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The Egyptian World

Toby Wilkinson

The

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 John C. Darnell Published online on: 18 Sep 2007

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 T Valley andtheoases, roadsmightcarrytheirdivinityaswell(cf smallest vessels.Eventhegodsthemselveshadtofind theirwaysbetweentheNile have continuedtofunctionwhentheNileitselfwaslow andclosedtoallbutthe of thepharaonicmind.Theearliest pre-pharaonicculturesofnorth-eastAfricaemerged Early DynasticEgyptianstate, andwerefullyintegratedintotheculturaltopography Klotz and cultivablelandafloatinaseaofrocksand. tion (Degas off greatbendsoftherivertobypasscataractsandother areasofdifficultnaviga- for tradeandtravel.Tracksfrequentlyranparalleltothe courseoftheNileandcut roads,particularlyroutesthroughtheWesternDesert, wereimportantconduits Far frombeinglimitedtothoroughfaresforstoneand minerals,ancientEgyptian not aversetosteepascents,whichpeopleanddonkeys negotiated withrelativeease. sherds (D.Darnell caravan routesformedbythetracksofnumerousanimals, andliterallypavedwith (Figure Valley withtheRedSeatoeastandoasesmoredistantpointswest 1995 to theNileValleybyoftenwell-constructedroads(Murray for thearchitectureandeconomyofpharaonicstate. and thestonesmineralsfromthesedesertareaswerephysicalfoundations areas; theyweretherepositoryformostofmineralwealthEgyptandNubia; many majorroutes,linkingtheNileValleywithoasesandevenmoreremote their east,ortheevenmoreawesomewastestowest.Thedesertscontained and theyneitherignorednorfearedeithertherockymountainouswildernessto greatly exceededthesmallareasofBlackLand,asEgyptianswellunderstood, that felleasilywithinthecontrolofpharaonicstatewasdesert.ThisRedLand The desertswereimportant areasofculturaldevelopmentbeforetherise The quarriesandminingregionsintheEasternWesternDesertswereconnected African desert,andtheoasesofWesternDesertarebutsmallislandswater he NileValleyisanarrowribbonofagriculturallandcuttingthroughtheNorth ; Bloxam 2006 3 . 1 ). Pharaonicdesertroadsrangefromraisedcauseways to swepttracks : 1994 9 – 2002 10 ; Darnell ). 2002 ; Shaw ); thetracksoftenfollowarelativelystraightcourse,and are THE DESERTS et al. 2006 CHAPTER THREE John C.Darnell ), whileadditionalroadnetworkslinkedtheNile 2002 : 1 29 – 3 ; contra Graham 1 The majorityoftheterritory 1939 2005 ; HarrellandBrown : 44 . ), andwould Kaper 1987 2 ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 one ofmanyclimaticfluctuations (Hassan and combinedtocreatethe nascentpharaoniccivilization. which Neolithictraditions from theSahara,Sudanandsouth-westernAsiamet of Egypt–especiallythevastexpansesWestern Desert–weretheareasin centres ofculturalchangeandinteractoninnorth-east Africa. Thedeserthinterlands The desertsthatsurroundtheNileValleyandwestern oaseswereoncemajor places (forarockinscriptionaslandmarkfordesertpatrol,seeSmither rock inscriptionscouldservesuchmundanefunctionsassignpostsandmeeting Egypt andNubiaformedpartoftheinscribedlandscapeNiloticcivilization.While from thosedeserts,andthroughoutpharaonichistorythedesertregionssurrounding hyper-aridity drewtoaclose around otherwise littleknownandpoorlyattestedaspectsofancient Egyptianreligion. of theinscribedmaterialtheypreserve,andinformation theyprovideregarding second onlytolargertemplecomplexesintermsofthe importanceandcomplexity approach toannexingand‘Niloticizing’thedesert.A numberofdesertsitesare pl. During thelastIceAge Saharawasmuchdrierandlargerthanitistoday.In 3 a, line Figure 12 PREDYNASTIC ANDPROTODYNASTIC 3 ), manyrevealreligiousmotives,andrelatetoapeculiarlyEgyptian . 1 Ancient caravantracksalongamajorroutebetweentheNileValley (southern Thebaid)andKhargaOasis. — JohnC.Darnell EGYPT 12000 30 2002 BC , whenthesouthernmonsoonal rains ; Hoelzmann 2002 ), thisperiodof 1945 : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 al. seems, foravarietyofreasons,nottohaveledearly domestication(Wendorf occurred intheWesternDesert,andsewingofwild sorghumatseasonalsites (Clère andVandier continued toengageinmodestseasonalcultivation,probably intheoldplayaareas. 623 7600 dwelling andNubiangroups (D.Darnell Tasians wereaconduitbywhich theincipientNiloticculturesinteractedwithdesert- burials –alongroutesthrough theWesternandEasternDesertssuggeststhat ceramic tradition.Evidence ofTasianactivity–includingpottery,rockartand desert componentofBadarianculture,showingstrong Libo-Nubiantraitsintheir civilization. ThisnewNiloticculturemayowesomething totheTasians,perhapsa shapes oftenpointed,presentby an undecorated,northern(earlierCapsianandlaterNilo-Nubian)style,thevessel tradition inWesternAsia.Twobasicceramictraditionsappearnorth-eastAfrica: by about shifting fromthedeserttoNileValley,withBadarians, presentatHemamia BC BC style, mostoftenonessentiallyglobularvessels,establishedatKhartoumby at NabtaPlayainthesouth-east;andanoveralldecorated,southern(Saharo-Sudanese) centred aroundtemporaryoccupationofwellsandseasonallakes( in theWesternDesert,foundationsofanotherwiseNeolithiclifestyle,often Neolithic lifestylebegantodevelopinnorth-easternAfricaandWesternAsia. than theirpresentextent.Duringthisperiodoftime,differentversionsanessentially of theSaheliangrasslandsandacaciascrublandsover in Barker – determinedbythenorthernextentofIntertropicalConvergenceZone(Smithson millennium appears intheSudanandWesternDesert/EasternSaharaduringninth which agricultureandpermanentsettlementswerenotofprimaryimportance.Pottery out fromitsprobableorigininareasnearertheNubianNile,andby around seasonallakesandstreams,isthedomesticationofcattle,attestedby of pottery,bysocietiesthatappearoriginallytohavereliedonhuntingandfishing of NearEasterncapridherding(Hassan reached theNiger(Wendorf Tasian materialseeHope Asia (Kuper 11 millennium Playa, theoasesofDakhlaandFarafra,EasternDesertduringfifth apparently introducedfromsouth-westernAsia,areinevidencetheareaofNabta With theadventofadryperiod By theearlysixthmillennium Ceramic technologyandcattledomesticationaretwoimportantearlydevelopments The desertswerealsothecentresofAfricancattledomesticationandadoption – 2001 at BirKiseibaandNabtaPlaya,approximately (Nelson 26 – 5 BC , , 198 : 634 590 at DakhlaOasisandelsewhereintheWesternDesert,by 6100 et al. – et al. – BC BC 201 2002 – 5 1 , , independentofthealmostsimultaneousdevelopmentaceramic 1996 , apparentlyearlierthanintheNileValley(Wendorf ; Hassan BC 663 , 2002 ; WendorfandSchild 209 , leadinginadirectlineofdevelopmentultimatelyto pharaonic 1948 : ; Hassan 52 – ; Kuper 23 2002 – : 1998 9 ; forlinguisticevidence,seeEhret 19 ) –spreadtothenorth,bringingwiththemanexpansion et al. , § : , 111 2002 2002 2002 — Thedeserts 23 c. BC 7600 9000 – , line 2001 22 : , thecentreformajorculturaldevelopmentwas ). a: 201 , 48 2002 157 BC : BC 31 2002 17 625 – ; forEasternDesertevidence, seeFriedman , cattlepastoralismappearstohavespread 2002 3 – ) andnomads(cf at RegenfeldintheGreatSandSea,by ). Plantdomesticationprobablynever ). Roughlycoevalwiththedevelopment 69 – a, 9 ). Nevertheless,laterdesertpatrolmen , : 2002 631 156 1 , 000 – – b; SchildandWendorf 2 69 800 , years earlierthaninWestern ; formoreWesternDesert 655 kilometres furthernorth 1993 . – Murray 8 , 671 ). Sheepandgoats, playa ; Hassan 1939 7000 et al. basins), in c. 5500 : 100 BC 2002 2001 2002 7000 8500 had – BC 1 et ). ) : : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 including Tasian,BadarianandAbkan(D.Darnell south ofThebesfurtherrevealstheinteractionseveralNiloticanddesertcultures, and Hobbs 2002 the ceiling,findsparallelsinFarafraOasisandcentralSahara(D.Darnell forthcoming). TheCaveoftheHandsthere,withredoutlineshumanhandscovering 1991 later inscriptionsaswell,ontherocksoftheirsurroundingdeserts(Winkler as thedesertceasedtosupportanysizablepopulationsoutsideoases. persist wellintothepharaonicera,andreveallongevityofdesertcultures,even Mark and Wilson monotonous desertlandscapeintoaninteractivecomponentofhumansociety(David deserts throughwhichmanyofthemmoved,transformingwhatmightbeanotherwise provided theEgyptianswithameansoflabellingandevencreatingspacein 2002 into largetableaux(Figure aspects ofthesolarcycle.BylatePredynastic,theyweregroupingtheseimages Predynastic Period,UpperEgyptianculturesdevelopedagroupofimagestorepresent Figure Already duringtheearliestPredynastic,Egyptiansbegantocarveimages,and : ) andtheso-called‘ClaytonRings’(Figure b; Wilkinson 1998 161 3 . 2 and : 2002 A cacheofso-calledClaytonRings andperforateddisksfromtheRayaynaDesert. 81 2002 – 175 7 ). EpigraphicandarchaeologicalevidenceintheRayaynaDesert ; Morrowand ; ChippindaleandTaçon 2003 n. 5 ). CertainSaharanculturalobjects,tetheringstones(Pachur b). Theserockinscriptionsappearatanearlystagetohave 3 . — JohnC.Darnell 3 ), therebytransformingdesertsitesintocosmological 32 2002 2000 ; Darnell 3 . ; Bender 2 ; D.Darnell 2002 et al. 1999 ; DarnellandDarnell, 2002 2002 ). Duringtheearly ; Darnell ; Riemer 1938 2002 2004 – 9 a, ) ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 carriers, seeWestendorf in theirorientationthesolarrotationofgiraffesandboats(foras rocky outcrop(Huyge animals andboats–animateinanimatecarriersofthesunrevolvearound treatises withinthelandscape.AtVultureRockinWadiHilaleastofElkab, appear inUpperEgyptianrockart(Westendorf solar cycle.Combinedimagesoftheoldanimalcarrierandbarquealso of thecosmos,aroundwhichhumanvisitorscouldwalk,therebypartakingin desert visitorscreatedandupdatedamarriageofgeologyarttocreatemodel Váhala andC human minders,soinrockartfiguresmayholdgiraffesbyropes(compare just asthetwinserpopardsonNarmerPalettemustbeheldandintertwinedby art sites. No. itself cametobetowedbyhumanhelpers(BaschandGorbea forthcoming a).Likewise,boatsthatmayoriginallyhavedepictedthesolarvessel Váhala andC Gorbea Painted Tomb(Tomb Cycle ofpharaonickingship.SuchtableauxappearontheGebeleinShroud,in order appearswiththeadventofacyclescenesthattogetherpresageJubilee human society?BytheNaqadaIIPeriodapoliticalassociationofcosmicand in thedesertlandscapesomehowinfluenceorganizationofincreasinglycomplex actual riverineprocessions.Didtheevocationandreproductionofcosmicorder ,showinglatePredynastic vessels.Thelargestboatisacloseparallelinshape Figure As humansocietybecamemorecomplex,thesolaranimalsrequiredhandlers,and 334 and adornmenttoanumberofvessels onthefamousGebelel-Arakknifehandle. 1968 ; Darnell 3 . 3 ˇ ˇ ervic : ervic A largenauticaltableaufromthe sitecalled‘DominionBehindThebes’inthe 35 ˇek ˇek ˇek – 2003 6 ; VáhalaandC 1999 1999 2002 100 b: 1966 : nos. : no. 112 ) atHierakonpolisandinrockart(compareBasch ); donkeys,chthonicimagesinimicaltothesun,oppose a: ), revealinginter-generationalinteractionsattherock 307 24 — Thedeserts 37 ˇ and /B; Darnell ervic and 25 ˇek ˇek 84 33 /A; Scharff – 1999 5 ; 1966 2003 : nos. 1979 b: b: 1929 221 113 207 ; VáhalaandC : 150 ; forthcoming,b),echoing – and 8 ). GenerationsofElkab – 1 287 1968 and pl. ). : ˇ 179 ervic 14 ˇek ; Darnell, and 1999 191 : ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 Western DesertregionofTjehenu-Libya(Wilkinson At leastonelatePredynasticrulermountedaraidagainsttheinhabitantsof Egyptian travelandinterventioninthosedesertsbymembersoftheNiloticsociety. by Libyangroups,thehistoryofEgypt’sdesertsispredominantlyastorypharaonic predecessors (Wilkinson The pharaohsoftheOldKingdomcontinuedprecedentsetbytheirEarlyDynastic over objectsandbuildings(Winkler cliff onwhichitisinscribed,justasasealimpressedinclaymayestablishownership and torevealthespreadofroyalhegemony–image subdue theregionofNaqada(Darnell use ofaroutecrossingthedesertfillingQenaBendinordertooutflankand Horus ScorpionleftanimportanttableauatGebelTjauti,apparentlyrecordinghis travelled alongdesertroutesatthetimeofUpperEgyptianunification,andaruler and theroutestoWadiBarramiyaeastofEdfu(Engelbach Gebel el-Asrquarriesinthefarsouth-west,includingHatnub,WadiHammamat, rulers areextensive,rangingwellintotheSinaiPeninsulatonorth-east, project beforecompletion(Garbrecht attempt toreversethefinaldesiccationofdesert,butaflashflooddestroyed wadi eastofHelwan,inanattempttocreateawaterreservoir,perhapsconscious expeditionary activity.AnOldKingdomrulerconstructedalargedamindesert regions, whileinstitutingnewandambitiousprogrammesofbuilding Peden Huyge to recordhistoricalevents(WilliamsandLogan combine theearliersymbolicimageryandnewhieroglyphicwritingsystemboth 2003 memorials ofexpeditionmembers(Eichler Kingdom, privateinscriptionsappeartoincreaseatdesert sites,manyofthesethe Darnell sites (Darnell Darnell, forthcomingb).Travel-relatedinscriptionsappear atseveralWesternDesert travel (Schenkel Sheikh Ali(Meyer events inthetermsoftheircosmicsignificance(Hornung the imageryofJubileeCycletheseearlyhistoricaltableauxcelebrateterrestrial extent continuouslyuntillate antiquity(GaboldeandGalliano route andotherEasternDesert tracks,andCoptoscontrolledtheseroutestosome the regionofCoptosbecame thestartingpointforimportantWadiHammamat (forOldKingdomtitles relatedtoroads,seeFischer mineral resourcesand,perhapsevenmoresignificantly, tradegoodsfromLibyaand ;similarly,explorationofWesternDesert routesgrantedaccessto Theban DesertRoadSurvey hasrecordednumerousOldKingdomcampsitesbetween With thedawnofProtodynasticPeriod,exceptforperiodicinvasions,especially Maintenance ofdesertrouteswasessentialtoexploiting themineralwealthof ; Campagno 2001 1984 et al. : ; Wilkinson 6 2002 et al. – 10 1965 2004 1983 , : 2002 19 12 : ). BythebeginningofNaqadaIIIPeriod,desertinscriptions 25 – – ), providingdetailsofcomposition,equipmentandroute of 22 13 1999 : – 1995 THE OLDKINGDOM 8 26 ; ; DarnellandManassa,forthcoming).DuringtheOld , — JohnC.Darnell 2003 – 222 : 9 , 165 , 1999 – b: 119 5 1938 – , 1983 75 112 260 ; Kuhlmann : et al. ) andmaintainedhegemonyoverthedesert 80 – 34 ; Darnell,forthcomingb).Throughuseof – ). ThequarryingactivitiesofOldKingdom 9 – 1993 70 : vol. 1 2002 ; VáhalaandC ; Eichler 1987 ; Bell 2 : , pl. 10 2002 1999 : et al. – 282 11 19 1993 ; Z : : ; HendrickxandFriedman – 162 ˇ 132 1984 5 1991 1966 ába ˇ ; Cia ). ervic ). Protodynasticarmies – 1974 9 2000 ; Peden ). Atanearlyperiod ; Serrano ˇek ) andintheWadi 1933 owicz serekh : 1999 : 30 ; Rowe 144 2001 2001 – annexes the 1 : no. 2002 – , 87 239 : : ). The 62 1938 4 ). 149 – – – 13 41 3 ) ; ; ; ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 an ultimatelyunsuccessfulHeracleopolitan countermeasure(Darnell escarpment’; Tjautialsorecords thatheopenedanewrouteacrossthebend,apparently – statesthatanenemynomarch, apparentlythegovernorofThebes,had‘annexed Tjauti –attheGebel site,afewmetrestotherightofScorpiontableau tracks throughtheEasternandWesternDeserts.Aninscription oftheCoptitenomarch concentration ofroutesledtotheriseThebes,which alonecoulddirectlycontrol southern oasesKhargaandDakhla(Darnell attheQenaBend;fromsameareabegins shortestroutetothegreat border ofThebes(fortheterm Just asHorusScorpionappears tohaveemployedthesamerouteoutflankNaqada, et al. the camelbeingofnoconsequencepriortoPersianPeriod(referencesinDarnell this track,asonallofthepharaonicdesertroads,chiefpackanimalsweredonkeys, region ofUweinat,itselfperhapsawaystationenroutetomoredistantarea.On speakers andtheC-Groupculture,seeBehrens desert manoeuvringaswell,againsthisneighbours(Vandier nome, Ankhtifi,whoemployedbothnavalandland forces, andapparentlysome to assertrulebeyondhisowndomainwasthegovernor oftheThirdUpperEgyptian south, warfarereturnedtothedeserts.Oneoffirst thesouthernadministrators With thedemiseofOldKingdomandoutbreakinternecinestrifein presence (Kuhlmann Trail preservesbothepigraphicandarchaeologicalevidenceofofficialOldKingdom of waterdepots,suchasthatatAbuBallas.AseriessitesalongtheBallas suggests thatthosepottersmaybeinvolvedintheestablishmentandmaintenance with theimpendingarrivalofofficialsfromunknownplaces(Pantalacci groups. ThefactthatpottersappearintheclaytabletsfromBalat,conjunction 149 and useofatrackleadingoutDakhlatowardthesouth-west(Kuhlmann Balat recordwhatappeartobeotherwiseunknowndeserttoponyms(Pantalacci may haveinteractedwithgroupslivingbeyondtheoasisproper.Documentsfrom stationed onhilltops,guardedtheoasis’periphery(KaperandWillems Darb Tawil(Minault-Gout the south-westerndesert,andprobablymaintainedconnectionswithNilevia Tjemehu-Libyans (O’Connor of Yam,whowenttothe‘westerncornerheaven’inhismilitarypursuit the ‘OasisRoad’–totrackmovementsofmoredistantgroups,suchasruler leader Harkhuf,whoseautobiographyatteststotheuseofdesertroutes–including mud-seals. SuchstoppingpointsmighthavebeenusedbytheOldKingdomexpedition remains includeMeidumbowlsherdsofbothNiloticandoasisfabricsfragmentary the NileandKhargaOasis(particularlywestofTundabasite,seebelow);physical 128 leather watersacks. The shortestroutebetweentheUpperEgyptianNile and theRedSealeaves The siteofBalatinDakhlaOasisbecameacentreOldKingdomactivity – – 58 33 2002 ) mayrelatetotheinteractionsofoasisinhabitantswithmoredistant ), atonepointattackingthehillfortress( : 2 , nn. THE FIRSTINTERMEDIATEPERIOD 21 3 The ultimategoaloftheAbuBallasTrailmayhavebeen – 2002 2 ). ; Riemer 1985 1986 sega — Thedeserts ) andthemainGirgaRoad.Desertscouts,often ; fortheidentificationofTjemehuwithBerber see Gasse et al. 35 2005 2002 1988 1984 sega ), includingstylizeddepictionsof a; Darnell : ) 30 / Semekhsen 5 , ; Hannig 1986 et al. 1950 ). , westofthesouthern ; Seidlmayer 2003 2002 et al. 1998 : : 2002 1252 35 2002 – : 6 306 : ). ). This 1998 30 ), and 2002 2000 – – 9 7 ), ), ). : : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 evidence ofearlycontactsbetweentheNileandKhargaOasis(Darnell 1991 of forceandaclassicindirectnessapproach(fortheseconceptsseeLiddelHart a warofmanoeuvrebyspecializedforcesinmarginalarea,allowingforaneconomy both herlocationanddesert-savvyNubianallies(Fischer their waynorthtothecombatwestofThinis(Darnell nemesis –leftamemorialoftheirownpassagenearTjauti’sinscription,perhapson ‘shock troopsoftheSonRaIntef’–apparentlyeliteTjauti’sTheban between ThebesandtheHeracleopolitans‘westofThinis’(Darnell (Gabra Indeed, theStelaofHetepifromElkabreferstoanexpeditiontravelling‘indust’ Coptite nome,probablydescendingonthenorthernforcesinregionofAbydos. so Thebesmadeuseoftheroadinreverse,andoutflankedimportant burgeoning Thebanrealm(Fischer Mentuhotep II–referstotheannexationofLowerNubiaandanoasisarea of desertroutes.TheBallasInscriptionanearlyMiddleKingdomruler–probably and desertregions,anactionthatwouldhaveconsiderableimplicationsfortheuse First IntermediatePeriod,MentuhotepIIalteredtheeconomicstatusofoases Even beforethefinalsubjugationofcriminalswhohadfledtooasesduring 1931 28 n. Egyptian economyduringhis ownreign(Bleiberg that LowerNubiaand become themajorarterybetweensouthernoasesandNile. south intoNubia.DuringtheMiddleKingdom,GirgaRoadappearstohave Deserts, thelatterbeingimportantinprovidingaccesstobothoasesandroutes Egypt, heturnedhisattentiontosecuringroutesintotheEasternandWestern Middle Kingdom.AfterMentuhotepIIassertedThebandominationoverallof push todeveloptherouteandsouthernoasesfirstoccurredduringearly Although themainnorthernroutesofThebanWesternDesertpreserveample Although desertregionshad deliveredincome/tributetohispredecessors(Blackman – 41 9 x + x + x + ). : pl. , ; Smith 43 1976 12 6 5 – ... aa n h [ss...] . .Wawatand theo[asis. . .]. ... . [...] .[. . : . : 8 6 ...]Wawatandtheoasis– . [. : , line ; Darnell That (I)attachedthemtoUpperEgypt There isnokingforwhomtheyworked To UpperEgyptdid(I)attachit. ); theCairostelaofDjari,fromreignIntefII,referstofighting 2003 was after(I)droveoutthe o h netr/oeahr() ...] . .[. . [of theancestors/forefathers(?)]. 6 in asmuchheloves ; ClèreandVandier : 182 2002 ⎡ the trouble-makers Wehat THE MIDDLEKINGDOM – 3 a: ). InexpandingintoWawat, theThebansappeartohave 147 — JohnC.Darnell (‘oasis’) firstmadeobligatory (tax)paymentsintothe – 9 ; D.Darnell 1964 1948 : 36 ⎡ ⎤ me ⎡ 112 reb there : ⎤ 15 – ⎤ 2002 ... elosoe() .] . [ellious ones(?). 13 ), MentuhotepIIappearsto indicate ⎡ 1988 in ; Darnell,forthcomingd): ⎤ : . 165 ⎡ et al. ; MorenoGarcia during theformerreigns – 73 2002 ), anofficiallysponsored 1961 : 38 ), Thebeswaged – 1997 46 2000 ). Exploiting et al. ); andthe : 129 2002 ⎤ – 30 : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 (Blackman herded their‘Saharan’cattle,asanumberofMiddleKingdomtextsandscenesreveal grounds ofLowerNubia(Darnell interest inthoserouteswouldhavebeentosecureaccessthemilitaryrecruiting through theoasesofKurkurandDunqulonSinnel-Kaddab.Achiefreasonfor employed theDarbGallabaandBitanroutesofWesternDesert,leading Wadi Natrun(Fakhry eastern delta(Quirke the MiddleKingdomappearstohavemaintaineda stringoffortressesinthe deserts. Togetherwiththegreatfortresscomplexalong the SecondCataractinNubia, construction ofaphysicalbasisforpharaonichegemony intheEgyptianandNubian 14 structures (cf it mayalsobeatemplewithinanenclosurewall,asis thecasewithother,fortified Darnell supplied policemenandsoldiers (D.Darnell,forthcoming; and hemisphericalcups–associated withthesehutssuggestthepresenceofstate- consistent kitsofpottery–ovoid jarsofsilt,smallglobularvesselsMarlA along desertroadsprobably servedasoutpostsforperambulatingdesertpatrols;the and pl. door (ofthedesert)ofUpperEgypt,ThebesandNubia’(Reisner Kumma: Thebes, NubiaandtheWesternDesertisclearintitlearockinscriptionat the textofTaharqareferringto‘cattleroad’–Hintze continued todrivethemalongdesertroadsinthepost-NewKingdomPeriod(compare region tobringbackafugitive(rebelleader?)(Anthes Dakhla region.TheearlyMiddleKingdompolicemanKaytravelledtotheoasis set outfromThebestosecurethelandofoasisdwellers(Schäfer stateson hisstelathathe used Thebanroutestothewest,andStewardDediku (Boeser Period (Darnell the mercenarieswhofloodedranksoflocalarmiesduringFirstIntermediate of desertexpeditions(Abdel-Raziq the earlyMiddleKingdomalsoseesendofusenavalofficersincommand with theeconomicandadministrativechangesinEgyptianactivitydeserts, 1996 (Anthes the socialandpoliticalturmoilofearlyMiddleKingdominHatnubquarries private inscriptions,mayexplainthepresenceofimportantinscriptionsdescribing desert sitesalreadyduringtheOldKingdomforatypicalandmore‘self-centred’ warfare oftheFirstIntermediatePeriodtookplaceinmarginalareas,anduse Egyptians andNubianswhoterrorizedMiddleEgypt.Thefactthatmuchofthe roads oftheTheban-controlledWesternDesert,mayhavebeenamongbands The re-establishmentofcentralizedcontroloverthe NileValleyfuelledthe – In spiteofMentuhotep’sexertions,troublemakerslingeredintheKhargaand Under AmenemhatIacivilwarappearstohaveerupted,perhapsexacerbatedby 17 : ). Thetemplemayinfactbelocatedwithinafortified enclosure,although 304 100 1909 1928 1997 iry-pat haty-ara-aaShemauWasetTa-Sety ), and 1914 G; Ward . : ; Willems b: Schmitt 5 2003 : pls 12 72 and pl. th DynastypolicemanBeb‘policedforthekinginalldeserts’ – 3 a, 1982 ; cf 9 1989 2005 1940 2004 and 1983 10 . : Dunham ), andatleastonedeserttempleoutpostoverlookedthe , lines ). Concentrationsofhutemplacementsandshelterareas 101 ) anditsdesertroutes(Kuhlmann 10 a). MentuhotepII’sNubianrecruits,whotravelledthe – 4 ; — Thedeserts , no. ). 1915 7 – 2004 et al. 8 1967 844 : pls ; Andreu 37 a). TheNubiandesertdwellersalsostill a). 2002 : 3 141 , 6 : – 1987 and 43 2 , ‘princeandcountofthe(narrow) ; Chartier-Raymond ). 11 : 19 1930 ; Vernus – 1959 20 2002 : pl. ). Theyappeartohave / 60 1992 1986 7 : 1905 , lines ). Alinkbetween 172 et al. ; Kurth : Darnelland ; ). Inkeeping 141 et al. 4 1960 – – 6 3 4 ; Freed fabric, ), and 1994 2003 : 156 : : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 330 elevated positionsinNubiamaybethesignaturesofdesertpatrolmen(Smith 61 Darnell Western Desert(Darnell in theareaofLisht(Arnold to theeastofarectangular,drystonestructure.Thejarsappearhavebeenproduced 81 el-Ghubari betweenDakhlaandKharga,seeWinkler inscriptions nearBahariya(CastelandTallet west (Burkard to maintaindesertroutes(Baud Kharga totheNiloticadministration.MiddleKingdomgovernorsofDakhlacontinued in aneconomicallyforeignterritory,economiclifelinetiedMiddleKingdom of earlyMiddleKingdomtype(Figure (Figure official sponsorshiponroutesbetweentheNileandoases.ThesiteofAbuZiyar distance fromtheNileValleyonnorthernGirgaRoad,revealsanewlevelof oasis ringroute. (Shaw the closestparallelstosite,expeditionbasessuchasGebelel-Asrquarrysite to KhargaroutewastravelledandpatrolledpriortheestablishmentofAbuZiyar, Darnell, forthcoming;cf for carefuladministrativecontroloftheactivitiesatsite(J.C.DarnellandD. sealings supportthe Nilotic manufacture,withafewofoasisfabrics.Remainsmudsealsanddocument of anofficialopeningKharga.Mosttheotherceramicremainsatsiteare Desert (CouyatandMontet frequented theWadiHammamat,andseveralother routesthroughtheEastern of nomeansize(D.Darnell in KhargaOasis,wherearchaeologicalremainsindicatea MiddleKingdomsettlement may alsohavebeenenroutetoanoutpostinoneofthe oases,perhapsGebelGhueita route connectingtheNileValleytosouthernoases. of officialexpeditionpatronageandoutfittingtothecontrolprovisioninga (cf hieratic hand,referstoaworkforeman(Quirke (Bradbury to theRedSea,viaWadi Hammamat,boundultimatelyforthelandofPunt Hammamat inscriptionofHenenou (Lichtheim Inscription (linex+ 2001 apparently . – – Whereas OldKingdomDakhlawasapparentlyanoutpostofthecentralgovernment A MiddleKingdompotdepotofconsiderablesize,approximatelyonethirdthe Large andcarefullyorganized(cf An ostraconfromAbuZiyar(Abu 4 Simpson – 2 ). ThepolicemenandsoldiersareinevidencefromtheirinscriptionstheTheban 4 ), andDakhlacontinuedtoserveasabaseforexpeditionstowardthefarsouth- : ; 1999 35 3 1972 2002 . – 4 1988 ) appearsoriginallytohavecomprisedseveralhundredlargeMarlCvessels 7 300 ; ShawandBloxam ; Abdel-Raziq : 1963 a: 55 1997 men, revealingtheuseoftaxlabourers,andgovernment overseers ; Kitchen 145 – a), atAbuZiyar.Perhapsinvolvedinsettinguptheoutpost, they 8 ; Obsomer ), andconcentrationsofMiddleKingdomnameinscriptionsat , withcorrectionsinDarnell 12 9 th DynastydateoftheAbuZiyaroutpost,andareevidence . ) alreadysuggestsinterest in theRedSea,andWadi Gratien et al. 1993 1988 1912 2002 — JohnC.Darnell et al. 1995 a, 1999 2002 2001 et al. : – 2004 : 112 13 2002 172 : . ; Darnell,forthcominge),revealanapplication : 284 ; Goyon ; vonPilgrim – Farout 56 1999 ). – 16 3 ; Morrowand 3 38 . – – 5 ). ), dispatchedfromtheNileValleyaspart 6 65 ; compareBader ). ; forMiddleKingdomuseoftheDarb 2 , 2001 ), inaMiddleKingdombureaucratic 1994 1957 70 1988 , et al. 2004 ) alsosuggestauseoftheentire 73 ) MiddleKingdomexpeditions ; Seyfried 2001 : 1938 – 4 52 2002 b: , ). AlthoughthemainGirga – 123 83 : 4 12 ) referstoanexpedition : 2001 , – 73 1981 , pl. 102 4 , ). MiddleKingdom 2002 : 137 ) andhiscrewof 155 8 : . 241 1 – ; Osing ). TheBallas – 8 60 , – 83 141 ), centred ; Peden , 1966 1986 143 ; : : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 153–237; Iversen1984Aufrère 1991; Kurth1996Peden2001: climatological descriptions of thedesert(Gardiner inscriptions attesttoconsiderable activity,andprovideinterestingmineralogical In theSinai,atsitessuchas Rodel-AirandSerabitel-Khadim,MiddleKingdom The areadepictedmeasuresapproximately30.5mby2125m,andnorthistothe rectangular structure,isalmostexclusivelymadeupofMarlC storage jarsherds. kite). Theplumeofredsherds,greatestdensitytotheeast(top) ofthedrystone Figure 3.4 upper left(thebuildingisorientedtojustwestofnorth). The earlyMiddleKingdomoutpostatAbuZiyar(photograph by — Thedeserts 39 et al. 1952, 1955; Seyfried1981: 32–4). Middle Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 1986 and alongWesternDesertroutesarewellattested(Scharff and LowerNubia;specializedstate-suppliedNubian patrolmen withintheThebaid contributed tothecreationofanacculturatedNubian populationinUpperEgypt and FirstIntermediatePeriod,largenumbersofNubian recruitsandprisoners similar tothatofthelaterRomanlegions.Beginningalready inthelateOldKingdom with foreignmercenariesandconscriptstoprovideauniquemechanismofacculturation melting potofthePredynasticPeriod,andEgyptianofficersofficialsinteracted Kingdom expeditionsintothedesertmarginsreproducedtosomeextent Valbelle andBonnet armed, elementsofEgyptianexpeditions(Gardiner from oneregiontoanother. the rapidspreadofpractice duetothereassignmentofvariousdesertplatoons Western DesertandSinai, suggesting eitherseveralindependentdevelopments, or Dobbs-Allsopp produced analphabeticscript forwritingnon-Egyptianlanguages(Sass these speakersofAsiaticlanguagesinteractedwithEgyptian militaryscribesand Middle KingdominscriptionsfromSinairecordAsiatics ( : 222 Figure ; Quirke 3 et al. . 5 from theearlyMiddleKingdomoutpostatAbuZiyar. 1990 1996 A drawingofonetheearly 2005 a: : 34 19 ; Hamilton — JohnC.Darnell – – 5 22 and ; Darnell 147 ). TakingpartinEgyptiandesertexpeditions, 2006 40 2002 ). Earlyexamplesappearin boththe 12 th DynastyMarlCstoragejars a: 145 et al. ). 1952 aamu 1922 ; 1955 ) asintegral,even : 60 1988 : – 19 1 ; Spalinger ; Darnell, and 206 ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 72 is knownfromthetimeof theOldKingdom(Weill administration (Warburton early delivering incomeintoEgypt’sadministrativecoffers. An ostraconfromTundabaof designed toaugmenttheearlierwaterdepotsonroute. The centralfeatureofthesitewasacistern(Figure quantities), appeartohavehousedasmallgarrisonguard thestrategicdesertroad. the timeof The routesoftheWesternDesertappeartohaveachievedaself-sufficientstatusby longer maintained.Anoften-assumedHyksoscontrolofthedeserts(Bourriau Ryholt finds littlesupportfromepigraphicorarchaeologicalremains(Darnell some paymentthatformed part ofthetaxwells. of awellinthe‘southernand northernoases’oversawthecollectionanddelivery of Papyrus (Warburton ceased throughoutthe at Abydos(Franke of thedynasty.TheWadiel-HôlwasmidpointbetweenThebesandhergarrison (D. Darnell of Thebanstyles,thesebecomingmoreprevalentasthe and littleevidenceofanycontactwiththeoutsideworld,exceptforappearance occupation continuedatGebelGhueita,withlocalMiddleKingdomstylespersisting, routes oftheWesternDesertduringearlySecondIntermediatePeriod.InKharga, 2003 north, althoughaNubianraidreachedatleastasfarnorthElkab(Davies of Kermadoesnotappeartohavebeeninfirmcontrolthedesertroadsits the Thebaid(Darnell considerable efforttotravelandprobablycontrolmostofthemajordesertroutes without breakthroughoutthe of thestopsbetweenThebesandAbydos;appearstohaveoccupiedthesesites response toThebancontrolofthemajordesertroads.Bylate appear tohavemaintainedsomepresenceinBahariya(Colin capture aHyksosmessenger(Habachi Thebes alsocontrolledthenorthernGirgaroute,ultimatelyallowingKamoseto 169 between theNileandnorth-easternwellsofKharga Oasis(D.Darnell in evidenceatadesertoutpost,Tundaba,themidpointofmainnorthernroute of theThebanmilitaryandeconomiccontrolWesternDesertisparticularly Kharga Oasis,borefruitbytheendofSecondIntermediatePeriod.Thesuccess and hissuccessors’effortsexpendituresinopeningtheGirgaRoaddeveloping a smallcookingareatothesouth(atwhichostrich eggswerecookedinlarge The outpostatTundabaseemstohavebegunpay for itselfatanearlystage, Economically, MentuhotepII’sintegrationoftheoasesintoNiloticeconomy, n. – b). Thebesappearsaswellnottohavemaintainedanymajorpresenceonthe 72 18 30 ; Darnell 1997 THE SECONDINTERMEDIATEPERIODAND th Dynastydaterecordsthecalculationofanobligatory paymenttothe , fig. 2002 : 140 5 13 ), andfortheNewKingdom ismentionedintheTurinTaxation et al. : – th Dynasty,bywhichtimethegreatdepotatAbuZiyarwasno 1985 2 173 THE EARLYNEWKINGDOM 1997 2002 and 2002 17 ). WithintheQenaBend,however,Thebanactivitynever ; Snape : th Dynasty,andgrewexponentiallyduringthelatterpart a: 327 159 : 1997 132 45 17 ; Baud – 1994 64 — Thedeserts , ; Darnell th Dynasty.Bythelate 139 : ). AccordingtotheTurindocument, eachcontroller 281 : – 1997 311 41 ), probablydutypaidaswell-tax.Awell-tax 1972 41 ; D.Darnell 2002 – : 13 a). 27 ), andwithGebelQarnel-Girwasone – a: 8 ). Likewise,thesouthernkingdom 147 3 . 6 2002 – ), justover 9 1912 17 ). Structuresatthesite,and th DynastyThebesexerted : 17 169 2005 : pl. th Dynastyprogressed – 74 28 ), perhapsabelated 3 ; Goedicke ), andtheHyksos metres indepth, 17 th Dynasty, 1990 2003 1999 1967 2002 : 72 a, ) : ; : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 Figure probably alate 3 . 6 East towest(A)andnorthsouth (B)sectionsofthecisternatTundaba, 17 th/early — JohnC.Darnell 18 th Dynastyenlargementofanearlier excavation. 42 South (B) North Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 appears tohavepossessedfields atHu(Caminos by animals,andwasprobably intendedforhumanconsumption.ThetempleofKarnak evidence (SikkingandCappers majority ofthebotanicalremains arebarleyandwheat,althoughotherplants in accumulation acrosstheentiresiteendingwith late RamessidePeriod.The Middle Kingdom,andgrewrapidlybeginningwiththe animal dung,potteryandbotanicalremains;thedeposit begantodevelopduringthe (Figure 2002 8 the vineyardsof J.C. DarnellandD.Darnell,forthcoming);wineamphoraefromtheoases–including for theEgyptiancourtatthisearlydateinNewKingdomwillbediscussed of ThutmoseI(thepoliticalimplicationsthemanufacturevesselsinPalestine amphorae areprominent,includingaCanaaniteamphorastampedwiththecartouche Middle Kingdom.AlongtheGirgaRoad,sherdsfromimportedandoasis-fabric centres, andconcentrationsofremainsarelargermorewidelyspacedthaninthe patrols wereabandonedorconvertedintoforwardeconomicbasesandadministrative At thebeginningofNewKingdom,manyoutpostsformilitarizeddesert (Marchand andTallet Valley andrepresentedanimportantcommoditytravellingtheWesternDesertroutes the moretraditionaloasisexports(Giddy (Peden 2001 by ThutmoseIII–establishedthefarthestEgyptianoutpostatKurgus(Davies to controlaccesstheroadscrossingBayudaDesert,ThutmoseI–confirmed of Ra’(Tallet staging areanearthemouthofWadiTumilat,aregionknownas‘Frontier command ofabipartitecivil(royal)andmilitary(local)command,departedfrom expeditions intotheSinaianddesertsofsouthernSyria-Palestine,under interests spreadasfarthedesertofArabeh(Rothenberg routes (Darnell creation ofthe‘WesternWallPharaoh’,apparentlyastringoutpostsandpatrol Elsewhere intheUpperEgyptianandNubiandeserts,pharaohsof of thefortressFaras,andextendedatleastasfarnorthoasisKurkur. 1975 for minersintheWadiAllaqi,butfailed;hissonRamesses IIsucceeded(Kitchen in theWadiBarramiya(Schott to provideawateringpointfortravellerseastofEdfu,particularlyminersworking set aboutimprovingconditionsalongtheroads.SetiIdugawellinWadiMia again formessengers’(Kitchen also claimstohavebeenenergeticinreopeningneglected wells,makingthem‘function the Thebaidthatattesttoasteadyflowoftraffic(Darnell , Activity intheminesofSinaimayhavesurpassedthatMiddleKingdom In ordertocontroltheUpperNiloticterminiofroutesfarsouth-east,and The NewKingdomalsowitnessedthegrowthofenormous caravanseraiswithin 21 a: b, – , 89 37 2001 138 2003 3 : vol. . ), andtheroutemayhave seenthetransportationofconsiderablegrain 7 ), representsastratifiedaccumulationofdebris,consisting primarilyof – : 9 c, 76 ). ThecaravanseraidepositabovetheWadiel-Hôl,atop GebelRoma 2003 2 2004 , 2004 Perwesekh – 353 81 ). ; Hikade ). EgyptianhegemonyoverNubiawasfurthersupportedbythe – c). Thedefensiveensembleappearstohavebeengovernedout 60 1999 ; at GebelGhueita–appearanumberofsitesintheNile THE NEWKINGDOM 1999 ; Hope 2001 a: 1958 2002 1975 — Thedeserts 214 ; Tallet 2002 ). Setialsoattemptedtoprovidesucharesource ). Mostofthegrainshows no signofdigestion – ; GaboldeandGalliano 89 : vol. 43 b; D.Darnell 1980 2003 1958 4 , : , 470 1987 18 : , lines 126 – 3 : ) andNewKingdommining 64 2002 – 17 7 ; Zauzich 5 , et al. th Dynasty,withmajor – 132 2000 : 8 1988 ). 172 – 3 2002 : ; Vleeming ). NewKingdom – 153 3 1987 ), augmenting 19 : ). Merenptah 91 th Dynasty ). ; Darnell 1991 1998 : , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 87 and royalmessengersusingtheFarshûtRoad(DarnellDobbs-Allsopp was grainweighedatGebelRoma(Figure shipments forofferingstothegodAmun;justasdutywascalculatedatTundaba,so patrols andletter-carriers(Darnell At leastsomeofthesepatrolswereNubians,mountedMedjay(Zivie Figure 500 of thecaravanseraideposit(level numbersconvertedtodatesbasedontheceramicanalysisof – In theWadiel-HôlanumberofMiddleKingdominscriptionsrefertorunners 0 90 y.7Dyn.17- Dyn.17 , 3 102 . 8 Figure – Grain distributionatGebelRoma: amountsofwheatandbarleyin 5 18 ), andbythetimeofNewKingdomtheseincludedmounted 3 . 7 Dyn.18 early An earlyNewKingdomlevelattheGebelRomacaravanserai. the depositbyDeborahDarnell). IITI-I late TIII-TIV TIII — JohnC.Darnell et al. Dyn. 18- 2002 44 19 3 . 8 : ; Darnell 139 Ram. Late ; Darnell y.1Dyn.22- Dyn.21 et al. 2002 2002 24 a: : 154 135 1985 1 -litre samples – – et al. 5 Other Wheat Emmer Barley 8 ). , ; Darnell 143 2005 – 4 ). : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 that routeasthe‘RoadofHorses’(Darnell Menkheperra, setupateitherendofthehighplateauonFarshûtRoad,referto fortresses inthenorth-westerndesert(Habachi Ramesses IItheLibyanswererestiveandrequiredconstructionofastring appears onapapyrusfromAmarna(SchofieldandParkinson 29 of thestableatWadiel-Hôl(Darnell mounted riderthere(Darnell levels, correspondingtoaperiod ofsharpincreasesingrainprices(Janssen abrupt inversionoftherelative ratiosofwheatandbarleyoccursinlateRamesside Whereas barleyismoreprevalent thanwheatintheearliercaravanserailevels, an state transporteditsremaining agriculturalwealthinaterminalhoardingeconomy. to preyontheNileValley(Haring to defenditselfagainsttheless-organized,smallerbandsofLibyanswhocontinued the earlierNubianMedjay.LateRamessideEgyptappearstohavebeenhard-pressed functioned asdesertscoutsfortheEgyptians(Caminos networks connectingtheWesternDesertoasesandNileValley(D.Darnell – the‘SeaPeoples’begantomountaseriesofinvasionsEgyptusingroad reign ofMerenptah,Libyans,apparentlyarmedandassistedbyMediterraneanallies 98 in antiquity,amajorpostal‘ponyexpress’route. Together thisinformationsupportstheconclusionthatmainFarshûtRoadwas, layers revealsherdsthatwereapparentlypurposelypulverizedforanimalbedding. floors sealedoffthedebrisand,beginningwithearlyRamessidePeriod,many particular sanitationmeasures.Duringtheearly relays onthehighplateau,andincreaseinamountsofanimaldroppingsledto The stratifieddepositatopGebelRomafurthersuggeststhemaintenanceofhorse Winkeln the timewhenmuchofEgyptgroanedunderfamineand impendingcivilwar(Janssen- fields ofAmunintheregionHu,fillingtreasuries ofthedomainAmunat Abu Ziyar).Theshipmentswerepredominatelygrains, probablytravellingfromthe corpus ofceramicshapesandfabrics,suggestingofficial sponsorship(asearlierat of whatappeartobelessfrequentvisitsbylargecaravans, equippedwithalimited caravanserais revealperiodsofinfrequentuse,withsandaccumulation, andtheremains by –butnotlimitedtobarleyandemmer.Duringthe lateRamessidePeriod,the constant trafficwithavarietyofceramicfabricsandforms, andplantremainsdominated caravanserais ofGebelRomaandQarnel-Gir.Earlier layersatthesitereveal usher inthefallofRamessidestate,apparent archaeologicalrecordinthe effect ondeserttradeanduseofroads. invasion duringthereignofRamessesIII.TheLibyanraidsmayhavehadadeleterious 171 pls Libyan troopsappearintheroyalbodyguardofAmarnakings(Davies 2002 – These effectsmayevenhavecontributedtothemajoreconomic crisisthathelped ) andsomeconflictinvolvingEgyptians,LibyansprobableMycenaeans 10 – 105 2 a: , ; Manassa ), perhapsanelaborationofearlierMiddleKingdomsystem.Duringthe 15 143 1992 , – 20 4 , , , 152 26 1995 2003 ; 1905 n. ) –thedesertroutesbecame theavenuesalongwhichadying ). Atthesametime,certainLibyangroupsappeartohave 8 POST-NEW KINGDOM : pls ). Twostelaeofthe 2002 10 — Thedeserts , 13 a: 1993 , 137 17 45 ; ), evenafterthedefeatoftheirlastmajor ) supporttheuseofhorsesonroute. 2002 1906 et al. 21 a: : pls 1980 18 st Dynastyhighpriestandking 132 2002 th Dynastyaseriesofgypsum 10 ; Thomas – 5 : , 1954 ). Theinscriptionofachief 139 13 , ) andadepictionof 1993 : 22 176 , 2000 40 ). Bythereignof – 81 ; ; Snape 1908 ), notunlike : pls 1975 2003 2002 1903 20 b). , : : : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 governmental controlofthetrafficwithindesertregionsproper. a vastnetworkoflargerandsmallerroutes,withlittleevidenceforanymajor it wasduringthePredynasticPeriodandtosomeextentstillOldKingdom, arteries, LatePeriodandespeciallyRomantravelthroughEgypt’sdesertsbecame,as and NewKingdommostdeserttrafficfollowedalimitednumberofmajor height ofpharaoniccontroloverthedeserthinterlandsduringMiddleKingdom particularly duringthePersianandGreco-RomanPeriods.Although traffic increasesexponentiallywiththecontinualriseinimportanceofoases, one ofthesetracksheerectedaseriesstelae(Darnell Valley terminiofWesternDesertroutes(Kitchen the oases(vonBeckerath with theNileValley.Inadditiontopromulgatingageneralamnestyforexilesin began onceagaintoassertcontrolovertheoasesandroutesconnectingthem the pontificateofMenkheperraduring areas controlledbybrigandsandrebelsbeyondthereachofpharaonicstate.With geographical –Sopduaslordoftheeast(Giveon Although certaindeitieswerelinkedtothedesert,becauseofassociationsboth 38 1957 Libyan deity(Willeitner Land (TeVelde festivals (Winlock inscriptions –addressthemselves(cf (Meeks et al. sites areHathorandHorus,thelatterofteninguiseofdeifiedruler(Darnell Preisigke andSpiegelberg as ‘spendingthedaybeneath thismountainonholiday’(Darnell to havecelebratedreligious ceremonieswithinthedesertsthemselves. some permanentreligiousstructures inthedesertproper,andappearnotinfrequently of thesolareye.Apartfromtempleswithinoases, ancientEgyptiansmaintained Egypt’s desertsduringthepharaonicperiodappearsto haverelatedtotheworship Sun (Aufrère by whichthemineralwealthofdeserts–raw materialsoftheEye with herentourage(Darnell actual tracksonwhichthegoddessofEye SunmightreturntoEgypt (Darnell tions attesttoreligiouspracticesandcelebrationspeculiar tothedesertenvironment – evidence,alongwithdepictions ofsingersandthegoddessinherbovineform The desertroadsevinceconsiderabletrafficagainbytheSaitePeriod,andthis With theendofRamessidePeriod,oasesappearonceagaintohavebecome – Just assomerockinscriptionsatdesertsitesneartheNile ValleyrefertoNilotic Several MiddleKingdomvisitors totheWadiel-Hôlvividlydescribetheirvisit 9 ), HaaspersonificationoftheWesternDesert(Leitz : 2002 230 1991 2002 – : 5 ), towhomanumberofgraffiti–especiallylaterdemoticandGreek 29 ; Kuhlmann 1991 CULTIC ACTIVITYANDRELIGIOUS b: ; Darnell,forthcominge).Quarriespossessedtheirowndivinities 1967 ARCHITECTURE INTHEDESERT 112 ) –wouldactuallyreachEgypt,muchofthereligious activity in 1947 ; Kaper – 14 : 77 ). Becausesomeofthedesertroutescouldrepresent the 1968 2003 2002 1915 – 1995 90 — JohnC.Darnell 1997 ), MenkheperraalsoconstructedfortressesattheNile : ; Peden : : pl. 146 ), andbecausesomeofthoseroutesweretheavenues 138 ) –thedeitiesmostprominentatpharaonicdesert . n. 22 ) –andtheologicalSethasgodoftheRed de Morgan 2001 51 [no. 46 ), andIgayasalordoftheoases(Fischer 21 : 306 29 st Dynasty,theThebangovernment – et al. ]). 32 1984 1986 ), soanumberofdesertinscrip- 1894 ; ValbelleandBonnet : 2002 249 : 2002 366 a: , 269 et al. 132 : [b andc] 10 – – 70 2002 – 6 11 ). ); onatleast ), Ashasa : 129 1996 – 369 38 ) : ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 and (Darnell Shemytat (Derchain east ofElkab,wasasitefor theworshipofEyeSuninherlocalguise of desert sites.BythelateNewKingdomanensembleof templesintheWadiHilal, temples ofEgypt(Friedman safety (cf and thesimpleviewingorreadingoftextsmightreceive apromiseofhealthand inscriptions servedapotropaicfunctions,evenrecording spellsformagicalprotection, of culticsignificancetotradeorofferinEgypt(Friedman goddess Hathor,andprovidestangibleevidencefordeserttravellersbringingobjects the north-westdesertedgeofHierakonpolis,alsosuggestsveneration A depositofostrichfeatherswithinscribedsandstoneflakesatthesiteHk 1999 refer toanearliertemplein the area(VandekerckhoveandMüller-Wollermann may depictanevenearlierdesert templeatthesite.Theembattledlate 341 1999 facet ofpriestlypresenceatrockinscriptionsites(Darnell at desertinscriptionsites. (Colin duties betweentemplesattheterminiofdesertroutes (Darnell expeditionary forces(Seyfried of thepriesthoodleftinscriptionsatseveraldesertsites,someasmembers at suchplacesrevealadirectassociationwiththeuseofroadsthemselves.Members centres werelocatedalongdesertroads,andindicationsoftheworshipthatoccurred elements, mayhaveaugmentedthatandotherdesertshrines.Mostofthesenatural in theShatter-RigalonatracklinkingThebaidwithLowerNubia(Berlev of thisphenomenonincludeaprobabledepictionMentuhotepIIasdivineruler to theworshipofdeifiedkingasearlyMiddleKingdom;manifestations liminal natureofthedesertregionsmighthavebeenconsideredparticularlyappropriate 120 at TimnaintheArabeh(Ventura Amenemhat IIIinthe‘cairnshrines’atGebelel-Asrquarries(Engelbach addressed toAmun(e.g.Spiegelberg (Darnell Agg nearToshkaEastinNubia(Simpson may clusteratareasprovidingshadeandsomethingofanatural‘shrine’,asGebel provide naturalgrottosasfociforworship.Rockinscriptionsofculticsignificance and smallatypicalstructuresatdeepdesertsites;thelandscapeitselfcouldeven on adesertroad,wheretheNilewasjustvisibletotraveller(Drioton includes ahealingstatueofRamessesIIItotheeastGebelAhmar,oncelocated Darnell andManassa,forthcoming).ANewKingdomreflectionofthesemonuments Darnell An interplayof‘formal’and‘informal’architectureappears intheearliestsurviving Textual andarchaeologicalevidenceforroyalstatuesinthedesertrevealsafurther Religious structuresinthedesertcouldbeformaltemplesnearNileValley, – ). AnumberofNewKingdomrockinscriptionsrecord hymnsandprayers,most 1394 ). Figuresinfestalgarbandposes(holdingflowers,etc.)(cf 2 : no. ; Darnell 1998 2004 . et al. et al. ; Klemmand Darnell 292 ). Attimes,roughstonewallscouldaugmentthesenaturalshrines,as a), andvotivehawksinscribedwiththeHorusnamesofSenusretII 2002 ; Darnell 2002 2004 et al. : pls : 1971 93 b: – et al. 2002 2 154 4 ). InscriptionsofOldKingdom priestsattheWadiHilal , , 3 126 – and : 5 2002 1996 1981 103 ), andindeedaPredynastic imageatVultureRock – — Thedeserts 7 8 1993 1974 ), oftheworshipHathorinremotedesert. – ), andthe : ), andappearsthroughoutthepharaoniceraat ), andotherstravellingaspartoftheirreligious 4 65 1921 ). : – ), andlesssubstantialmaterials,suchastent 7 47 204 ) alsoappeartorelatefestivalactivities : nos 1963 ; Darnell,forthcomingd).Somerock Paneia 904 b: and 36 of theCoptostoBerenikeroute – 44 914 ), theGebelTjautishelf et al. ; C et al. ˇ . erny et al. Váhala andC 2002 ´ 1999 1956 2002 : 17 103 ; Friedman 1939 th Dynasty : nos : – 95 ˇ 4 ervic ). The 64 , ). 2001 1981 1933 1345 102 , at ˇek : ; , ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 21:08 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820933, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820933.ch3 of Osirisenjoyedimmensepopularityduringthe western ThebanterminiofaroadwithbranchleadingtoAbydos,wherethecult of alessfrequentedbranchthesameroute.Bothtempleswerelocatedat et al. ritual dutiesatThebes,andleftanelaborateinscriptiontheWadiel-Hôl(Darnell At leastonepriestfromAbydostravelledtheroadonhiswaytoperform III’s activitiesatAbydos(Leahy The religioussignificanceoftheroutesfromThebestoAbydos,andMentuhotep (Darnell managed toconstructasmallchapelattheThebanterminusofFarshûtRoad (Merz and Bonnet erected atGebelTingarwestofAswan(Jaritz cairns, presentattheterminiofnumerousdesertroutes,asmallforestwhichwas the poorandmorerapidlymadedescendantsofsuchstructuresaresmallvotive creating courtyardsenclosingvotiveobjectsandstelae(Engelbach the sortknownfromGebelel-Asrquarries,essentiallystonecairnswitharms of all,butimminentlysuitedtothedesertlandscape,weresmallcairnshrines, During timesofturmoilintheNileValley,theywerecockpitsdesertwarfare. linking thevariousportionsofEgyptwitheachother,andoutsideworld. sites ofthequarryroads,andhomesgreatnetworkstradetravelroutes, some haveassumed,butratherremainedthetreasuriesofpharaonicstate, cultures oftheEgyptianPredynastic.ThedesertsneverfrightenedEgyptians,as northern Africaandsouth-westernAsiametcombinedtocreatetheformative The desertsofEgyptweretheplacesinwhichvariousNeolithictraditions 3 2 1 The templeofSerabitel-KhadiminSinairevealsaminglingstyles(Valbelle (Roehrig to an of aleathercanteen,orpot-holder. Theshapeandetchingsontheuppercornersisidentical as a‘watermountain’isprobably notadeformedmountainsign,however,butrepresentation Kuhlmann network ofdesertroutes. be placedwithinthecontextofexploitationdesertrealms ingeneral,particularlythe remains fairlyconstantthroughoutthepharaonicperiod,discussion ofminingactivitywill quarries arelocatedclosetotheNileValleyandoverallsignificance ofstoneextraction and socialimplicationsofquarryactivityareaddressedinShaw 1989 For anoverviewofEgyptianminesandquarries,seeG.Goyon preparation ofthischapter. The authorwouldliketothankDeborahDarnellandColleen Manassaforassistanceinthe derive fromseasonreportsoftheThebanDesertRoadSurvey,by J.C.DarnellandD.Darnell. work atallthemajorsites.Certainelementsoftextdiscussing thearchaeologicalmaterial www.yale.edu/egyptology, wheretheywillfindroutinelyupdated summariesandimagesof Desert Survey,andstudiespromptedbythisfieldwork;provisionally, readersarereferredto published, beingtheresultsofworkThebanDesertRoadSurveyandYaleToshka Much ofthematerialonwhichmajorsectionsthischapterarebasedisonlypartially 2002 ; Klemmand 18 et al. th Dynastyclayvesselmadetolook likeaceramiccanteenwithinitsleathercontainer : 2005 97 1996 2002 2002 – et al. 101 : 230 ). EvenlessformalaretheshrinesofGebelZeit,overlooking : ), echoingthetempleofSankhkaraMentuhotepIIIatterminus 132 ). – 1980 1 – ). 8 ; KuperandFörster ; CastelandSoukiassian 1993 — JohnC.Darnell ; Shaw 1989 1998 NOTES : 56 48 , ), mayexplainthepresenceoftemples. 2002 2003 ; Harrell 1981 ; Kuhlmann 13 1985 th Dynasty(Leahy : 246 2002 ; Castel , pls ; Klemm 2005 1974 1994 39 . Theimageinterpreted ; CastelandSoukiassian 1988 and – et al. 40 1998 1933 ). ). Leastformal 1989 2002 . Sincemany ). Perhaps : ; economic 59 – 60 ).