Helpful Hints Toward Critical and Creative Thinking 48P

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AUTHOR Hugenberg, Lawrence W.; Patsey, Barbara S. TITLE Helpful Hints toward Critical and Creative Thinking in the Classroom. PUB DATE Nov 95 NOTE 48p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association (81st, San Antonio, TX, November 18-21, 1995). PUB TYPE Speeches/Conference Papers (150) Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher) (052) Information Analyses (070)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Class Activities; *Critical Thinking; Elementary Secondary Education; Higher Education; *Speech Communication; Student Development; *Thinking Skills IDENTIFIERS *Thinking across the Curriculum

ABSTRACT Suggesting that critical thinking activities are the crux of many of the goals and objectives of communication education, this paper summarizes a sample of the literature on critical thinking. Based on the review, the paper notes that: (1)a consensus exists regarding what critical thinking is and what specific skills are acquired through varied activities and are applied differently by students in specific situations; and (2) educators recognize that there are multiple ways of helping students learn to think in a critical manner in their classes. The paper also takes a more practical approach to the discussion of critical thinking for the K-12 teacher by appending 14 sample exercises or class activities taken from instructor's manuals used in many beginning communication courses at colleges and universities. Contains 58 references. Additional appendixes provide a 111-item list of additional readings in critical thinking and 6 brief hints on using or modifying exercises for critical thinking. (Author/RS)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** HELPFUL HINTS TOWARDCRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING IN THECLASSROOM

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION E Jucanona. Rosead.n and nnpfovement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION pc-ntvlisloNTO PE PHOmWE ANI) CENTER (ERIC) DisEMINATE THI:, MATE HIAL riTTms/ document has been reproduced as received horn the person or organization HAS BEEN OHANELD BY onginating it El Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality

wow r,r ntnntnnt slarod document do not necessarily represent official OEN position or polic To TMF nuCAT !nniAl Pt- so; IHCI- INF nHmATIN NIV H PIC,

Lawrence W. Hugenberg Department of Communication& Theater Youngstown StateUniversity Youngstown, Ohio 44555-3631

Barbara S. Patsey Department ofCommunication Studies Kent State University Kent, Ohio 44242-0001

during the K-12 Teachers'Short Course, Speech Paper presented (November Communication AssociationConvention, San Antonio, TX 1995).

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2 literature on We start bysummarizing a sample of the Educators andadministrators emphasize the critical thinking. students -- taught development of criticalthinking skills in all and reinforcesthroughout the rest of a in the early grades the compulsion to argue student's education. We did not feel thinking is important. Every report and that teaching critical students to think article we examinedconcluded teaching benefits. However, as we readthe critically has long-lasting that, initially, there literature on criticalthinking, we found regarding a definition ordescription of critical was confusion one of the This is true eventhough in ancient Greece, thinking. become more effective goals of education wasto help students thinkers. out: "The misconceptionthat underlies Mortimer Adler points is that thinking is a the now widelyprevalent educational vogue acquired in isolationfrom all otherskills skill that can be the performance that enable us to use ourminds effectively, in of which we areinvolved in judging,reasoning, problem-solving, rejecting conclusions."We feel safe arguing, and defending or of many of the in asserting that theseactivities are the crux goals and objectives ofcommunication education. Currently, there seems tobe consensus regarding awhat that specific skills areacquired critical thinking is and differently by each through varied activitiesand are applied situations. And educators andeducational students in specific of helping psychologists recognize thatthere are multiple ways students learn to thinkin a critical mannerin their classes. regardless of subjectmatter taught -- This realization is true biology, math, communication, English,sociology, geography, "There can be noquestion chemistry, etc. Adler concludes: in the minds of ourstudents the whatsoever that developing also creatively - ability to think --critically at least, if not schooling."The genera/ - shouldbe the primeobjective of basic thinking educationinvolves conclusion is that critical classroom exercises, pedagogical strategies,textbooks, handouts, and challenges thatmake students think. course assignments, take a more practical After summarizingthe iiterature, we of critica/ thinkingfor the K-12 approach to the discussion exercises or We include, for thereader, samples of teacher. in many beginning class activities frominstructor's manuals used colleges anduniversities across the communication coursbs at illustrate that The purpose forincluding them is to country. and class exercises there arecommunication-related activities instructor to use intheir classes to available for the K-12 approaches to teach critical thinkingin our discipline's pedagogy. readings that can Finally, we provide alist of additional their interest incritical be located by thereader to supplement These readingsprovide a valuable resource thinking application. share with yourcolleagues of information forpersonal use or to at your own schools. HELPFUL HINTS TOWARD CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING IN THE CLASSROOM

"There's one thing worse than making

mistakes in your thinking; that's letting somebody else make them for you."

- Anthony Bard

"What we need is not the will to believe,

but the will to find out."

- Bertrand Russell

"Give me a fish and I'll eat today. Teach me to fish and I'll eat for a lifetime." - Chinese Proverb

Nothing is more important, in our opinion, than for communication educators to help students to think critically about their world. Nelson writes, "We must adapt to the general lack of critical thinking skills in the student population"

(1989, P. 1). This adaptation demands us to teach critical thinking skill development in our classes. Students have to become more critically aware of the world around them, tothink critically of events and circumstances, and to respond critically to their perceptions.

1 4 their Piaget (1948) challengeseducators to re-evaluate obedience to critical goals for studentsfrom conformity and need for student thinking and choicemaking. He suggests the through the autonomy and the developmentof self-directedness skills. enhancement of informationprocessing and evaluation critical thinking an There has emergedfrom the lite?:ature on the value of extensive number of"reasons" for rethinking critical thinking. teaching, or encouragingthe development of, Brookfield (1987) outlinesseveral importantjustifications thinking into teaching for integratingdevelopment of critical teaching "skills of practice. He reminds usthat, asie from "call into questionthe logical analysis", weask students to of thinking assumption underlying ourcustomary, habitual ways students to be "ready and acting," andin the process challenge questioning" (p.1). to think differently onthe basis of critical outcomes that mayfollow, He lists threeimportant and positive

including: (1) a healthierdemocracy where people are prepared to questionpolicies and

politicians organizers (2) more efficientworkplaces where are able toevaluate and reorganizeas

needed who (3) strongerrelationships between persons are able tothoughtfully evaluateand

adjust behavior.

2 thinking have forwarded Pioneers in the studyof critical teaching strategiesthat enhance the manyjustifications for classroom. Education critical thinkingatmosphere of the increased ability tocritically researchers havefound that of tolerance forunique evaluate informationleads to development Metraux, 1952) and newideas persons orpersonalities (Mead, of increasingemphasis on (Barron, 1958). In these times sensitive to differingpoints of cultural diversityand being skills in rhetoricalsensitivity. view, helpingstudents develop important goal for our through criticalthinking is an educational system. 1958), as are Artistic talents areencouraged (Torrance, culture (Russell,1956) contributions to thedevelopment of the creative thinking.Creative through aneducational focus on 195S), and venturesinto the cognitions areenhanced (Bartlett, 1953). Criticalthinking, unexplored areinspired (Ferren, for "scientifictheories, according to Torrance,is responsible designs, [and) inventions, improvedproducts, novels, poems, through the phasesof paintings" (1962, p.32). As students pass Brookfield (1987),they are critical thinking, asdescribed by and to viewissues and values better able tothink creatively These phases are(Brookfield, from differingpoints of view.

1987): happening (1) Trigger Event:"Some unexpected prompts a senseof innerdiscomfort and perplexity" (p. 26).

f' and (2) Appraisal: "Aperiod of self-scrutiny appraisal of thesituation follows the

trigger event" (p.25). anomalies (3) Exploration:"Having admitted to life, or discreparoiesin some aspect of we begin tosearch for new of living explaining thesediscrepancies or of with them -- waysthat reduce ourdiscomfort"

(p. 25). "Arising (4) DevelopingAlternative Perspectives: alterna- out of the testingand exploring of tives comes waysof thinking andacting that

feel 'make sense'for our situations"

(pp. 25-26). the worth, (5) Integration:"Having decided on accuracy, andvalidity of new waysof thinking or living, webegin to find ways fabric of our to integratethese into the lives" (p. 27). tc increase astudent's The challenge tothe teacher hoping these phases and capacity to thinkcritically is, to teach Teachers need illustrate theirimportance to thestudent. students practicethe exercises and classactivities to help each contributingto the essential elements ofthese phases -- thinking skills. overall developmentof critical "emancipatory learning." Habermas labeledcritical thinking

4 cogent of thecircumstances The learners whothink critically are what they are,and are preparedto and events thathave made them that emancipatory find ways to modify(1979). Apps claims institutional, [and) learning "frees peoplefrom personal, "gain control overtheir environmental forces"and helps them personal lives"(1985, p. 151). of a situation or Critically determiningthe irrationality differentiating evidencefrom of a claim isthe activity of twelve aspects,according to opinion (O'Neill,1985). There are including recognitionof Ennis (1962), ofcritical thinking, of conclusions.Apps contradiction andidentifying the logic with dialecticalthinking which (1985) equatescritical thinking contractions. Olson and Babu is the considerationand solving of

write, with A theory ofthinking may be concerned thought and how it comesto haveexpression

in action orutterance. Critical thinking, with analysis on the otherhand, is concerned with of these products;it is a piece criticism -- literarycriticism, filmcriticism, you. architectural criticism,or what have distinctiv That would givethe enterprise a content. (1992, p.1P4) then, educatorsneed to be In "criticizing"these comments, that contributeto the concerned with processesof criticism in our students. Teaching development ofcritical thinking

5 opportunity toreinforce criticism offerscommunication educators and points ofview. Providing different ways ofviewing issues to be a critichas long-term students with theskills requisite ultimately applythem. As benefit -- regardlessof how students be applied inliterature, film, noted above,these standards can

and evenarchitecture and more. critical thinkingis In an essayby Boyd andFales (1983), technique ofassessing an compared to thereflective learning approach. Halpern(1984) issue to determinethe need for a new ability to uselogical thoughtfor views criticalthinking as the strategies toachieve goals. the planning andimplementing of critical thinking,Ruggiero Concerning thefundamentals of not finding answerswhen they are states, "It isthe process of "support[ing] beliefswith reasons" so readilyavailable" and that criticalthinking involves (1995, pp. 17,18).Smith observes "observations frominferences" (1953, the capabilityto discern taat criticalthinking encompasses p. 130),ard Ennis notes metacognitions,rationality, "problem-solving,decision-making, and intelligence"(1987, rational thinking,reasoning, knowledge, discusses the conceptas theperson's p. 12).Paul (1981) to becomecognizant of ego- ability, viacritical thinking, and Siegel(1988) also centric andethnocentric thinking, abilities to uselogic and addresses thenotion of increased and of argument:warrant, data reason inrecognizing elements ethnocentricism in ourculture is very claim. Being aware of of the mostethnocentric important --Americans are one

6 students move away populations on theplanet. If we can help gain increasing from a death-griponethnocentrism and thinking and ofdoing things, then understanding of otherways of thinking has beensuccessful. the teachingof critical of thinking McGuinness discussesthree conceptions and equatesthis with including "thinking asmaking judgment" (1993, p. 305). Brookfield critical thinkingand "sense-making"

contends, is often thought Given thatcritical thinking activity that has of as anabstract academic of adult life, little to dowith the reality idea be dispelled it is importantthat this activities central by makingclear the two (1) identifying to criticalthinking . . . (2) exploring and challengingassumptions and alternatives -- aredirectly and imagining lives. Observable on manyoccasions in adults'

(1987, p. 15) ideas previouslypresented These ideas areconsistent with and activitiesof regarding the goals,objectives, elements, critically. developing skillsin thinking scholars indiscussing This ideas isreinforced by other thinking According to Dalaz(1986), critical critical thinking. toward absolute butrelative. It is accepts thattruth is not Drake (1976)points when he this kind ofopen-mindedness that incorporate criticalthinking challengesinstructors to

10 researchers haveevaluated the activities in theclassroom. Many deficient in programsthat educational systemsand found them (Young, 1980; Meyers,1986; enhance criticalthinking skills King, Kitchener, &Wood, 1985; Stice, 1987;Kitchener, 1986; stresses the needfor Perry, 1970;Ruggiero, 1995). McPeck off sophistry"(1981, p. developing teachingtactics that "ward importance of therole of the teacher 92). Scholarsrecognize the conducive to critical in establishinglearning environments Smith, 1981;Sinclair, thinking (MissouriLINC Module, 1985;

1994; Riding, &Powell, 1993). students to Tripp observes, "We areexhorted to teach our communicate clearlyand think critically sothat they can the . We must teach effectively bothorally and inwriting. . . skills; both sets . and the receiving originating skills . . 183). Communication require analyticabilities" (1990, p. level being taught,can either educators, regardlessof the grade developing criticalthinking skills to accept thechallenge of ignore this communicate better; or wecan choose to help students of communicationskills has, it seems challenge. The development helpings studentsthink. In our to us, gonehand-in-hand with about what to say,how to say classes, we askstudents to think how to integratelistener it, how to respondto message, and Communication educators feedback intosubsequentcommunication. instruction incritical thinking are in anenviable position as state, andcommunity continues to receivetremendous national, the ramificationsof accepting or recognition. If we examiie

11 examine one set ofdifferences rejecting thischallenge, let's uncritical thinkers. posited aboutcritical thinkers and

TABLE 1

Critical VersusUncritical Thinkers critical additionalcharacteristics of Here are some uncritical thinkers. thinkers, as contrastedwith those of Uncritical Thinkers Critical Thinkers Pretend they know morethan Are honest withthemselves, don't they do, ignoretheir acknowledging what they limitations, and assumetheir their know, recognizing views are error-free limitations, andbeing watchful of their ownerrors. Regard problemsand contro- Regard problemsand contro- nuisances exciting versial issues as versial issues as or threatsto their ego. challenges. Are impatientwith complexity Strive forunderstanding, and thus wouldrather remain keep curiosityalive, remain the effort complexity, and confused than make patient with to understand. are ready toinvest time to overcomeconfusion. Base judgments onfirst im- Base judgments onevidence reactions. preferences, pressions and gut rather than personal They are unconcernedabout the Deferring judgmentwhenever of evidence They amount or quality evidence isinsufficient. and cling toearlier views revise judgmentswhen new evidence reveals error. steadfastly. Are preoccupiedwith self and Are interestedin other people's and so are willing to read their own opinions, ideas, so are unwilling to payattention to and listenattentively, even At the first disagree others' views. when they tend to Sign ofdisagreement, they with the other person. Tend to think,"How can I refute this?" Ignore the needfor balance Recognize that extremeviews to views or and give preference (whether conservative that supporttheir established liberal) are seldomcorrect, views. so theyavoid them, practice fairmindedness, andseek a balanced view. 9 Tend to followtheir feelings Practice restraint,controlling their feelings ratherthan and act impulsively. being controlled bythem, and thinking before acting. (Ruggiero, 1995, pp.18-19)

educators to play a There is opportunityfor communication skills in critical significant role in thedevelopment of student characteristics of thecritical thinking. If we examine the it is easy to makequick thinker offered usby Ruggiero (1995), For example, weteach connection tocommunication skills. that beingfairminded and open- students incommunication classes in communication. Helping minded is animportant characteristic in a tremendous students to learnhow to be open-minded

challenge. critical thinking There is a verbalcommunication aspect of Torrance's definitionof that is addressedby many scholars. forming ideas orhypotheses, critical thinkingis "the process of the results" (1962, p.32), testing hypotheses,and communicating talk is importantto learning and Tsujimotowrites, "We know that writing, and listening -contributing, - asimportant as reading, latter" (1993, p.34). The in fact, to thecommand of these take the form of articulation of ideasin the classroom can projects (Nugent,1986; discussion participation,small group Hobson, 1990;Tsujimoto, 1993), Prutzman, 1978;Staskal, 1980; presentations (Norris 1987) and offeringcriticism of oral do in most of our These activities arethe crux of what we

communication skilldevelopment courses. 10 arts can,according to A holisticapproach to language teaching strategies.In education scholars,amplify critical speaking andlistening fact, incorporatingwriting, reading, idea advanced by manyleaders skills across thecurriculum is an her book,Thinking AboutThinking, in the field.Gough (1991), in skills in anintegrated fashion. encouragesteaching of thinking way to helpstudents learn to It seems to LIGthat there is no one theory, there aremultiple ways think critically. As in systems The importantpoint is of reaching thesame end(equifinality). compliment each other --across to coordinatethe activities to coordinated effortbetween English the curriculum. This means a communication teachers,etc. and teachers, geometryteachers, develop writing-across- school administrators. Just as educators programs, the-curriculum andspeaking-across-the-curriculum develop criticalthinking- educators andadministrators need to restricts the across-the-curriculum programs. To do less to thinkcritically and all development ofstudents' abilities benefits of suchlearning. the associatedand documented of questionsfor school In Table 2,there is a list review the effortsof their administrators toexamine as they university (schoolsystem) to help faculty (teachingstaff) and (Harding, 1962). These students learn tothink critically administrators to assesstheir level of questions help school critical thinkinginto the support for theintegration of of schooladministrators, the curriculum. Without the support instructionexperiences will level of successcritical thinking

1 ,1 be decreaseddramatically. be compromised --in fact, it will

TABLE 2 Instructors, Professors, Ten Questionsfor Teachers, Superintendents,Principals, Headmasters, Heads of Departments, Boards of Education,Boards of Academic Administrators, Presidents of Trustees -- andEspecially Deans and Colleges andUniversities at Thinking or CreativeProblem-Solving taught 1. Is Creative institution? your and encouraged tothink If not, arestudents taught 2. regular courses? What is theevidence? creatively in their creativity -- teachers encouragedto teach 3. Are you or your and telling newand that is, bycontinually introducing and methods? original concepts Thinking is below orabove Do you believethat Creative 4. in importance?Why? Critical Thinking is vital toCreative 5. Do you believethat Originality Thinking? and that the Achievingof Less Stereotyped 6. Do you believe of identifyingCreative More SpontaneousSolutions is a way Thinking? clearly able todemonstrate 7. Should students who are be specially Creativity, Originality,and Inventiveness recognized and rewarded? who are clearlyable to demonstrate 8. Should Teachers be recognized by Creativity, Originalityand Inventiveness increased rank andsalary? is your CurriculumPlanning Committee 9. To what extent Problem-Solving incorporating CreativeThinking or Creative revision? in your current course development, are your In your ownpersonal growth and 10 and attitudesoriented more towards aptitudes, interests, Thinking? In Critical Thinking or moretowards Creative either case, why? (Harding, 1962, p.8)

effective lesson planincludes Ridout (1990) notesthat the reading, writing,and speaking - the integrationof listening, interdependence betweenthe various all of the languagearts. The from a criticalthinking elements of thecurriculum is addressed

12 Suhor, 1984; Nugent, perspective (Hobson,Shuman, 1990; Thaiss, Haynes, 1987;) 1986; King, 1990,1992; Tama, 1989; Victor Frankl, a man whohad learned manyof life's hardest camp, wrote aboutthe lessons whileimprisoned in a Nazi labor "the individual's personal andintellectual growth as life's problems and responsibility to find theright answers to constantly sets foreach of us" to fulfill thetasks which it idea that life doesnot (1978, p. 35).Piaget emphasizes the the "ability" tothink - guarantee anyone the"right" but rather ability. Given theabundance plus many problemsthat require this out of theclassroom of problems facedby students in and of reasoning(Piro & requiring creativesolutions, the fourth "R" school's curriculum.[This Iorio, 1990) is avital element of any normally think of in would be in additionto the 3 Rs we Reasoning is a education; Reading,Writing, and Arithmetic.] teach in ourcommunication central element ofmuch of what we audience analysis,etc. courses --argumentation, persuasion,

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thinking and education. New York: Routledge.

18 21 Prediction making as aninstructional Sinclair, A. (1994). effects onlearning, attitude strategy:Implication of teacher participation. Journalof Research toward science,and classroom 27, 153-161. and Developmentin Education, of criticalthinking. Smith, B. 0. (1953).The improvement

Progressive Education,30, 129-134. project: Radio program Staskal, D. (1980).Language arts Education Agency 7. production. CedarFalls, IA: Area critical thinkingand Stice, J. (Ed.).(1987). Developing Francisco: Jossey-Bass. problem-solvingabilities. San thinking: Promotingit in the Tama, M. C.(1989). Critical

classroom. EricDigest. (1984). Speakingand Thaiss, C. J., &Suhor, C. (Eds.). and the newresearch. Urbana, writing, K-12:Classroom strategies of English. IL: NationalCouncil of Teacher creative thinkingthrough Torrance, E. P.(1962). Developing H. Harding(Eds.), A Source school experiences. In S. Parnes & 31-47). New York:Charles Book for CreativeThinking. (pp.

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23 APPENDIX A Critical Thinking Sample Exercisesfor Integrating into CommunicationInstruction representative of thekinds of We areincluding exercises some Instructor's Manualscreated to support activities found in in textbooks forbeginning instruction of the leading be used asis in your communication. These activities can classes. modified to be moreappropriate in your classes or available nor arethey all [These are notall the activities Instructor's Manualsfor the beginning inclusive of the be helpful for youto communication course.]It would probably classes. examples andopportunities for your locate additional following sourcesfor you to In addition, werecommend the might help you exercises and classactivities that search for critical thinkingskills in teach criticalthinking and develop yourcommunication classes. Communication Teacher,published 1. The Speech quarterly by theSpeech Communication Association, 5105Backlick Avenue, Annandale, Virginia. (1989). Classroom Practices 2. Phelan, P. (Ed.). (Urbana, IL: in TeachingEnglish, Volume 24. National Council ofTeachers ofEnglish). Critical Thinking: 3. Harnadek, A. (1976). Book 1. (PacificGrove, CA:Midwest Publishing Company,Inc.). Critical Thinking: 4. Harnadek, A. (1980). Book 2. (PacificGrove, CA:Midwest Publishing Company,Inc.). (1995). Beyond Feelings: 5. Ruggiero, V.R. 4th Ed. A Guide toCritical Thinking, (Mountain View, CA:Mayfield Publishing Company). Parker, R. (1992).Critical 6. Moore, B.N., & Thinking, 3rd Edition.(Mountain View, CA: MayfieldPublishing Company).

21 Exercise #1 veryconscious of theiraudience. Advertisers are usually Time, Newsweek, of a popularmagazine such as Choose an issue Cosmopolitan, or thelike. From that issue Sports Illustrated, the advertisements to analyze. Try to determine select five advertisement, andanalyze the audience beingappealed to in each How might and visual) usedto persuadebuyers. appeals (verbal designed to persuade a the appealsdiffer if the ads were different audience?

Instructor's Manual Source: Lucas, S. (1992). Public Speaking, to AccompanyThe Art of Fourth Edition.(New York:McGraw-ffill, Inc.). p. 81.

truth awash in "Finding theoccasional straw of and bamboozlerequires a great oceanof confusion vigilance, dedication,and courage." intelligence, - CarlSagan

22 0 7" 4.t) "The ClassroomPersuader" Exercise #2:Ethics of Communication: and Public Jim Thomas was ajunior in Business In the took a classin publicspeaking. Administration when he with short-term expected to give twospeeches, each class he was audience acceptancefor an ultimate goals instrumentalin gaining bibliography or a He was notrequired to hand in a goal. He was supposedto write adocument manuscript withfootnotes. why the chose the argumentsthat he did and explaining how he those arguments. He audience would bepredisposed to accept of the that effectivenessis the main goal learned in the course particularly sensitiveto the persuader, thataudiences are not credibility is in the eyes of arguments,and that formal validity judged the speech onthe basis of of the receiver. The teacher the proposition he himself wasinclined to accept whether or not criticisms which werehanded in to and on the basisof anonymous the teacher. the ultimategoal of hispersuasive Jim decided that of ananti-abortion campaign would beaudience Acceptance his his credibility,Jim sprinkled proposition. To enhance Catholic, Protestant, quotations fromvarious Roman speech with of which hefound publishedbook and Jewishtheologians -- all eight against abortions. He also looked up that took a stand Webster's PocketDictionary; the foreign phrases inthe back of a when he usedterms likevis-a-vis, class lookedquite impressed and Zeitgeist. Even the teacher deriguer, Weltschmertz vocabulary and hiscommand of complimented him onhis tremendous the language. abortion, think of very manyarguments against Jim couldn't Digest thatprovided the six but he found anarticle in Reader's These six arguments he used in his twospeeches. main arguments about abortionwhich he picked up he filled outwith anecdotes about a girl One was anagonizing story around thedormitory. by a sophomore university who was onemonth pregnant from the of support. He embellished music major whohad no visible means about in manyinteresting details the storysomewhat by filling to hercondition. family and theirprobable response into the girl's in another stateand then went The girl got alegal abortion loss of herchild. At of severedepression over the she a condition and unable towork because last report she wasout of school the whole into tears on thejob. The story shook always broke Jim also found somepictures of class, and theteacher as well. which he broughtto his second a fetusin a wastebasket board as he gavehis He hung thepicture on the presentation. with an estimateof how second speech andfinished the speech would end upin scholars, teachers,and geniuses many potential abortion law werepassed in his the wastebasketof a liberalized home state. Only threestudents The class's responsewasimpressive. acceptable in the had found ananti-abortion stand out of twenty speech. Jim had givenbefore his first pre-test which nine studentsresponded Immediately afterhis last speech 23

21 : his questionnaire. favorably to theanti-abortion position on He received ahigh grade on his The teacher wasquite impressed. arsuasive speech. * * * * * * * ** *

twenty-five minutes todecide what criteria Your grol:p has the persuasionemployed (standards) your groupwould use to judge choices do you findunethical? by Jim Thomas. What specific Why?Can your What specificchoices do you fineethical? Why? used by your groupto determine the group writeout the criteria criteria be ethical quality ofJim's behavior?Can those situations? generalized to other present the viewsof your Choose someonefrom your group to group to theclass.

Source: Beebe, S.A.,& Beebe, S.J. (1991). Instructor_Ls ResourceManual: Public Speaking, AnAudience-Centered Approach. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall). pp. 143-144.

24 2" Exercise #3: TagTeam Debate arguments and Purpose: To provideexperience in forming A. responding to attack. with which students Procedure: Choose acontroversial topic B. into two groups. You may are familiar. Divide the class for a more ask them to sit onopposite sides of the room Beginning with onestudent ask for an dramatic impact. the impromptu argument onthe topic. After delivering should "tag" arespondent fromthe argument, the student The refute and advanceanother argument. opposite team to has had a change altering of sidescontinues until everyone to speak.

(1994). Instructor's Manual Source: German, K. of Speech To AccompanyPrinciples and Types Edition. (New York: Communication, 12th p. 204. HarperCollins CollegePublishers).

in our "All knowledgehas its origins perceptions." - LeonardoDa Vinci

28 Exercise #4:Description Exercise creating mentalimages with language. Objectives: To practice Audience identification. speech and onethat is The differencebetween a memorable given dividedattention during the quickly forgotten or speaker's abilityto engage presentation can berelated to the making theconnection with the The process of the the listener. Not only mustthe speaker assess audience ismultifaceted. must also of the audience,but that speaker needs and culture monologic environment. Dialogues create a dialogicrather than dialogic does participation; thespeaker who is require audience slate but rather asan active, not view theaudience as a blank than hear the entity wanting toexperience rather dynamic, vital verbal and nonverbalimagery allows the The use of both brain and message. in the speechwith both right listener to participate that the listenermove activity. Imagery requires left brain construct withthe mind something beyond one sense,the ear, to create a The active mentaleffort needed to the brain, "sees." component inengaging picture makes verbalimagery an important the audience. is to encouragethe use of The purpose ofthis exercise in the exercise and to givestudents practice imagery in speeches recall an importanttrip, of creating animage. Ask students to family vacation to in their life. This can be a event, or scene athletic event, asituation that the beach, aschool trip to an for three life. They are to speak had meaningfulimpact on their strive to their recollection. The speech should minutes about the speakerwhile he or she was re-create themeaning derived by the five senses experiencing the scene. Language that accesses appropriate. After each speaker, and analogies areparticularly created for themby the ask the class todescribe the picture speaker usingdifferent words. the class is particularlyeffective in uniting This exercise A good exampleoccurred one and creating apositive climate. going to see the white student choseto describe year when a with anAfrican-American movie titledMissibsippi Burning thought the moviewould She describedhow she initially student. in Americanhistory. She recount some ofwhat she had read her skin, emotions, the goosebumps that rose on described her the movie feeling she hadin her stomach as and the sick the sweet, lowhumming of the unfolded. She also described gospel musicin the movie

2 f I The image of thetwo friends ofdifferent by her friend. that took placethat night cultures and thespecial understanding powerful for theclass. The audience at the movie was very to the understanding: relived the event andthe moment she came "so this isprejudice."

ManualL Source: Makay, L.(1995). Instructor's Test Bank toAccompany PublicSpeaking: Theory Into Practice,Second Edition. (Fort Worth, TX:Harcourt BraceCollege Publishers). pp. 211-212.

"Doubt grows withknowledge." - Goethe

30 Activit " About CulturalPre'udice Exercise : A "Lifeboat decision-making Objective: To evaluateindividual and group criteria and biases. instructors: This activityis based on the Instructions for changed to principles of the oldlifeboat exercise, diverse group. The teacher include a more culturally discussion and needs to be preparedto go beyond group problem-solving issues todiscuss issues ofprejudice. individually, then workfor Have the students answer consensus in a group. friend's Instructions for students:Imaging you ar at a Because of a storm,most of the graduation party. local sirens go guests leave early. Suddenly you hear approaching tornado. Your friend of warning you of an small tells you: "There's nobasement, but I have a will hold four people. Go get underground cellar that you'll be three people to godown there with you so will take our chancesupstairs. safe. The rest of us and the tornadowill miss us." Maybe we'll be lucky the cellar withyou? Whom will you chooseto go down in

of tall, attractive,blond 30-year-old man Patrick: Patrick is a city's Walk for Lifeto Irish descent. He organized the living with AIDS. In fact, he is raise funds for people been honored credited with raising over$1 million and has religious and serviceagencies. This by numerous for several personable, kind gay manhas lived with HIV years. European-American woman who old. She is a Anna: Anna is 98 years family. grew up inrural Arkansas aspart of a huge narrow-minded and stubborn,but she has Sometimes she seems things during her amazing perceptions. She has seen many appreciate herinsights into the world. long life, and you mistake more than once, She has stopped youfrom making a and you are quitefond of her. official visiting Francisco: Franciscois a Mexican government He is talentedand powerful. He is friendly, this country. wheeler-dealer, but onewith a good outgoing, somewhat of a of your heart and admirablemotives. A good friend 40-year-old man seemsto be able to getalong father's, this intellect, his abilityto with everyone. You admire his the United Statesand Mexico, his bridge the gap between He talent to makethings happen, andhis friendliness. contributes much tohis country.

31 of African descent. She has a Tracy: Tracy is 19years old and her three and a newbornson. She lives with daughter who is become a recently returnedto school to parents and has maternity leave fromschool. beautician. Right now she's on resident alien who wasborn in India. He is in Chenu: Chenu is a doctorate in his twenties anrecently completed a promising and has He is kind,brilliant, and pharmaceutics. for a pharmaceuticalcompany a job lined upas a researcher in New Jersey. Jew who fled theformer Nina: Nina, in herforties, is a Russian 10 years agowith her husbandand Soviet Union about but now is on thefaculty at a daughter. She has struggled, university in Her daughteris attending a local college. the violin with amajor city California. Her husband plays United States. symphony. She loves the He's a city kidwho has moved Charlie: Charliejust turned 13. He's African-Americanand is friendly, to the suburbs. He came to theparty smart, gentle, andcourteous. sister, Tracy. He comes from anupper- Jack: Jack is 21and a collegestudent. to be in European descent. He always seems class family of whether the problemis trouble. His family isn't sure of his mental illness. He flunks many drugs, or alcohol, or with the law. He feels courses andfrequently has brushes like an outcast. will save here: Write the names ofthe three guests you * * * * * * ** * * in your group. Here are Discuss the activitywith the others some questionsto consider: to take use fordeciding which guests 1. What criteria did you into the cellar? in your criteria compare tothose of others 2. How did your discussion group? applied to principles of problemsolving could be 3. What basic this situation? To what extentdo problems witt,stereotyping? 4. What are the reinforce stereotypes? you think thepreceding descriptions of stereotyping,prejudice, political 5. Discuss the concepts co-cultures. correctness, mixingof cultures, and similar exercisein one basiccommunication 6. When doing a ridiculous. No one ever class, one studentsaid, "This is It's a kind of life-or-deathdecisions. has to make these became seriousand stupid exercise." Another student said, "I'm aparamedic, andsometimes impatient. "I do," he 29 can't save everyone, I come to asituation where I know I decide what to dofirst, Just last week I and I have to her baby were bothin went to an accidentwhere a mother and Life would be nothingfor the baby if critical condition. The The mother mighthave other children. the mother died. knowing she wasdriving mother might not beable to survive baby was killed. I had to decidewhich the car when her activity revealed person I wouldhelp first." What has this about your valuesystem? about which threepeople to save. 7. Try to reach consensus

Source: Aitken, J.E.(1995). Instructor's Manual to AccompanyCompetent Martin's Communication. (New York: St, Press). pp.152-153.

"Judge a man byhis questionsrather than his answers." - Voltaire

30 33 Exercise #6:Motivational Strategies identifying and using Objective: Providestudents with practice motil.-.tional strategies.

Format: Small Group motivational strategiesfor Here are threetasks related to five students workingtogether. After the groups of three or and product canbe tasks have beencompleted, the results presented to thewhole group. number of magazineads. Each group is 1. Provide groups with a basic needs from each to discuss andidentify the appeals to Specifically they shoulddecide which level(s) magazine ad. The group members areto of Maslow'shierarchy are used. their observationsabout the plan to orally share the class. motivational strategiesfrom one as with to make a [sic]list of what theybelieve 2. Group members are used most frequentlyIn are the threemotivational appeals television ads. short speech togetherdesigned to sell one 3. Each group plans a They must real item theyhave with them inthe classroom. two of thefollowing motivationalstrategies: use at least Dissonance, (3) Expectancy (1) Cost-Reward,(2) Cognitive Value, (4) BasicNeeds.

Source: Goulden,N.R., & Verderber,R.F. Manual for Verderber's (1994). Instructor's Ninth The Challenge ofEffective Speaking. Edition. (Belmont, CA:Wadsworth Publishing Company). p. 110.

"He who provesthings by experience increases his knowledge;he who believes blindly increases hiserrors." - ChineseProverb

31 34 Exercise #7: Where's The CommonGround The class it to choose acontroversial question, one on and varying which class members arelikely to have definite two-year trial marriageshould be a opinions, for example: "A limit the behavior couple's legal option" or"Parents should not harm or property damageis of their childrenexcept when physical likely to result." class are to pair offand hear each Then, members of the During the exchange, other's candid opinion onthe chosen issue. each person is to notementally the evidentdegree of identification on this issue -- ordivergence -- betweenhimself the other person. or herself and break up and After three to fiveminutes, the pairs are to Now these new pairsexchange views on the same new ones formed. Continue the issue, with no referencesto th_l prior exchange. has had fiveexperiences n giving activity until each person What opinions and listening tothe opinions ofothers. identity can you drawfrom the conclusions about your identification -- What observationshave you about experiences? in communication? the problem ofdiscovering common ground -- willing to go inidentifying with peopleand How far are you might others find abasis for their ideas?Or what grounds discussing the issues? communicating with you in analysis in a The instructor mayask you to present your paper, report, ordiscussion.

Source: Barrett, H.(1993). Instructor's Manual to AccompanySpeaking in America. (Fort Worth, TX:Harcourt Brace College Publishers). p. 46.

"Things are not alwayswhat they seem." Phaedrus

3 2

35 Exercise #8 helpful models of Popular nonfictionwriting often provides informative discourse ontechnical topics. Have each student medicine, science, or select an article ofinterest from the business section of Time orNewsweek. The student should prepare answering each of thefollowing: a brief report onthe article the author usedefinition, explanation, 1. How effectively does to make the description, comparison,contrast, and examples interesting to ordinaryreaders? Identify subject clear and article that you two particulartechniques used in the might want to try in yournext informativespeech. points in the story that youdon't fully 2. Are there some information might the authorhave understand? If so, what supplied to make thepoints clear to you? topic as the Assume you will begiving a speech on the same 3. would you take torelate the article. What specific steps classmates?To make it fully topic directly to your might understandable to them? Consider not only what you might use visual aids say in yourspeech, but also how you to enhance what you say.

Discussion: This can be a veryhelpful exercise if youhave students if you are teaching an give more than oneinformative speech or speaking class. Because of itscomplexity, it advanced public are preparingtheir does not work wellwhen beginning speakers first informativespeeches.

Source: Lucas, S.E.(1992). Instructor'sManual To Accompany TheArt of PublicSpeaking, Fourth Edition. (New York:McGraw-Hill, Inc.). pp. 245-246.

36 Exercise #9 find a publishedargument, such as a Require students to editorial, or a letter to the editor,and advertisement, an identify the claimbeing made and the political ad. They should explicitly grounds on which theclaim is based. Is the warrant should determinethe implied warrant. stated? If not, students Is the if any, is offeredfor the warrant? What backing, Are there possiblerebuttals to argument adequatelyqualified? in, This can be done as anassignment to be turned the argument? the argument infelt with students simplymarking the parts of being the argumentsto class and present pen. Or have students then to theirclassmates orally.

Source: Brydon, S.R.,& Scott, M.D.(1994). Instructor's Manualto Accom anBetween One and Many:The Art and Scienceof Public Speaking.(Mountain View, CA: Mayfield PublishingCompany). p. 114.

37 Story on Science Exercise #10: TheExpository Value of a practice an informativemessage. Objectives: To have students sustaining audience To practicecapturing and interest whilepresenting a clear message.

Times, the review editions ofThe New York Have each student The students, for magazine Discover, or asimilar publication. select a newdiscovery, scientificfinding, this activity, must and prepare afour- to five- theory, orexperimental procedure the choice theyhave made. The speech must minute speech about and underscorethe follow theguidelines forinformative speaking science that wasselected for theactivity. value of the story on developing their speechinclude: Questions students mayuse in confusing or unclearat any point? 1. Was the story been done -- added ordeleted -- to make 2. What could have the topic and purposeclearer? by the writer or What, if any,definitions were used 3. definitions of example,negation, writers? Were they or operation? particular description orstatement of 4. Was there any disliked in explanation that youespecially liked or the article? Why? science in the storychosen? 5. How can we seethe value of

Source: Makay, L.(1995) Instructor's Manual\ Test Bank toAccompany PublicSpeaking: Theory intoPractice, SecondEdition. (Fort Worth, TX:Harcourt BraceCollege Publishers). p. 227.

35 38 Exercises #11 to #14 for present Ask students to keep anindividual speech file /11. prepared so that itwill and future use. The file should be nucleus for expandedinformation on coretopics serve as a Library research skills can as well asadditional topics. students add notes onrelevant reading. be incorporated as language Organization, argumentation,audience analysis, and utilized if students areasked to jot skills can also be to develop and notes in theirfiles about potential ways material. This tile might replace adapt their speech speeches or the individual assignmentsheets for classroom daily speech journal. single topic during a To foster in-depthtreatment of a i12. be asked, either as agroup or term students could of their individually, to identify atopic around which all would revolve. The criticalissues speaking assignments "Speaking on approach is developed morefully in . . . in the PublicSpeaking Course," The Critical Issue Topics 12-13. Speech CommunicationTeacher, 2 (1987): pp. oral or writtencritical analysis f13. Students can prepare an event such as assignment in which theyreview and analyze an speaker, a nationalpublic address, or a an outside readers should published speech text. Audience members or arguments andsupporting materialin an be provided with speaker's final attempt to persuadethem to accept the evaluation. of three or fourstudents can be formed 114. Small peer groups Their discussion to provide feedbackfollowing speeches. speeches of each groupmember, should focus on the constructive reinforcing positive progressand offering with each speaker'slimitations. To suggestions for coping the task cbtain maximum results,it is important that and to concentrate onthe dimension of these groups the development of each groupmember. For this reason, group shouldbe supervised andmeet regularly.

Manual Source: German, K.(1994). Instructor's To AccompanyPrinciples and Types of Speech Communication.Twelfth Edition. (New York:HarperCollins College Publishers). p. 28.

39 APPENDIX B

Additional Resources the significant Listed below arereadings that illustrate thinking in teaching. There are attention given critical from many disciplines, examples of interestin critical thinking have includedreadings including communication. In addition, we philosophical foundation forissues surrounding which establish a the time to findarticles critical thinking. We hope you take interests and teachinggoals. you thinkappropriate to your Additional Readings inCritical Thinking

M. (1987). Teaching students critical Adams, S.M., & Hamm, 29-31. viewing skills. Curriculum Review, 26, pp. (1990). Computer assisted Akbari, Z.M., & Gray, M.W. in instruction and criticalthinking. Journal of Computers Mathematics and ScienceTeaching, 9, pp. 71-78. Critical thinking inbasic U.S. government Atwater, T. (1991). Politics, 24, pp. 209-211. classes. Political Science and Solving problems withcreative problem Ayers, S.J. (1990). Quarterly, 15, pp. 12-19. solving. Southern Social Studies in Bacig, T.D., et a/. (1991). Computer-assisted instruction writing: A process/modelapproach. critical thinking and 365-382. Research in theTeaching of English, 25, pp. Journa/ of Baron, J. (1990). Thinking about consequences. Moral Education, 19, pp.77-87. goal of education. Baron, J. (1981). Rflective thinking as a Intelligence, 5, pp. 291-309. critical thinker. Barton, J.M. (1990). The teacher as Momentum, 21, pp. 20-22. is it? Social Beyer, B.K. (1985). Critical thinking: What Education, 49, pp. 270-276. teaching thinking (1983). Common sense about Beyer, B.K. pp. 44-49. skills. Educational Leadership, 41, Schemata vs. Brandhorst, A.R. (1989). Critical thinking: in Social Education,17, pp. skills. Theory and Research 196-209.

4 0

* ; Capps, K., & Vocker,D.E. (1991). Developing higher-level thinking skills throughAmerican history writing History, 6, pp. 6-9. assignments. OAH Magazine of critical thinking? Carr, K.S. (1988). How can we teach Childhood Education, 65, pp.69-73. Teaching criticalthinking across the Chaffee, J. (1992). Community Colleges, 20, pp. curriculum. New Directions for 25-35. Perspective andexperience: Developing Ciofi, G. (1992). 36, pp. 48- critical readingabilities. Journal of Reading, 52. teach critical Commeyras, M. (1989). Using literature to 32, pp. 703-707. thinking. Journal of Reading, thinking: What do weknow? Court, D. (1991). Teaching critical Social Studies, 82, pp.115-119.

(1990). Multicultural ways ofknowing: Crinshlow, W., et a/. 172, pp. Implications for practice. Journal of Education, 101-117. Play as thought:Thinking strategies of young Daiute, C. (1989). Review, 59, pp. 1-23. writers. Harvard Educational teaching writing. Elbow, P. (1983). Teaching thinking by Change, 15, pp. 37-40. The extent to whichcritical thinking is Ennis, R.H. (1990). Educational subject-specific: Furtherclassification. Researcher, 19, pp. 13-16. thinkers, not parrots: Etchison, C. (1991). Creating critical One teacher's hope. Proteus, 8, pp. 24-26. (1989). Evaluating evidence of Evans, E.B., &Surnick, R. 43, pp. critical thi kingskills. Business Education Forum, 16-18. How to create acritical thinking center. Ford, C. (1985). Northwest, 39, Clearing: Nature andLearning in the Pacific pp. 9-11. instruction: What do we (1991). Thinking skills Frisby, C.L. 21-35. really want? Educational Forum, 56, pp.

3 8

4 1 and Gallagher, J.C. (1991). Integrating critical thinking library skills into theEnglish curriculum:Developing the Activities Monthly, 8, pp.23- model. School Library Media 25, 51.

(1992). Using character charts forcritical Gauthier, L.R. 654- thinking in the classroom. Reading Teacher, 45, pp. 655. Enhancing student decisionmaking through Girvan, J.T. (1989). Health use of criticalthinking/questioning techniques. Education, 54, pp. 87-88, 99.

Green, C.S., III, &Klug, H.G. (1990). Teaching critical thinking and writing throughdebates: An experimental 462-471. evaluation. Teaching Sociology, 18, pp. B.A. (1989). Critical thinking: A Green, J.W., & Roseboro, Journal, 3, pp. lifelong process. Michigan Social Studies 19-20. thinking with the (1988). Developing critical Haggard, M.R. Reading Teacher, 41, directed reading-thinkingactivity. pp. 526-533. home "thought- Hammond, Z.L. (1990). Recipe for making your full." PTA Today, 16, pp. 14-15. thinking Hawkins, K. (1992). Why ask why? Developing critical skills in tomorrow'sleaders. Campus Activities Programming, 25, pp. 38-42.

Hernstein, R. J., et a/. (1986). Teaching thinking skills. American Psychologist, 41, pp.1279-1289.

Heyman, G.A., & Daly,E.R. (1992). Teaching critical thinking classes. New in vocational-technicaland occupational Directions for CommunityColleges, 20, pp. 103-108. the Hoffman, J.V. (1992). Critical reading/thinking across curriculum: Using I-chartsto support learning. Language Arts, 2, pp. 121-127. thinking skills acrossthe Hunter, E. (1991). Focus on critical curriculum. NASSP Bulletin, 75, pp.72-76. Johnson, D.W. & Johnson,R.T. (1988). Critical thinking through Educational Leadership, 45, pp.58- structured controversy. 64.

39 Kamii, C. 91991). Toward autonomy: Theimportance of critical thinking and choice making. School Psychology Review, 20, pp. 382-388. The Kaplan, L.D. (1991). Teaching intellectual autonomy: failure of the criticalthinking movement. Educational Theory, 41, pp. 361-370.

Karmos, J.S., et al. (1990), Questioningtechniques for the classroom. Illinois Schools Journal, 69,20-24. Kay, L.H., & Young, J.L. (1986). Socratic teaching in social studies. Social Studies, 77, pp. 158-161.

King, P.M. (1992). How do we know? Why do we believe? Learning to make reflectivejudgmnents. Liberal Education, 78, pp. 2-9.

(1992). Teaching critical thinkingin the social Knight, C.L. Community Colleges, 20, pp. 63- studies. New Directions for 73. approach is the best? Kober, N. (1991). What critical thinking School Administrator, 48, pp.14-17. the experts: Laughlin, J.S. (1992). When students confront toward critical thinking. English Journal, 81, pp. 72-75. conflicts: A Lazare, D. (1992). Teaching the political rhetorical schema. College Composition andCommunication, 43, pp. 194-213. critical thinking. Mairoana, V.P. (1991). The road from rote to Community Review, 11, pp. 53-63. reasoning to Makau, J.M. (1985). Adapting the judicial model of the basic argumentationand debate course. Communication Education, 34, pp. 227-234.

(1990). Creating an environment thatsustains Marker, P.M. 58-60. critical thinking. Social Studies Review, 29, pp.

Masters, T.D. (1991). The critical thinkingworkbook. Instructor, 100, pp. 64-68. overview with McBride, R.E. (1992). Critical thinking -- An implications for physicaleducation. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11, 112-125.

McTighe, J., & Lyman, F.T.,Jr. (1988). Cueing thinking in the classroom: The promise oftheory-embedded tools. Educational Leadership, 45, pp.18-24.

4 3 Miller, C. (1990). Higher-order thinking: Anintegrated approach for your classroom. Vocational Education Journal, 65, pp. 26-27, 69. Persuasive speeches Moebius, M. (1991). What do you believe? in eighth grade. English Journal, 80, pp.38-42. in the Morgan, M. (1990). Encouraging critical thinking language arts. Language arts, 67, pp.780-782. Couch potatoes Morris, B.S. (1989). The television generation: or informedcritics? English Journal, 78, pp. 35-41. Shaping Muldoon, P.A. (1990). Challenging students to think: questions, building community. English Journal, 79, pp. 34- 40. analytical and Mumford, R.L. (1991). Teaching history through reflective thinking skills. Social Studies, 82, pp. 191- 194.

(1991). Letter writing: Creativevehicle to Nauman, J.A., Jr. 198. higher-level thinking. Social Education, 55, p.

Norris, C., et a/. The effect of computerscience instruction on critical thinking skills andmental alertness. Journal of Research on Computing inEducation, 24, pp. 329-337. for critical thinking? Norris, S. (1990). Can we test validity Educational Researcher, 18, pp.21-26. teaching critical Nugent, S.M. (1990). Five prerequisites for thinking. Research & Teaching inDevelopmental Education, 6, pp. 85-96. public Parker, W.C., et al. (1991). Helping students think about issues: Instruction versusprompting. Social Education, 55, pp. 41-44. Paul, R.W., & Adamson, K.R. (1990). Using critical thinking to identify bias in the newsmedia: The Art of critical 11-28. analysis. Social Studies Review, 29, pp. Phi Kappa Paul, R.W. (1985). The critical-thinkingmovement. Phi Journal, 65, pp. 2-3,32. solve geographic Pellow, R.A. (1992). Using thinking skills to riddles. Social Studies Journal, 19, pp.9-12.

(1987). Developing skills incritical thinking Pogonowski, L. 37- and problem solving. Music Educators Journal, 73, pp. 41. 41 4 4 thinking. Potter, P., et a/. A practical approachto critical Principal, 71, pp. 40-41, 43. School Rankin V. (1988). One route to criticalthinking. Library Journal, 34, pp.28-31.

Reboy, L.M., & Semb, G.B. (1991). PSI and criticalthinking: Compatibility or irreconcilabledifferences?Teaching of Psychology, 18, pp. 212-215.

(1988). The teaching ofthinking skills: Does it Ristow, R.S. 44-46. improve creativity? Gifted Child Today, 11, pp. databases: What's Rooze, G.E. (1989). Developing thinking using really involved? Social Studies Texan, 5, pp.26-28. Developing critical thinkingskills with the Rowen, A. (1990). Journal, 21, pp. 22-23. newspaper. Georgia Social Science thinking skills. Rowland, D.J. (1989). Making time for critical Instructor, 99, pp. 36-37. think critically. PTA Scales, P. (1987). All children need to Today, 12, pp. 8-10.

Schamel, D., & Ayers, M.P. (1992). The minds-on approach: Student creativity andpersonal involvement inthe undergraduate sciencelaboratory. Journal of College Science Teaching, 21, pp.226-229. abstraction Seabury, M.B. (1991). Critical thinking via the ladder. English Journal, 80, pp.48-51. futures approach. Seif, E. (1981). Thinking and education: A Journal of Thought, 16, pp.73-87.

(1991). Developing strategies forreading, Sensenbaugh, R. grades. writing, and criticalthinking: The intermediate Reading Research andInstruction, 31, pp. 77-80.

Shapiro, J., & Kilbey, D. (1990). Closing the gap between theory and practice:Teacher beliefs,instructional decisions, and criticalthinking. Reading Horizons, 31, pp. 59-73. (1992). Accelerating the development Shayer, M., & Adey, P.S. students II: of formal thinkingin middle and high school Postproject effects onscience achievement. Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, 29, pp. 81-92.

45 Shepelak, N.J., et a/. (1992). Critical thinking in introductory sociology classes:A program ofimplementation and evaluation. Teaching Sociology, 20, pp.18-27.

Smith, C.B. (1990). Two approaches tocritical thinking. Reading Teacher, 44, pp. 350-351. solving holistic Smith, C.B. (1990). Are reasoning and problem events? Reading Teacher, 44, pp.270-271. to Smith, M., & Salome, P. (1989). Poetry as a springboard critical thinking. Exercise Exchange, 35, pp.36-38. into the Sokoloff, H. (1984). Integrating thinking skills content areas. Media and Methods, 21, pp.25, 44. thinking: The Sproule, J.M. (1987). Ideology and critical historical connection. Journal of the AmericanForensic Association, 24, pp. 4-15. Eight easy Sternberg, R.J. (1987). Teaching critical thinking: ways to fail before youbegin. Phi Delta Kappan, 68, pp. 456-459. Part 1: Sternberg, R.J. (1985a). Teaching critical thinking, Are we making criticalmistakes?Phi Delta Kappan, 67, pp. 194-198. Part 2: Sternberg, R.J. (1985b). Teaching critical thinking, Possible solutions. Phi Delta Kappan, 67, 277-280. earnest is Stice, J.E. (1987). Learning how to think: Being important, but its not enough. New Directions forTeaching and Learning, 30, pp. 93-99. Content and Stone, N.R. (1990). Developing critical thinkers: process. Ideas in practice. Journal of Developmental Education, 13, pp. 20-22.

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44 47 APPENDIX C Hints on Using or Modifying Exercises for Critical Thinking

We urge you to try our experiment: try our methods, modify them as you see fit, test out those that seem to work for your students, share your ideas with your colleagues [emphasis added]. While doing this, keep in mind the following general guidelines:

1. Make your critical thinking skills exercises relevant to your students. If they are working toward solving problems that interest them, they will be more involved in the learning process.

2. In both critical thinking exercises and the structure of your classroom, find ways to make learning anactive process for your students.

3. Help students use problem-solving methods that prevent them from skipping steps -- ask them to work in pairs, talking aloud their thinking, or to draw models of their problems.

4. When introducing a new set of concepts, always show students both the big picture (so that they can see the relationship between disparate facts) and ways to break down a complex idea into its component parts.

5. Focus on the problem-solving process, not the memorization of facts.

6. Find ways to individually reinforce your students for their approximation to appropriate performance.

(Heiman & Slomianko, 1986, p. 19)

45 4b