-Turkish War and the First World War: Fascism and virulent nationalism 40 Competition with the Fasci Italiani all’Estero and the Istituti di cultura italiana 43 Intensification of cultural propaganda in the 1930s 45 The British Council (1934) 49 Cultural propaganda disavowed 49 Counteraction to protect trade, territory and democratic Tradition 52 Close connection to the Foreign Office 53 Conclusion 57 Increasing significance of cultural foreign policy 57 Universal ideologies 58 IV Table of Contents 2. THE DANTE ALIGHIERI SOCIETY AND THE BRITISH COUNCIL: THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE STATE 61 Internal leadership and government ties. The Dante Alighieri Society between two centuries 62 Risorgimento and freemasonry 62 From Risorgimento to Fascism: President Paolo Boselli 65 A new generation 71 Issue of independence 75 After Boselli’s demise (1932) 82 Superseded by the Istituti di Cultura 87 The British Council: an offshoot of the Foreign Office 89 Emergence in the age of ‘new diplomacy’ 89 The leading men 92 Gendering the Council 94 Critical of appeasement 96 Battling for independence from the Ministry of Information 97 Conclusion 100 The Dante’s balancing act 100 The Janus face of the Council 101 3. CONSTRUCTIONS OF ‘ITALIANITÀ’ AND ‘BRITISHNESS’ 103 Cultural pilgrimages across the Mediterranean 103 Reviving the Roman heritage 106 Secular pilgrimages 107 Paying homage to the dead 108 Cultural crusades 110 Missionaries of modernity 111 Italy’s widespread presence in the Mediterranean 112 Teaching Italian language and culture 114 Promising a Pax Romana 118 A Christian soul with a Mediterranean conscience 119 The projection of Britishness 120 Format and circulation of Britain To-day & British Life & Thought 120 Britain and European or World Civilization 123 Freedom, democracy and peace 125 The harmony of hierarchy 130 Truth will triumph 134 Conclusion 136 Table of Contents V 4. THE BATTLE FOR CULTURAL HEGEMONY IN MALTA 137 Malta: a chess-piece in the Mediterranean 137 The Dante Alighieri Society in Malta 142 Indignation expressed in Dante publications 142 Annibale Scicluna Sorge: the intermediary 145 Evidence of Italian civilization in Malta 147 The British Council in Malta 153 Establishing a British Institute 155 The first Council lecture 158 Dispelling suspicions of anti-Catholicism 161 The Institute opening its doors 163 Conclusion 166 5. CULTURAL POLICY AND COLONIAL CONQUEST: THE DANTE ALIGHIERI SOCIETY IN ABYSSINIA AND THE BRITISH COUNCIL IN EGYPT 169 The Dante Alighieri Society’s imperial dreams in Addis Ababa 169 A new Dante Alighieri Committee in Addis Ababa 171 Initial obstacles 174 The official opening of the Dante library 180 Pietrosi’s launching speech 182 Giving body to the library: the books and the building 184 Rumours regarding neglect 188 Competition in view 190 Great expectations: ideal and real power 191 The British Council in Egypt: using the word instead of the sword 192 Alarm about Latin rivalry 193 Keeping teachers and children British 201 New effort to reach out to Egyptian children as well 206 A British Institute or an Anglo-Egyptian Society 207 British Evening Institutes 209 Calling for the use of new media 211 Conclusion 213 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 215 BIBLIOGRAPHY 221 SAMENVATTING 235 PREFACE This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man. William Shakespeare, Hamlet (Act I, Scene 3) One of the inevitable questions in the globalized world of the twenty-first century is whether national cultural expression in an international context can ever be entirely free of moral or political values. Working from the beginning of 2004 until autumn 2006 for the European non-governmental heritage organisation Europa Nostra, I was confronted with the tension between wishing to protect cultural sites for their intrinsic value and justifying such protection with the argument that these sites strengthen the sense of a European collective heritage. Where does the cultural mission end and the political ideal begin? When, for example, heritage organisations in Western Europe try to transmit to former Communist countries their way of safeguarding cultural heritage, are they not hampered by their own national concepts of culture? Is there a way of encouraging greater knowledge and understanding of each other’s cultures, for the sake of peace and stability, without conveying a particular model of society in the process? Intrigued by these questions, I embarked on a PhD dissertation that would deal with many such thorny issues. I decided to look at the phenomenon of foreign cultural policy in the early twentieth-century, where some of the developments we see today – soft power politics and the perceived need to win hearts and minds – were already emerging. Now that I have completed the dissertation, I wish to thank my supervisor Pim den Boer and my co-supervisor Rob van der Laarse. Their unwavering faith in what I would be able to produce has been a source of encouragement throughout and so too their stimulating comments and advice. Whatever hesitations one may have about analysing the culture of two countries side by side, there can be no doubt that being supervised by two different personalities is a challenging but also enriching experience. Already when I was an MA student studying at the University of Amsterdam, Rob van der Laarse’s lectures – full of exciting ideas, like a string of colourful beads – reminded me of what I loved about studying history. With this same flair and creativity he has given me feedback as I progressed with my PhD research. Pim den Boer, with passion for the classics and for concepts through time, never seemed depleted of curiosity or of edifying observations. He also encouraged me to look beyond the borders, both in the choice of research sources and VIII Preface through the concrete opportunity to be involved in the organization of the 2010 International Congress of Historical Sciences held in Amsterdam. As with most Ph.D. research, the road to the completion of the thesis has been a scientific and a personal odyssey, complete with tempting mermaids, multi-headed monsters and storms at sea, but also moments of smooth sailing and joyful discovery. I am extremely grateful to the Institute of Culture and History (University of Amsterdam) for having granted me the financial means and intellectual freedom to pursue this journey, and the Huizinga Institute for providing a fruitful academic platform that rises above the interests of individual universities.
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