CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Repositorio Universidad de Zaragoza Acta Ant. Hung. 58, 2018, 379–398 DOI: 10.1556/068.2018.58.1–4.22 LORENZO PÉREZ YARZA APOLLO AS A PRECEDENT TO THE COINAGE OF SOL INVICTUS Summary: The purpose of this paper is to produce an approach to Sol through Numismatics. I intend to point out the possible correspondences existing between the god Sol, referred to as Sol Invictus in histori- ography,1 and Apollo. While the solar facet of Phoebus Apollo is well known, to what extent he exerted an influence over Sol Invictus has yet to be elucidated. Comparing types and chronologies plus describing correspondences between the two gods in an homogenous process may actually constitute a different ap- proach. Three aspects will be taken into consideration: iconography exchange, the chronological relation- ship and the propagandistic function of coin legends. The aim is to incorporate the knowledge thus gained into a critical analysis of Sol in the 3rd century. Key words: Sol Invictus, Apollo, Numismatics, conservator, propaganda Manders2 already mentions Apollo acting as an imperial protector in the second half of the 3rd century. Many deities and deified concepts acquired this feature throughout the century, usually connected to militarization and legitimizing propaganda. Imagery and formulae must be perceived as a reflection of imperial policy. A re- flection, not a copy, as to defend the existence of direct and exhaustive control over monetary policy would be excessive. From the point of view of iconography, the weight of tradition cannot be underestimated when assessing the message conveyed by coins. Fowden’s claim “conservatism modified by pragmatism”3 could well sum 1 With this remark I wish to indicate that I share Berrens’ view (BERRENS, S.: Sonnenkult und Kai- sertum von den Severern bis zu Constantin I (193–337 n. Chr.) [Historia Einzelschriften 185]. Stuttgart 2004, 184–198) on the value of the epithet “invictus”, not intrinsic to Sol. I will not go into the name de- bate and prefer to simplify the issue by accepting the generally used historiographic term Sol Invictus. This one will refer to the solar deity shaped in the second half of the 3rd century with peculiar features different from those of Sol in the 2nd and early 3rd centuries. 2 MANDERS, E.: Coining Images of Power, Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, AD 193–284. Leiden–Boston 2012, 132. 3 FOWDEN, G.: Late Polytheism. In BOWMAN, A. K. – GARNSEY, P. – CAMERON, A.: The Cam- bridge Ancient History. Vol. XII: The Crisis of the Empire, AD 193–337. Cambridge 2005, 557, n. 12. 0044-5975 © 2018 Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 380 LORENZO PÉREZ YARZA up how the Roman monetary system operated in the 3rd century. Yet, some objec- tions must be raised. There is ample room between indifference about the content of coins and a deliberate and painstaking control exerted by the emperors. Emperors did unquestionably control coinage and some of them even specifically promoted a cer- tain deity or type. Special commemorations on medallions are a clear example of this, as well as striking varieties or diversity of types: Elagabalus’s Sol, Jupiter under Dio- cletian, Hercules under Maximian, the saeculum aureum of Gordian III, Augustus, Aurelian… and for the purposes of this paper, the joint reign of Gallienus and Vale- rian. Yet, seeking a specific imperial policy in each type and aspect of a coin would be far-fetched. After all, one of the traits of Numismatics is the diversity of legends and images created by small variations. Sol became relatively common only after emperor Gallienus (except for Ela- gabalus). A central formula cannot be easily established; it is clear that the most com- mon form is ORIENS AVG,4 but it only accounts for a higher percentage initially. On other occasions, other formulae are more common for specific periods, such as AETERNIT AVG, linked to Sol during the decade of 240. Nonetheless, the most significant instance could be SOLI INVICTO, a predominant formula during the Tet- rarchy, the final phase of Sol’s formative process on the imperial coin begun in the last third of the 3rd century. Consequently, in spite of the larger tour of Sol’s iconog- raphy it does not seem reasonable to extend the name Sol Invictus beyond this period. Based on the same legends, the god clearly becomes linked to emperors and the preservation of the State, predictably through victory. This role of preservation, proximity to the ruler and legitimizing victory was increasingly significant throughout the 3rd century AD. Many of the legends referring to the god allude to such a func- tion: invictus, comes, aeternitas augusti, conservator, providentia… plenty of formu- lae, some shared with other Roman public deities although always focused on the same role played by the god. A quite clear instance would be emperor Probus’ series dedicated to CONCORDIA AVG, represented by the encounter between the goddess and god Sol.5 CHRONOLOGY In the timeline from the Severan dynasty to the end of the 3rd century there is a gap in the minting of Sol coins. The absence extends from Severus Alexander to the joint reign of Valerian and Gallienus, with a few exceptions. This fact defines a series of isolated moments whose characteristics allow us to establish a periodization. The following graph (chronologically inverse) based on the Roman Imperial Coinage illustrates the period (table 1):6 4 Most coins from the 2nd century AD contain this formula when depicting Helios-Sol. Oriens be- comes a “cliché”, cf. FERGUSON, J.: The Religions of the Roman Empire. London 1982, 49. 5 RIC V-2 Probus, 323–324. 6 Table based on the series established by Roman Imperial Coinage. Only the coins depicting ichnographically Sol are considered, those clearly attributable to the god Elagabal under Emperor Elagabalus are therefore excluded. Caesars reigns and regional coins are excluded. Acta Ant. Hung. 58, 2018 APOLLO AS A PRECEDENT TO THE COINAGE OF SOL INVICTUS 381 Table 1. Apollo & Sol RIC Coins Three exceptions can be noted in this “gap”. Firstly, the regional coins which follow their own cycles depicting the god Sol in cities such as Alexandria and Emesa under Verus Maximus (Caesar 236–238 AD).7 Secondly, the remarkable case of Gor- dian III (238–244 AD) whose propaganda on the saeculum aureum had an influence on later coinage with types referring to the aeternitas of Rome alongside Sol. And 7 MILNE, J. G.: A Catalogue of Alexandrian Coinage in the Ashmolean Museum. London 1971, 3219. Actually Milne collects some more: MILNE 3218 and 3220. Acta Ant. Hung. 58, 2018 382 LORENZO PÉREZ YARZA thirdly, a few instances exist of Philip I and II revering the concept of Aeternitas. They follow Gordian’s propaganda, with Sol depicted within the same framework of preservation (and regeneration) of the State. It should be emphasized that Jupiter, as well as Apollo and Sol,8 disappeared from imperial coins twice: once just after the reign of Severus Alexander and then after Gordian III (or his most immediate successors). Nevertheless, it must be pointed out that this assertion is based on corpora such as the Roman Imperial Coinage and does not apply to local mints. At any rate, the disruption may be set in the context of the period after the fall of the Severan dynasty. After the death of Alexander Severus (235 AD) confusion and fratricidal disputes had a negative impact on euergetism and public enterprises, including the minting of coins.9 Unlike the case of the second interruption, the first involved a radical break in religious monetary tradition after the fall of the Severan dynasty. This indirectly indi- cates a political change in process and a possible shift in propaganda after Severus Alexander. Three distinct phases can be noted: the Severan dynasty, Gordian III and the second half of the 3rd century. The second phase differs somewhat because of the use of the concept aeternitas attached to Sol. Each of these phases places different emphasis on imperial propaganda. The solar deity called Sol Invictus seems to refer to the third phase, mixing traditional models, aeternitas, the use of invictus in Sol coins and martial symbols. [Fig. 1] Contrary to the representation of Sol during the Severan dynasty, in the second half of the 3rd century the divinity is depicted using a more varied typology. Under the African-Syrian dynasty the god was generally defined in the legend by the tradi- tional cursus honorum of the emperor or by the term Oriens Aug. As for iconogra- phy, the Severans standardized the semi-naked figure of Sol standing in a chlamys or a chiton, bearing a whip (or globe) and with a raised hand.10 In the Severan dynasty, only emperor Elagabalus used different legends mentioning the god Elagabal or Sol. Apart from Elagabalus few variants exist. One of them is the bust of Sol-Helios under the legend Pacator Orbis,11 a new legend linked to former depictions used during the Antonine dynasty. From the year 235 AD onwards new forms were gradually incorporated into the god’s iconography. In the middle of the century the legend Aeternitas appeared with the traditional Roman Sol (standing, radiate, naked, holding globe). Later on, 18 This may also apply to other deities such as Hercules, MANDERS (n. 2) 56–57. 19 DE BLOIS, L.: The Crisis of the Third Century AD in the Roman Empire: a Modern Mith? In DE BLOIS, L. – RICH, J.: The Transformation of Economic Life Under the Roman Empire [Impact of Empire 2]. Leiden 2002, 215–216; FOWDEN (n.