WASTE MINIMISATION Assessments and Opportunities for Industry

EPA Victoria

Publication 351

Waste Minimisation

This booklet provides industry with a practical guide for the implementation of cleaner production. It outlines the procedures for the assessment and opportunities for cleaner production.

Industry Services

Environment Protection Authority Government of Victoria 40 City Road Southbank, Victoria 3006, Australia

July 1993

ISBN 0-7306-2888-4

FOREWORD

In 1986, following several years of public consultation, the Victorian Government adopted an industrial waste management strategy proposed by EPA.

This strategy established a cradle to grave philosophy for industrial wastes. Statutory support was provided to the strategy through the Environment Protection (Waste Management) Act and later the Industrial Waste Management Policy (Waste Minimisation).

The Policy applies to all premises in the State where industrial waste is generated, stored, treated, or disposed. It promotes the reduction or control of waste at all stages of the industrial cycle, but focuses on avoiding waste production, rather than on controlling emissions or discharges. EPA encourages industry to adopt clearer production and waste minimisation principles. This book shows how this can be achieved and will interest anyone who is concerned about waste minimisation and cleaner production, in particular those people in industry who are responsible for reducing waste.

The process of seeking to identify, reduce, or eliminate wastes and costly disposal provides industry with an ideal opportunity to examine its operating and manufacturing procedures. This ideally leads to a “WIN–WIN” outcome: a win for the company and a win for the environment.

BRIAN ROBINSON

CHAIRMAN

Acknowledgment

This publication has been prepared with assistance from the US Environmental Protection Agency, manual number EPA/625/7-88/003, July 1988. EPA Victoria is grateful for this assistance.

iii

CONTENTS

Contents

Foreword ...... iii

IntroduIntroductionction ...... 11

Key Concepts...... 1 Advantages of Waste Minimisation...... 3

Planning and Organisation ...... 55

Getting Management and Staff Commitment...... 5 Formulating Corporate Environmental Policy ...... 5 Involving Employees...... 5 Finding a Program Champion ...... 6 Forming the Program Team ...... 6 Setting Goals...... 6 Overcoming Barriers ...... 7

Assessment PhasePhase...... 1010

Selecting the Assessment Teams...... 10 Collecting and Compiling Data...... 11 Generating Waste Minimisation Options...... 16 Screening Waste Minimisation Options...... 19

Feasibility Analysis ...... 2121

Technical Evaluation...... 21 Economic Evaluation ...... 21 Final Reports ...... 24

Implementing Waste Minimisation OptionsOptions...... 26

Funding...... 26 Installation...... 26 Measuring Waste Reduction ...... 27 Waste Assessments for New Production Processes ...... 27 Ongoing Waste Minimisation Program ...... 27

Appendices ...... 29

Appendix A: Waste Assessment Worksheets...... 30 Appendix B: Simplified Waste Minimisation Assessment Worksheets ...... 31 Appendix C: Waste Assessment Case Study...... 32 Appendix D: Typical Causes and Sources of Waste...... 36 Appendix E: Waste Reduction Techniques...... 38

INTRODUCTION Key Concepts

This book is for anyone involved in the management Waste Minimisation or handling of industrial wastes. Its purpose is to Waste minimisation is the use of practices or show the procedures which can be used to arrive at processes which reduce, as much as possible, the practical solutions for minimising waste. It aims to amount of industrial waste generated, or the amount demonstrate procedures to reduce waste generation which requires subsequent treatment, storage, or and to motivate people to put these procedures into disposal. It includes any activity, other than practice. Waste minimisation and cleaner production dewatering or compaction, that results in the have been successful for many organisations, and reduction of total volume, quantity, or toxicity of this book shows how industry can: industrial waste. • save money by reducing waste treatment and Two aspects of waste minimisation are source disposal costs, raw material purchases, and reduction and recycling. Source reduction is any other operating costs activity that reduces or eliminates the generation of

• protect the environment industrial waste at the source, usually within a process. Recycling is the retrieval of materials or • meet Victoria's waste minimisation policy goals products either for reuse in their original form, or for reprocessing into products of similar composition. • reduce potential environmental liabilities. Techniques associated with both these aspects are

This book is a starting point and a source of tried and illustrated in Figure 2. proven ideas for how a successful waste reduction Source reduction is always a more desirable program can be developed. It does not provide a set environmental option than recycling. of rigid requirements or a prescription to solve every specific waste problem. The "priority" industrial wastes listed in Table 1 are the main targets (these are also shown in Schedule A In this section we will define the key concepts of of the Waste Minimisation Policy); however, it is cleaner production and waste minimisation, and important that all pollutant emissions onto land and identify the principle waste reduction procedures into air and water be considered as part of any waste which will be discussed throughout the book. management plan.

Figure 1: Source reduction is always preferred to recycling.

The simple transfer of pollutants from one medium to Waste Minimisation Program another is not a form of waste minimisation. For The waste minimisation program is the overall effort example, the removal of organics from wastewater and practices adopted by a company to reduce its using activated carbon, is not waste minimisation: generation of waste. An effective program of this sort the pollutants are merely transferred from one will always involve: medium (water) to another (carbon, as a solid waste). • top management commitment

• explicit program scope and objectives Priority Wastes • accurate waste accounting Arsenic and compounds • accurate cost accounting Acrylonitrile Benzene • pervasive waste minimisation philosophy

Cadmium and compounds • technology transfer Chlorinated hydrocarbons • employee support. Chromium and compounds The waste minimisation program reflects Copper and compounds management goals and policies. It is an ongoing Lead and compounds effort and should become part of the company's Mercury and compounds operating philosophy. While the main goal of the program is to reduce or eliminate waste, it will Nickel and compounds usually bring about an improvement in a company's Organo tin and compounds productive efficiency, often with significant cost Ozone depleting substances savings. Polychlorinated or polybrominated Waste Assessment biphenyls or related substancsubstanceses The term waste assessment refers to the systematic Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons collection of information in order to identify options Vinyl chloride monomer for reducing or eliminating waste. The steps for producing an assessment are outlined in Figure 3.

Table 1: Priority wastes Additional information can be found in EPA Publication Number 277, Waste Assessment Cleaner Production Guidelines, and Number 358, Procedures for Waste Assessments. The term cleaner production has a similar meaning to waste minimisation, but focuses on the reduction of Waste assessment involves carefully reviewing a waste throughout the life-cycle of a manufactured plant's operations and waste streams, and selecting article. It aims to ensure that risks to humans and the specific areas for investigation. Once a specific area environment are reduced at every stage of the is identified, detailed information is collected on its industrial process and production. inputs and outputs.

When the waste assessment is completed, a number Lower costs of options for minimising wastes will be developed • by avoiding the high cost of landfill disposal and tested. These options will then be evaluated for their technical and economic feasibility. • by avoiding the high cost of alternative treatment Only the most promising ones are chosen for technologies implementation and these will form part of a waste • through savings in raw material and management plan. manufacturing overheads Waste Management Plan • through lower license fees. A waste management plan details a firm's strategy to Reduced chances of company liability systematically reduce waste generation The waste assessment will always be used as the basis for • by minimising environmental problems at on-site preparing the plan and determining where and how and off-site treatment, storage, and disposal waste can be reduced. facilities

Generally, it is devised for the firm as a whole, • by increasing worker safety. though it may comprise specific waste minimisation • Better public image for the company projects. Additional information can be found in EPA Publication Number 383, Guidelines for the • by showing the community and employees that it Preparation of Waste Management Plans is concerned about the environment

Advantages of WasteWaste Minimisation • by producing better quality products.

There are a number of compelling advantages and A better environment incentives for industries to reduce industrial wastes • and these include: by reducing emission of wastes to a minimum amount.

Figure 2: Waste Minimisation Techniques

Get management commitment Establish waste minimisation program team Set the assessment program goals Identify any barriers

Program plan

Select people for assessment teams Compile process and facility data Prioritise and select assessment targets Review data and inspect site List waste reduction options Select new assessment targets Screen and select options for further study Re-evaluate previous options

List of selected options

Evaluate technical feasibility Evaluate economic feasibility Waste Select options for implementation Assessment Report

Waste Management plan

Repeat the process Justify projects and obtain funding Implement procedures or Install equipment Evaluate performance

Successfully operating waste minimisation projects

Figure 3: Waste Minimisation Program Overview

PLANNING AND ORGANISATION Formulating Corporate Environmental Policy

Once we have recognised the need to minimise The objectives of the program can be best conveyed waste, a way to achieve the goals must be planned. to employees through a formal policy statement or directive. Senior management must be responsible for establishing that commitment throughout all divisions of the company. An example of a policy Get management commitment Establish waste minimisation program team statement which could be made is the following one Set the assessment program goals produced by a major chemical company. Identify any barriers [The company] ...declares its commitment to the pursuit of excellence and leadership in protecting the Program plan environment. Environmental protection is a primary management responsibility, and will become the responsibility of every employee.

A program to minimise waste must take into account In keeping with this policy, our objective as a the size and complexity of our company, as well as company is to reduce waste and achieve minimal the scale of the waste problems. These factors also adverse impact on the air, water, and land through determine how formally the program will be excellence in environmental control. structured. The program structure will depend on the nature of the company, and must be flexible enough Environmental guidelines include: to meet unforeseen changes. The task of developing • Environmental protection is a line responsibility a waste minimisation program will involve: and an important measure of employee • getting management and staff commitment performance. In addition, every employee is responsible for environmental protection in the • formulating corporate environmental policy same way that they are responsible for safety. • selecting the people for an assessment team • Minimising or eliminating the generation of • selecting specific waste reduction goals waste has been, and continues to be, a prime consideration in research, process design, and • overcoming all the barriers. plant operations. It is viewed by management as being equal in importance to safety, productivity, Figure 4 at the end of this section summarises the and loss prevention. planning and organisational activities of a typical waste management program. Re-use and recycling of material has been, and will continue to be, given first consideration before Getting Management and Staff Commitment treatment and disposal of wastes. Managers of a company are likely to support a waste Involving Employees minimisation program if they can see that the demonstrated benefits outweigh the costs (see Although management commitment and direction are "Advantages of Waste Minimisation" in the previous fundamental to the success of a waste minimisation chapter). Those overseeing the company's program, commitment throughout an organisation is environmental affairs are often in the best position to necessary to resolve conflicts and remove barriers to convince management of the advantages of a formal the waste minimisation program. All employees can commitment to a waste minimisation program. contribute to the overall success of the program,

and bonuses, awards, plaques, and other forms of • direct implementation of the selected waste recognition can be used to motivate and boost minimisation options and monitor progress cooperation and participation. Waste minimisation • monitor performance of each installed option. goals can also be used as a measure of job performance. The scope of the program will determine whether full- or part-time participation is required by any of the Finding a Program Champion team members. In a small company, only two or three Any waste minimisation program needs one or more people should x required. Ideally, these should be persons to champion the cause. The task of the individuals with the responsibility for production, "program champion" is, formally or informally, to Maintenance, quality control, waste treatment, and lead the program and help overcome inertia or waste disposal. Where a single person, such as the resistance to any proposed changes. An plant manager, has all these responsibilities, another environmental engineer, production manager, or person should be involved so that additional plant process engineer may be a good candidate for viewpoints and perspectives are available. this rare. Whoever they may be, program champions Some larger companies have assessment teams must be given enough authority to effectively fulfil which periodically visit different facilities within the their task. company. This allows different divisions to share Forming the Program Team their ideas and experiences. Similar outcomes can be achieved with periodic in-house seminars, A waste minimisation program will affect different workshops, meetings, or corporate-wide symposium groups within a company, so a team should be dealing specifically with the topic of waste formed to coordinate the program. The program team minimisation. Some companies also use internally should comprise members from the areas which are published newsletters and video-tapes to increase likely to be affected and should have the awareness of the subject among employees. responsibility to: Setting Goals • get commitment and a statement of policy from management A waste minimisation program must have goals consistent with management policy. Such goals • establish overall waste minimisation goals could be qualitatively expressed; for example, to aim • prioritise the waste streams or factory areas for for "a significant reduction of toxic substance assessment emissions into the environment". It is better, however, to establish measurable, quantifiable • select people for the waste assessment teams goals, since these cannot be interpreted • carry out the data collection and identify all ambiguously. They provide a clear guide to the potential waste minimisation options degree of success expected of the program. For example, one large chemical company has adopted a • conduct technical and economic feasibility corporate-wide goal of five per cent waste reduction analyses of preferred options per year. Each factory location within the company • select and justify feasible options for has set its own waste minimisation goals in terms of implementation that directive.

It is important that the company's overall waste Waste minimisation programs can reduce operating minimisation goals are incorporated into the goals of costs and ensure closer compliance with its individual divisions. Effective goals must be: environmental regulations. However, they can also lead to conflicts between different groups within the • Acceptable to those who will work to achieve company. them Difficulties will arise from implementing various • Flexible and adaptable to changing requirements changes to the company's operations, and these may • Measurable over time involve problems with:

• Suitable to the overall corporate goals and Production mission • A new operating procedure will reduce waste but • Understandable to all may also be the bottleneck that decreases the overall production rate. • Achievable with a practical level of effort. • Production will be stopped while the new The goals should be reviewed periodically to better process equipment is installed. define achievable outcomes and to reflect changes in local industrial conditions. The re-evaluation of goals • A new piece of equipment has not been is essential due to changes, for example, in available demonstrated in a similar service and it may not technology, raw material supplies, environmental work here. regulations, and the economic climate. Facilities and Maintenance

• Adequate space is not available for the I challenge the very concept of the installation of new equipment. inevitability of waste. I want us to create a corporate culture in which there is no • Adequate services are not available for the new such thing as industrial waste. I believe equipment. anything that goes out of the waswastete pipes • Engineering or construction labour will not be may well be something that can be available in time to meet the project schedule. recycled, reused or sold. • Extensive maintenance may be required. Richard Warburton CEO, Du Pont Australia Quality Control

• More intensive quality control may be needed.

Overcoming Barriers • More rework may be required.

As we set waste minimisation goals and define Client Relations and Marketing objectives, we will begin to recognise potential • Changes in product characteristics may affect barriers to our progress. customer acceptance.

Set up the program Get Management Commitment to:

Establish waste minimisation as a company goal Establish a waste minimisation program to

1 meet this goal Set overall goals for the program Form a program team which: These goals should be: Is responsible for coordinating the program Acceptable to those who will work to achieve them Has authority to implement the program. Flexible to adapt to changing requirements Measurable over time 2 Motivational Suitable to the overall corporate goals Understandable

Achievable with a practical level of effort Staff the program team

Find a “Program Champion” with the following attributes: Familiar with the plant, its production processes and its waste

management operations Familiar with the people

Familiar with quality control requirements Good rapport with both the management and the workers

Familiar with new production and waste management technologies 3 3 Familiar with waste minimisation principles and techniques and environmental regulations Assertive managerial style

Get people who know the factory, processes and procedures from the affected departments or groups, such as:

Production z facilities and maintenance z process engineering z quality control z environmental z research and development z occupational health and safety z marketing and client relations z purchasing z materials control and materials inventory z legal z

finance and accounting z information systems

Get companycompany---widewide commitment Include the waste minimisation goals into the Corporate Plan

4 Solicit employee cooperation and participation Develop incentives and awards for managers and employees Figure 4: Planning and Organisation Summary

Inventory Another response is that "it just won't work". This often shows that a proposed change to operations is • A program to reduce inventory or stock-holdings not fully understood. The danger here is that avoid material deterioration and reprocessing- promising options for minimising waste may be may lead to stock shortage during high product dropped before they can be evaluated. To prevent demand. this attitude barrier, employees should be Finance encouraged to generate ideas in workshops or brainstorming sessions. Participants should be urged • Existing stocks (or binding contracts) will delay to propose a large number of options that can be the replacement of substitute material. evaluated individually on their merits. Environment Another barrier is the fear that the introduction of • Accepting another plant's waste as a feed stock waste minimisation practices will diminish product may require a lengthy resolution of regulatory quality. This concern is common in situations where and other issues. unused feed materials are recovered from the waste and then recycled. The concern about the Waste Management Waste Management deterioration of product quality can be valid if • Use of new non-hazardous raw material will unacceptable concentrations of waste materials adversely impact on the existing wastewater build up in the system. The best way to allay this treatment facility. concern is to set up a small scale demonstration in the factory, or to observe the particular system in Attitude barriers can also disrupt a waste operation at another site. minimisation program. A common response to change is "if it ain't broke, don't fix it". This expresses a desire to maintain the status quo and avoid the unknown. It may also reflect the fear that a new waste minimisation system may not work as expected. Without a commitment to careful planning and implementation of the system, such responses can become self-fulfilling. Management must assert that the system "is broke" and that it must be fixed.

ASSESSMENT PHASE Large, multi- divisional companies may have a central staff of experts at the corporate headquarters. The assessment phase follows the commitment by a company to a program of waste reduction. Production operators and line employees have first- The purpose of the assessment phase is to develop a hand knowledge of operating processes and their comprehensive set of waste minimisation options advice should be sought when assessing operations, and to identify those that merit more detailed procedures, or equipment. When conducting the analysis. assessment we could set up a "quality circle", in which workers and supervisors meet to propose and evaluate possible changes.

Program plan Quality circles are now used widely, particularly in manufacturing industries, to improve quality and efficiency and prove to be a profitable source of suggestions for minimising waste. Select people for assessment teams Compile process and facility data Below are four examples of assessment teams for Prioritise and select assessment targets Review data and inspect site plants of various sizes and in different industries: List waste reduction options Screen and select options for further study Metal finishing department at a large manufacturmanufacturerer

List of • metal finishing department manager selected options • process engineer responsible for metal finishing processes

Selecting the Assessment Teams • facilities engineer responsible for metal finishing The first step of this phase of the program is to select department an assessment team. This team focuses on a • wastewater treatment supervisor particular waste stream or area of a plant and differs • from the program team which has responsibility for staff environment engineer the overall waste minimisation program Small pesticide formulator (see "Forming the Program Team" on page 6). • production manager An assessment team should include people with responsibility for, or knowledge of, particular streams • environmental manager or areas and could also include people from outside • maintenance supervisor the company – especially in the assessment and implementation phase. "Outsiders" can draw on a • pesticide industry consultant wide variety of experiences and may be especially Textile dyers useful to smaller companies which lack expertise in waste minimisation techniques and technologies. • dyehouse manager They can bring in new ideas, provide an objective • chemical engineer viewpoint and counteract bias or sentimental attachment to old processes. "Outsiders" may come • dyehouse supervisor from EPA Victoria, from trade associations, or from • industry consultant different locations of the same company.

Large offset printing company • Which input materials generate the waste streams? internal assessment team • How much of a particular input material enters • plant assistant general manager each waste stream? • film processing supervisor • How much raw material can be accounted for • pressroom supervisor through evaporative losses from tanks, pipework, joints, seals, etc? outside assessment team • How efficient is the processing system? • chemical engineers • Are unnecessary wastes generated by mixing • environment scientist otherwise recyclable wastes streams with other • printing industry technical consultant process wastes?

Collecting and Compiling Data • What housekeeping practices are used to limit the quantity of wastes generated? Before waste minimisation options can be developed, a detailed understanding of the plant's • What process controls are currently in use to wastes and operations is needed. Our assessment improve process efficiency? should begin by examining information about the Table 2, following, lists information that can be processes, operations and current waste useful in conducting a waste assessment. management practices. This information-gathering By reviewing this information we gain an effort should attempt to answer the following understanding of the plant's production and questions: maintenance processes and can set more accurate • What types and volumes of waste streams are priorities. generated from the plant? Worksheets listed in Appendix A (numbers 4 to 10) • Which processes or operations do these waste can be prepared to record data about site streams stem from? characteristics, personnel, processes, input materials, products and waste streams. • Which are the hazardous or priority wastes and which are not? What makes them toxic or hazardous?

Design Information • process flow diagrams • materials and heat balances (both design balances and actual balances) for: - production processes - pollution control processes • operating manuals and process descriptions • equipment lists • equipment specifications and data sheets • piping and instrument diagrams • layout and elevation plans • equipment layouts and work flow diagrams.

Environmental Information • transport certificates • emission inventories • waste analyses sheets • environmental audit reports • permits and applications for works approvals.

Raw Material and Production Information • product composition and batch sheets • material application diagrams • material safety data sheets • product and raw material records • operator data log sheets • operating procedures • production schedules.

Economic Information • waste treatment and disposal costs • product and raw material costs • operating and maintenance costs • departmental cost accounting reports.

Other Information • company environmental policy statements • standard operational procedures • organisation charts.

Table 2: Factory Information for Waste Minimisation Assessments

Waste StreamStream Records This helps us to organise useful information and show where waste is being generated in a plant. One of the first tasks of a waste minimisation assessment is to identify and characterise waste Another method is the use of a material mass streams generated at a site. Data about these balance, which a flow chart can help us to prepare. streams can be obtained by various means. One way A material mass balance describes all the materials is to calculate the total amount of waste transported entering and leaving a process and can be from a site during a one year period. The problem represented by illustration (see Figure 5 below), with this method is that transport certificates do not mathematical equation, chart, or written report. always list the chemical analysis and concentration The amount of a material entering a process must of the waste, specify its source, or indicate when it equal the amount of that material leaving the was generated; nor do they account for waste process, even if it is in a different form, such as liquid discharges to sewer and air, or the dumping of non- waste, air emissions, or finished product. hazardous solids. A material mass balance shows the important steps

Another source is analytical test data from previous in production and the sources of waste. It enables us to quantify losses or emissions that were previously exercises with waste assessments and routine unaccounted for and provides us with data needed sampling programs, which can be helpful if the focus to: of the assessment is on a particular chemical within a waste stream. • develop a baseline for tracking progress of waste minimisation efforts Listings of potential sources of wastes from specific processes and operations have been provided in • estimate the size and cost of additional Appendix D. equipment and other modifications • Flow Diagrams and Material Mass Balances evaluate economic performance. It is particularly useful if there are points in the One way of assessing and tracking waste generation production where analytical or test data is limited, in a system is by drawing flow diagrams. or where this is difficult or uneconomical to collect.

Figure 5: Material mass balance – mass in equals mass out

Material mass balances can also help to determine if • batch make-up records fugitive losses are occurring. We could, for example, • product specifications estimate how much solvent has evaporated from a parts cleaning tank by measuring the difference • design material mass balances between the quantity that went in and the quantity • production records removed from the tank. • operating log sheets Representing waste streams by material mass balance can require considerable effort, but by doing • standard operating procedures and operating so we gain a better overview and obtain a baseline manuals for measuring the performance of waste reduction • transport certificates efforts. • agreements for trade wastes going to sewers. Information Sources for a Material Mass Balance

Material mass balances are most meaningful and Pitfalls in Preparing Material Mass Balances accurate when they are prepared for individual units, Several factors must be considered when preparing operations, processes, or components entering and material mass balances to avoid imprecise leaving the process. Where a process involves estimation of waste streams. chemical reactions, there may be an advantage in doing elemental balances for specific chemical We should beware of accepting analytical data and elements. flow measurements at face-value, especially where processes have very large inputs and outputs. In For this reason, we must take care in defining the such cases the errors in measurement sometimes scope of each material mass balance and try to limit may be larger than the waste stream itself. it to a specific area of concern, rather than apply it too widely. An overall material mass balance can Material mass balances performed for the duration of then be constructed from balances prepared for a complete production run are typically the easiest to individual unit This will highlight relationships construct and are reasonably accurate. Raw material between units and will enable different sections of a purchasing records and on-site inventories can be company to cooperate in identifying areas for waste used to calculate input material quantities, but we minimisation. should note when these purchases were made and how long they have been stored. In any period, the Information needed to prepare a material mass amount of materials purchased may not necessarily balance can come from a variety of sources. These reflect the quantity used in production. may include: Developing material mass balances for processes • samples, analyses and flow measurements of involving chemical reactions may be difficult, feed stocks, products and waste streams especially if recycled streams are present. Usually

• raw material purchase records these are best performed by chemical engineers, often with the aid of computer simulation. • material inventories Tracking Wastes • emission inventories Measuring mass flows and composition of wastes • equipment cleaning and validation procedures should be done periodically and helps to detect seasonal variations in waste flows.

Changes in waste generation can only be properly • compliance with current and future regulations measured if the information is collected before and the costs of total waste management (including after we introduce any new equipment or process to treatment and disposal) minimise waste. • potential environmental and occupational health The process of tracking waste gets easier the more and safety liability frequently it is done and as employees become • the quantity of waste generated familiar with the routine. • the hazardous properties of the waste generated, When large quantities of data are involved it may be including toxicity, flammability, corrosiveness useful to store the information on computer files, and reactivity from where it can be more easily retrieved and analysed. • other safety hazards of employees

• the ease or difficulty of minimising the waste Du Pont has developed 15 businesses • the potential for removing bottlenecks in from the byby---productproduct streams of our major production or waste treatment polymer intermediaries line. We are looking at an annual revenue of $70 • the potential for recovering valuable by-products million from this enterprise. By the end of • the available budget for the waste minimisation the 1990's we expect to have another 10 program and projects. products from former waste products. Worksheet Number 10 in Appendix A provides the Richard Warburton suggested means for evaluating priorities for waste CEO, Du Pont Australia minimisation exercises.

Site Inspection Prioritising Waste Streams Having selected a specific area or waste stream, Ideally, we should try to assess all the waste streams the assessment team should familiarise itself with and operations at a plant. This is possible when the site. Although we need to collect data to there are only a few waste-generating operations or a understand how waste is being generated within a number of a similar type. Good operating practices, process, we cannot really know how this is occurring such as soliciting employee suggestions, awareness- until we witness it in operation. In many cases a building programs, better inventory and maintenance process unit is operated quite differently from the procedures, and cost-accounting changes, can also method originally described in the operating manual. be implemented on a company-wide basis. Changes Also, equipment modifications may not have been like these do not require large capital expenditure recorded in flow diagrams or equipment lists. and can be implemented relatively quickly. When the assessment team includes members from If, however, funds and personnel are limited, we outside the plant, the information the will need need to prioritise the areas most needing attention. should be listed before the visit to the site. When selecting areas for a waste minimisation The checklist or agenda should detail objectives, assessment we should consider: questions and issues to be resolved in the areas to • the priority listed wastes in Schedule A of the be assessed. By carefully preparing these lists, we Waste Minimisation Policy are less likely to overlook important points during the inspection.

Copies should also be given to plant personnel prior • Observe the "housekeeping" aspects of the to the visit, to allow them time to assemble the operation. Check for signs of spills or leaks. information in advance. Visit the maintenance shop and ask about any problems in keeping the equipment leak-free. Assess the overall cleanliness of the site. Everybody wins. The neighbourhood, the Pay attention to odours and fumes. workers, the financiers, those enterprises with waste disposal problems, the • Assess the organisational structure and level of environment and us. coordination of environmental activities between various departments. Melville Charles Berrybank Farms • Assess administrative controls, such as cost Ballarat Australia accounting, material purchasing and waste collection procedures.

A site inspection should include the following steps. During the site inspection the team should follow the process from the point where raw materials enter the • Prepare a waste assessment agenda that covers area to the point where products and the wastes all points needing clarification. leave. It should identify all suspected sources of • Provide the agenda to all staff located in the waste, whether in the production process or assessment area several days before the processes, maintenance activities, storage areas for inspection. raw materials and finished products, or even the plant's waste treatment area. This inspection often • Schedule the inspection to coincide with an results in the formation of preliminary conclusions operation that is of interest (for example, about the causes of waste generation, but full chemical addition, bath sampling, bath dumping, confirmation of these conclusions may require start-up, shut-down). additional data collection, analysis and site visits. • Monitor the operation at different times during a Generating Waste Minimisation Options shift, or an shifts if required. This may be necessary if waste generation is highly Once the origins and causes of waste generation are dependent on human involvement such as in understood, the assessment process enters its painting or parts cleaning operations. creative phase. Now a comprehensive set of waste minimisation options have to be drawn up for • Interview the operators and all supervisors in the consideration. area. Do not hesitate to question more than one person if an answer is not forthcoming. Appraise Our ability to come up with suggestions or options for the operators' and their supervisors' awareness reducing waste will depend not only on the expertise of the waste generation aspects of the operation. and creativity of the members of the assessment Note their familiarity, or lack thereof, with the team, but also on other employees. Many ideas will effect their operation may have on other already have occurred to the assessment team operations in the plant. following the collection of data and site inspections but, in an environment that encourages creativity and • If warranted, photograph or video-tape the area independent thinking, individual employees will of interest. Photographs are valuable in the volunteer ideas of their own. absence of plant layout drawings, as they prevent us from forgetting or inaccurately Employees can also be encouraged to suggest recalling details at a later date. options by using group discussion techniques

such as those described in most management and It is preferable to employ someone with experience in organisational textbooks. Brainstorming sessions, for your particular industry. example, may provide the assessment team with Appendix E lists many cleaner production and waste ideas they may not otherwise have considered. minimisation techniques and concepts which are Apart from relying on the skills of the assessment applicable to common industrial processes such as team and employees, the use of technical literature coating operations, equipment cleaning, parts and personal contacts will also prove fruitful. cleaning and materials handling. Further details can The following sources provide background also be provided by the Industry Services Unit at the information for waste minimisation techniques. Melbourne office of EPA Victoria.

Trade and Business AssociAssociationsations Source Reduction

Industry associations generally provide assistance When generating options for minimising waste we and information about environmental regulations should always consider those which involve source and techniques for complying with these regulations. reduction before those which involve recycling. The information is especially valuable since it is Reducing waste at its source is always preferable and usually specific to industry. usually more economical as it saves wastes from having to be handled, recycled, or treated. Treatment Plant Engineers and Operators options should be considered only after no Employees who are very familiar with a particular acceptable source reduction techniques can be factory's operations are often the best source of identified. suggestions for potential waste minimisation Good Operating Practices options. Good operating practices are the procedural, Published Literature administrative, or institutional measures that can be Technical magazines, trade journals, government taken to reduce wastes at source. Many of these are reports and research briefs often contain information management practices used in industry to improve that can be used as waste minimisation options. efficiency. Better operating practices can often be implemented with little cost and have a high return Environment Protection Authority and Water on investment. They can be implemented in an area Boards of a plant, including production, maintenance, EPA and many Victorian water boards have programs operations and raw materials and product storage to provide technical assistance, information on and will involve: industry-specific waste minimisation techniques, • Waste minimisation programs. actual case studies and a bibliography. • Management and personnel programs which Equipment Suppliers train or encourage employees through incentives Meetings with equipment suppliers and use of their and bonuses to conscientiously strive to reduce literature can be particularly useful in identifying waste. waste minimisation options. • Loss prevention techniques which reduce spins Consultants and leaks from equipment.

There are now a few experienced consultants who • Waste segregation techniques which reduce the can assist and provide information about waste volume of hazardous and priority wastes by minimisation techniques and procedures. preventing the mixing of such waste streams.

• Cost accounting programs which allocate brightened by passing it through a system of silk and treatment and disposal costs directly to the carbide pads. The new system worked well, but the departments or groups that generate the waste. wire needed to be passed through the unit twice for The divisions or groups generating the waste are complete cleaning. Later, the company bought a therefore made aware of the effects of their second abrasive unit and installed it in series with practices and have a financial incentive to the first. This system allowed the company to improve them. eliminate completely the need for the chemical cleaning bath. • Production scheduling, if done carefully, can reduce the frequency of equipment cleaning and Input Material Changes the amounts of the resulting waste. Changes to input materials can reduce or eliminate Example unwanted materials that enter the production process. By purifying or substituting input materials A large company adopted a corporate policy to we can avoid generating particular industrial wastes minimise the generation of industrial waste. within the production processes. In order to implement the policy, the company mobilised quality circles made up of line supervisors Example and operators representing areas within the plant An electronics manufacturing factory originally that generated the waste. The company experienced cleaned printed circuit boards with solvents. a 75 per cent waste reduction by applying different The factory switched from a solvent-based to an maintenance procedures suggested by the quality aqueous-based cleaning system and found that the circles, whose members made sure the new same operating conditions and workloads could be procedures were followed. maintained. The aqueous-based system cleaned six Technology Changes times more effectively. The result was a lower product reject rate, a less expensive cleaning process and the Technology changes are process and equipment elimination of a hazardous waste. modifications that reduce waste, primarily in a production setting. These can range from minor Product and Material Changes changes that can be implemented in a matter of days To reduce wastes resulting from a product's use after at low cost, to the complete replacement of it is sold, manufacturers can change the design or processes at high capital costs. Such changes can composition of the finished product by: involve: • raw material substitution • the production processes • a different product design, or • equipment, plant layout, or piping • changes to packaging. • increased automation Example • process operating conditions, such as flow rates, temperatures, pressures, residence times. In the paint manufacturing industry, water-based Example paints are finding increasing applications. Their lack of toxic or flammable solvents makes them safer to A fabricated metal products manufacturer cleaned use and to dispose of. With water-based paints, nickel and titanium wire in an alkaline chemical bath cleaning with solvents is no longer necessary and the prior to using it. The company experimented with a emission of volatile organic compounds to the mechanical abrasive system where the wire was atmosphere is greatly reduced.

Recycling The company also collects used film and sells it to the same recycler. The recycler processes the film Recycling allows many materials to be put to and collects the silver, leaving a non-hazardous beneficial use and can be performed on-site or residual ash. elsewhere through a waste exchange program or register. Screening Waste Minimisation Options

Use and Reuse The waste assessment process will have generated a number of waste minimisation options. It is now Recycling through use and reuse involves the return necessary to choose those most likely to merit of a waste material either to the originating process testing for technical and economic feasibility. or to another process as an input material. Detailed feasibility evaluations are usually costly, so ExExampleample screening eliminates those which are clearly marginal, impractical, or inferior. A newspaper printing company purchased an ink recycling unit to produce black ink from various Options can be screened by informal review, coloured waste inks. The unit filters and blends the involving a decision by the program manager or a waste with fresh black ink and toner to produce vote by the team, or by quantitative methods. useable black ink. The recycling unit has eliminated Informal evaluation is an unstructured procedure, the need for shipping waste off-site for disposal and especially useful in small facilities with small it saves on the purchase of fresh black ink. The price management groups or in situations where only a few of the unit was paid off in eighteen months, based options have been generated. It simply consists of only on the cost of the extra ink which would discussion and examination by the program team or otherwise have been purchased. If the costs of manager of each option and agreement as to which disposing of the ink were included, the period was seem the best. only nine months. The use of quantitative tools, in particular the Reclamation weighted sum method, is recommended when there Reclamation is the recovery of a valuable material are a large number of options to consider. from industrial wastes. Reclamation differs from use The weighted sum method quantifies the important and reuse techniques in that recovered material is factors affecting waste management at a factory and not returned to the process. Reclaimed material is how each option will perform with respect to these generally sold for use by another company, either factors. Appendix F presents this method in detail. directly or through a waste exchange register. Irrespective of the method used, the screening Example procedure should consider the following questions:

A photo processing company uses an electrolytic • What is the main benefit gained by using this deposition cell to recover silver from the rinse water option? (Consider economics, environmental from film processing equipment. The silver is then impacts, compliance, liability, workplace safety, sold to a small recycler. By removing the silver, the etc.) wastewater can be discharged to the sewer without • Does the necessary technology exist to develop any additional pretreatment. The value of the the option? recovered silver paid for the unit in less than two years. • What is the cost? Will it be cost-effective?

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• Can it be implemented within a reasonable period of time without disrupting production?

• Does the option have a good "track record"? If not, is there convincing evidence that it will work as required?

• Does it have a good chance of success? (A successfully initiated and implemented waste minimisation project will gain wider acceptance as the program progresses.)

• What other benefits will occur?

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS The viability of the option can be assessed by posing the following questions: Having completed the waste assessment, we now have a list of practical or attractive waste • Is it safe for workers? minimisation options. The next phase is the • Will it maintain product quality? feasibility analysis. This phase will determine which options are technically and economically feasible, • Is there enough space available? and will recommend the preferred options for waste • Will it be compatible with operating procedures, management. work flow, and production rates?

• Will additional labour be required? List of selected options • Are services available, or must they be introduced. thereby raising capital costs?

Evaluate technical feasibility Evaluate economic feasibility • Will capital and operating costs be increased if Waste Select options for implementation Assessment Report site constraints have to be met?

Waste • If new equipment is needed, will the supplier Management plan provide acceptable service?

• If new equipment or processes are required, how Technical Evaluation long will production be delayed in order to install The first step in the feasibility study is the technical them? evaluation. This involves testing how well a proposed • Will the proposed option create other option will work in a given situation. environmental problems? Procedural changes which are not likely to involve Economic Evaluation large capital expenditure should be evaluated on a "fast track" basis. This will allow more time to be When a waste minimisation option is found to be spent examining any costlier changes that are technically achievable, we should then evaluate it for needed. For example, materials can often be process- its economic viability. Economic evaluations should tested fairly quickly if no major equipment use standard measures of profitability such as installation or modifications are involved. payback period, return on investment, and net present value. Some options may require changes to major equipment; in these cases, visits to existing For smaller facilities with only a few processes, the installations should be arranged. Operators of the entire assessment phase will tend to be much less equipment should be consulted, and their comments formal, and many straightforward waste reduction compared with the suppliers' claims. It may also be options, such as installing flow control equipment necessary to conduct demonstrations with scale and using good operating practices, may be models, sometimes using test equipment. implemented with little or no economic evaluation. If new equipment must be purchased, some In such cases the advantages of adopting an option suppliers will install it on a trial basis, with are obvious and complicated analyses are acceptance and payment after a prescribed time if unnecessary. the user is satisfied. Where options are more elaborate, economic When evaluating an option, the product requirements evaluation should involve standard measures of and constraints at the site must be considered. profitability, such as the payback period, return on investment and net present value. Although each

organisation will have its own economic criteria for indicating the effect of key variables on profitability selecting projects for implementation, the cost are also useful. elements of a waste minimisation program can be Capital Costs broken down into capital costs and operating costs. A comprehensive list of capital cost items associated We should always try to evaluate an option against with upgrading a large plant are shown in Table 3 hypothetical scenarios and situations. We could, for below. These costs include not only the fixed capital example, compare an option's profitability under costs for designing purchasing, and installing optimistic and pessimistic assumptions about the equipment, but also costs for working capital, cost of waste disposal. Sensitivity analyses licensing, training, start-up, and finance charges.

Direct Capital Costs Indirect Capital Costs Site Development • in-house engineering, purchasing • demolition and alteration work and other home office costs • • civil works such as site clearing and outside engineering, design, and grading consulting services • • footpaths, roads, and fencing costs of licences and approvals • • connections to existing services contractors fees • such as water, power, gas, steam, start-up costs • refrigeration, fuels, plant air, inert Training costs • gas, lighting, and fire protection contingency • interest accrued during Site development costs $ ______construction Indirect capital costs $ Process Equipment • all equipment listed on the flow sheets • spare parts • taxes, freight, insurance and duties Process equipment costs $ ______

MateMaterialsrials • piping and ducting • insulation and painting Working Capital • electrical • raw materials inventory • instrumentation and controls • finished product inventory • buildings and structures • materials and supplies Materials costs $ ______Working capital $

Other NonNon---PPProcessrocess Equipment • construction and installation • labour, salaries, and overheads • supervision, accounting, timekeeping, purchasing, safety, and expediting • temporary facilities • construction tools and equipment • taxes and insurance Direct capital costs • building permits, approvals, licences Indirect capital costs and inspections Working capital NonNon---processprocess equipment costs $ ______Total direct capital costs $ Total capital costs $

Table 3: Assessing the capital costs of upgrading a large plant

Operating Costs and Savings Examples of operating costs and savings which may Although the basic economic goal of a waste result from employing waste minimisation minimisation program is to eliminate waste disposal techniques are provided in Table 4 below. and reduce input material costs, savings can also be Our economic evaluation should focus closely on the made to operating costs. We should consider these savings to be gained by reducing operating when comparing the existing system with one expenditure related to waste treatment, storage, and incorporating a waste reduction option. disposal. Previously these costs were ignored, often By calculating the difference between the estimated because land disposal was relatively inexpensive, costs of operating a new, waste reducing system and but they have risen substantially in recent years due those of operating the existing one, we arrive at the to the increasing difficulty of finding new landfill incremental operating cost. sites. By the year 2000 the government expects to have to reduce wastes going to landfill by fifty per cent.

Reduced waste costs for: Changes in operating and maintenance labour

• off-site treatment, storage, and disposal fees labour requirements may either increase or decrease as • transportation costs reflected in changes in overtime or in the number of • on-site treatment, storage, and handling costs employees. When direct labour costs change, benefit • permits reporting and record-keeping costs. costs and possibly supervision costs will also change.

Input material cost savings Changes in operating and maintenance supplsuppliesies the consumption of operating and maintenance as reduction in waste usually decreases demand for input equipment may increase or decrease. materials. Changes in overheads Insurance and liability savings a large waste minimisation project may affect a as improved waste minimisation may reduce a company's company's overhead costs. insurance payment. It may also lower a company's potential liability associated with remedial clean-ups and workplace Revenue changes from increases or decreases in safety. (The magnitude liability savings is difficult to production determine. new waste minimisation techniques may increase or decrease the productivity of a particular unit. This will Changes in costs related to quality result in a change in revenues. Operating costs may also new waste minimisation techniques may positively or change accordingly. negatively affect product quality. This could result in higher or Increased revenues from byby---productsproducts lower costs for rework, scrap, or quality control functions. waste reduction techniques may produce a by-product Changes in Utilities costs that can be sold to a recycler or elsewhere as raw material. This will increase the company's revenues. costs for steam, electricity, gas, process and cooling water, plant air, refrigeration or inert gas, may increase or decrease.

Table 4: Operating costs and savings for waste minimisation projects

Apart from expense of disposing of waste externally, The payback period is the amount of time it takes to significant internal costs are incurred, such as in the recover the initial outlay. To calculate the payback labour needed to store and transport wastes, liability period on a before-tax basis, use the formula: insurance, and on-site treatment. In any economic capital investment evaluation, we should always consider these Payback period (in years) = annual operating cost expenses and how much a waste minimisation savings option may save in: A payback period is typically measured in years, but • disposal fees a particularly attractive option may have one which is • transportation costs measured in months. For low risk investments it is usually considered acceptable to have a payback • pre-treatment costs period in the range of three to four years. • raw material costs Most popular spreadsheet programs for personal • operating and maintenance costs. computers will automatically calculate internal rate of return and net present value for a series of cash The savings in operating costs gained by introducing flows. Any financial management, cost accounting, a waste minimisation option are considerable and or engineering economics text will provide further can be estimated relatively easily and reliably. Other information about these measures. costs and savings are usually secondary in their impact and can be included when fine tuning our Adjustments for Risks and Liability economic evaluation. Cleaner production and waste minimisation projects Profitability Analysis can reduce the magnitude of a company's environmental and safety risks. Although these risks The likely profitability of a waste minimisation option can be identified, it is difficult to quantify them. is measured using estimated net cash flows for each year of its expected life. This means you need to While profitability warrants strong consideration consider cash incomes minus cash outlays. when deciding whether or not to implement an option, environmental regulations may be even more If the option involves no significant capital costs, its important. A company operating outside profitability can be judged by whether or not it environmental regulations can face fines, litigation, reduces operating costs. If it does, it should be and penalties or, in extreme cases, a factory may implemented as soon as practicable. For options that even be forced to shut down. In this case, the total involve significant capital costs, more detailed cash flow of a company can be totally dependent on profitability analysis is needed. The three standard implementing the environmental project. profitability measures are: Waste Assessment Report • payback period When the waste assessment team has completed its • internal rate of return (IRR) investigations, a report should be prepared • net present value (NPV). presenting the results of the assessment phase and feasibility analysis of the various waste reduction This method is recommended for quick assessments options. of profitability. If large capital expenditure is involved, it is usually followed by a more detailed The waste assessment report is a useful analysis. organisational tool and will be particularly valuable in obtaining project funding.

More importantly, it is the basis for preparing the company's waste management plan, which details the procedures and timetables for implementing the selected waste reduction options.

Generating the Waste Management Plan

The waste management plan should indicate not only how much the option will cost and its expected performance, but also how it will be implemented. In formulating the plan it is important to:

• determine whether the technology is established and has been successfully applied

• determine whether the required resources are available and how they will be obtained

• estimate the construction or installation period

• estimate the production downtime

• determine how the performance of the project can be evaluated after it is implemented.

A qualitative evaluation of intangible costs and benefits to the company should always be included in the waste management plan. Reduced liabilities and improved image in the eyes of the employees and the community are essential components. In addition, before the plan is finalised, it should be reviewed by the groups involved and their support should be solicited. This will increase the chance of its recommendations being successfully implemented.

EPA Publication Number 383, Guidelines for the Preparation of Waste Management Plans provides details on how to prepare and present and acceptable waste management plan.

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IMPLEMENTING WASTE • past experience in this area of operation MINIMISATION OPTIONS • what the market and the competition are doing Once a particular waste minimisation option – one • how the implementation program fits into the that is technically feasible – has been recommended company's overall business strategy in the waste assessment report, our final step is to see that it is implemented. • advantages of the proposal in relation to competing requests for capital funding.

Although waste minimisation projects usually Waste Assessment Report improve process efficiency and reduce waste management operating costs, a company may prefer Waste to direct its capital resources toward enhancing Management plan revenue rather than cutting costs. It may want to give greater priority to moving into new lines of business, expanding plant capacity, or acquiring other

Justify projects and obtain funding companies. Implement procedures or Install equipment Even when a project promises a high internal rate of Evaluate performance return, some companies will have difficulty raising funds for capital investment. In this case, the company should look for outside financing either in the private sector or from government. Government funding in the form of cleaner production grants Successfully operating waste minimisation projects assists small to medium manufacturers in preventing In this phase the program team or program champion or reducing the production of wastes. may have to convince management to obtain the necessary funds for the proposed project. Installation The evidence presented in the waste assessment Waste minimisation options that do not involve report and feasibility analyses should be used to additions or modifications to equipment can be show its advantages. Champions of the program implemented immediately once their economic must be flexible enough to develop alternatives or advantages are recognised. Where equipment modifications if these are needed. They should also modifications or new equipment are needed, commit themselves to doing background and support installation proceeds through the planning, design, work, and should anticipate potential problems in purchasing, and construction stages as it does for implementing the options. any other capital improvement project.

Funding Demonstration and FollowFollow---UpUp

An evaluation team made up of financial and Sometimes a waste minimisation option may not technical personnel can ensure that a sponsor's measure up to expected performance after its enthusiasm is balanced with objectivity. It can also implementation, and may require a follow-up counter opposing negative or conservative attitudes evaluation for rework or modification. In such cases, that might exist within the company. The team the information should be retained as it can be used should review the project in the context of: to reduce problems and costs at other locations where the option is introduced.

Measuring Waste Reduction Because waste generation is usually directly dependent o the production rate, the ratio of the To effectively measure waste reduction, we must waste generation rate to production rate is the clearly understand the means by which wastes are preferred method for measuring waste reduction. generated. In general, a distinction should be made Where good quality data for the quantity, flow, and between production wastes, maintenance wastes, composition of waste streams is too costly or time and clean-up wastes. The total quantity of an consuming to obtain, it may be more practical to individual waste stream should be measured, as well express waste reduction indirectly, as the redo of as the individual waste components. input materials consumption to production rate.

Measuring waste minimisation by using a method of I truly believe that companies whicwhichh take ratios is generally more meaningful to a specific the initiative and pursue cleaner operation, rather than to an entire factory. It is always production will survive to serve the important to preserve the focus of the waste customers of those companies which do minimisation program when measuring and reporting not. They will have the benefit of winning progress. back public respect. Waste Assessments for New Production ProcessProcesseses Richard Warburton CEO, Du Pont Australia The focus of this book has been on applying waste minimisation principles to existing facilities, yet it is important that we apply them to new facilities as One way we can determine how effective a waste well. It is easier to introduce cleaner production minimisation program has been is by measuring its principles and avoid waste generation during the impact on the company's cash flow. The program research, development, or design stage, than to should pay for itself through lower waste modify the process equipment after installation. management and raw materials costs. The procedures we have already described can be It is also important to measure success by the actual modified easily to review a product or process in the amount of waste we reduce. The easiest way to do planning or design stage. A company should also this is by recording the quantities of waste generated include one or more employees associated in the before and after w have implemented a waste waste minimisation program on any new project minimisation option. The difference between these likely to generate wastes. In this way, the benefit of two amounts, divided by the original waste earlier experiences can be passed on. generation rate, represents the percentage reduction in waste quantity. We must take care when Ongoing Waste Minimisation Program expressing these proportions. Many companies Every waste reduction program requires a continuing report substantial reduction in the quantities of effort. Once the highest priority waste streams and waste disposed when in fact much of this can be other factory areas have been assessed and those traced to the concentration of dilute aqueous waste. projects have been implemented, the team should Mere concentration of waste cannot be regarded as a turn to areas and waste streams with lower priorities. genuine waste minimisation practice. The ultimate goal of any waste minimisation program While useful, this simple measurement does not is to reduce the generation of waste by the maximum account for other factors that also affect the quantity extent possible. Companies that have reduced or of waste generated. eliminated industrial wastes should continue to

investigate other cleaner production or waste minimisation possibilities and look at reducing water usage, wastewater discharges, air emissions, and solid wastes.

A series of waste assessments should be conducted on an annual basis; however, the frequency of assessments will depend on budgets and special circumstances such as:

• changes in raw material or production requirements

• increases in waste management costs

• the introduction of new regulations

• the introduction of new technology

• a major undesirable event, like an uncontrolled spill.

To be really effective, a cleaner production and waste minimisation philosophy must be developed within the company so that it becomes an integral part of its operations. The most successful waste minimisation programs to date have all occurred in companies possessing such a philosophy.

Remember: waste minimisation is a journey, not a destination!

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Waste Minimisation Program Worksheets

Appendix B: Simplified Waste Minimisation Assessment Worksheets

Appendix C: Waste Assessment Case Study

Appendix D: Typical Causes and Sources of Waste

Appendix E: Waste Reduction Techniques

Appendix F: Waste Minimisation Option Rating – Weighted Sum Method

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APPENDIX A: WASTE Note: Waste assessments should be carried out in MINIMISATION PROGRAM accordance with the description provided in EPA WORKSHEETS publication Number 277, Waste Assessment Guidelines. The EPA publication Number 358, This appendix lists worksheets which could be used Procedures For Waste Assessments, may also be of during a waste minimisation program. Program teams assistance. Waste management Plans should be should draw up their own worksheets based on the prepared and presented in accordance with EPA sequence proposed below. A list of modified Publication Number 383. worksheets more suitable for small businesses or for preliminary waste assessments is provided in Appendix B.

Introduction (Section 1) 1. Program Overview Summarises the overall waste management program.

Planning And Organisation (Section 2) 2. Program Organisation Records the key members of the waste minimisation project team and the relevant organisational details. 3. Assessment Team Make-Up Lists names of assessment team members as well as duties. Includes a list of potential departments to consider when selecting the teams.

Waste Assessment Phase (Section 3) 4. Site Description Lists background information about the factory, such as location, products and operations. 5. Personnel Records information about the personnel who work in the area to be assessed. 6. Process Information A checklist of useful process information to look for before starting the assessment. 7. Input Materials Summary Records input material process information, specific to the production or process area. This includes name, supplier, chemical components or properties, cost delivery and shelf-life information and possible substitutes. 8. Products Summary Identifies chemical components, production rate, costs and other information about products. 9. Individual Waste Stream Records source, hazard, generation rate, disposal cost, and method of treatment or disposal Characterisation for each waste stream. 10. Waste Stream Summary Summarises all of the information collected for each waste stream. This sheet is also used to prioritise waste streams for assessment. 11. Option Generation Records options proposed during brainstorming or normal group technique sessions. Includes the rationale for proposing each option. 12. Option Description Describes and summarises information about a proposed option. Also notes approval of promising options. 13. Options Evaluation Used for screening options using the weighted sum method.

Feasibility Analysis Phase (Section 4) 14. Technical Feasibility Detailed checklist for performing a technical evaluation of a waste minimisation option. Divide worksheet into sections for equipment-related options, personnel and procedural related options, and also material-related options. 15. Cost Information Detailed list of capital and operating costs information for use in the economic evaluation of an option. 16. Profitability Based on the capital and operating cost Payback Period information. Calculate the payback Worksheet/Payback Period period. 17. Profitability Worksheet/Cash Develop cash flows for calculation NPV (Net Present Value) or IRR (Internal Rate of Return). Flow for NPV and IRR

Waste Management Plan and Implementation (Section 5) 18. Project Summary Summarises important tasks to be performed during the implementation of an option. This includes the responsible person, budget and timetable. 19. Option Performance Records material mass balance information for evaluating the performance of an implemented option. 20. Ongoing Review Be committed to an ongoing review, of not only the installed options, but of the entire plant on an annual basis.

Table A-1: List of waste minimisation program worksheets

APPENDIX B: SIMPLIFIED be used by small business, or when only a WASTE MINIMISATION preliminary waste assessment is needed. Those ASSESSMENT WORKSHEETS responsible for the program should design worksheets appropriate for their own circumstances The table below lists suggested worksheets for in the sequence suggested below. phases of a waste minimisation program which could

1. Assessment Overview Summarises the overall assessment procedure

Waste Assessment Phase (Section 3) 1. Assessment Overview Summarises the overall assessment procedure

2. Site Description Lists background information about the factory, including location, products and operations.

3. Process Information A checklist of useful process information to look for before starting the assessment.

4. Input Materials Summary Records input materials information for specific production or process area. This includes name, supplier, hazardous component or properties, cost, delivery and shelf-life information and possible substitutes.

5. Products Summary Identifies chemical components, production rate, costs and other information about products.

6. Waste Stream Summary Summarises all the information collected for each waste stream. This sheet is also used to prioritise waste streams for assessment.

7. Option Generation Records options proposed during brainstorming or normal group technique sessions. Includes the rationale for proposing each option.

8. Option Description Describes and summarises information about a proposed option. Also notes approval of promising options.

Feasibility Analysis Phase (Section 4)

9. Profitability Worksheet Prepare this worksheet to identify capital and operating costs and to calculate the payback period.

Table B-1: List of waste minimisation assessment worksheets (simplified)

APPENDIX C: WASTE Process Description ASSESSMENT CASE STUDY Items brought into the factory for refinishing are The following case study shows a waste minimisation cleaned, electroplated, and polished. The basic assessment prepared for a metal plating operation. operations include paint stripping cleaning, Although this is an historical case and may not reflect electroplating, drying, and polishing. current technologies, it does show, based on actual Before silver plating an item, the original plated process and factory data, how the assessment was metal is stripped by dipping it into a sodium cyanide performed. It also describes the waste minimisation solution with the system running in reverse current. options that were identified and recommended for This is followed by an acid wash in a 50 per cent this company. sulphuric acid solution, after which the item is The metal refinishing company, which refinishes polished to bright finish. The polished item is decorative items, owns and operates a small factory. cleaned with caustic solution to remove dirt, rinsed The principal plating metals used at this factory are with a 5 per cent sulphuric acid solution to neutralise nickel, brass, silver, and gold. any remaining caustic solution on the item, and rinsed with water. It is then ready for electroplating. Preparing for the Assessment After the item is immersed in the plating tank for the Since the factory is only small, the assessment team required period, it is rinsed in a still rinse tank, comprised company personnel and outside followed by a continuous water rinse. Tap water is consultants. Team members included: used for both the still and continuous rinsing steps. • the plant manager as the assessment team Solution from the still rinse tank is used as make-up leader for the plating baths. In places where two still rinse tanks are used, water from the second tank is used to • the day shift plating supervisor replenish the first still rinse tank. Overflow from the • the company process engineer continuous rinse tank is discharged as wastewater. The item is polished following the plating step. • a plating chemistry consultant Gold plating generally does not require stripping. • an environmental engineering consultant. After the initial cleaning operation, such items are The assessment team chose to look at all of the electroplated. Nickel and brass plating are also done plating operations rather than focusing on one or two in a similar manner. Vapour degreasing using 1, 1- specific plating processes. It began by collecting and trichlomethane is often performed on brass and compiling recent production records, input material nickel-plated items to remove oil and grease. In some information, equipment layout drawings, flow cases, items are first nickel-plated and then plated diagrams, waste records, and plant operator with gold, silver, or brass. instructions. For electroplating operations, the cyanide solutions After all the team members had reviewed the must be kept at an optimum concentration. The information, a comprehensive inspection of the solutions are analysed twice a month by an outside plating room was carried out. They were then in a laboratory. A representative sample is obtained by position to describe the process, layout, and waste dipping a tube to the bottom of the plating tank. The situation at the site. The data they gathered is shown sample is analysed and recommendations for make- below. up are made based on the test results.

All plating operations at the factory are performed Metal sludges accumulate in the plating tanks. manually. This sludge is filtered out of the plating solution once a month using a portable dual cartridge filter. The factory operates one shift per day and employs Two filter cartridges are used for each plating tank. eight operators. Cartridges are typically replaced every two to three Equipment Layout Description months.

All plating, cleaning, and rinse tanks are located in The sump is pumped out and the sludge is disposed of as prescribed waste once every six months. one room at Me plating shop, while an adjacent room The sump usually contains 1600 to 3500 litres of houses all equipment used for buffing and polishing. sludge comprised of dirt, stripped paint, and a Thirty tanks are used in cleaning and electroplating solution containing cyanide and heavy metals. operations. The configuration of a typical plating unit includes a plating bath, followed by one or two still Proposed Waste Minimisation Options tanks and a continuous rinse tank. After the site inspection was completed and Waste Stream Description additional information was reviewed, the team held a brainstorming session to identify potential options Cyanide waste is generated from silver stripping, for cleaner production and waste minimisation. The from gold, brass, and copper electroplating, and from following options were proposed during the meeting. the associated rinsing operations. The principal waste streams are wastewater from the continuous 1. Reduce solution drag-out from the plating tanks by: rinse tanks and from floor washings and filter waste • from the plating tank. proper positioning of workplace on the plating rack Aqueous streams generated from paint stripping, • metal stripping, electroplating, and floor washings increasing plating solution temperatures flow to a common sump. This sump discharges to the • lowering the concentration of plating solution sewer. The table below presents the results of a constituents typical analysis on the wastewater. • increasing the recovery of drag-out with drain WasWastewatertewater Characteristics boards. Sampling Date 8 August 1987 2. Extend plating solution bath life by: Sampling location Clarifier Sample Box Type of sample Time Composite • reducing drag-in by better rinsing Reporting period July '87 to August '87 • Total flow in 1300 Litres using de-ionised make-up water Total flow out 1 160 Litres • returning spent solutions to the suppliers. Peak flow 6 Litres per minute Suspended solids 1.0 mg/L 3. Reduce the use of rinse water by: pH 7.5 • using multiple countercurrent rinse tanks Total cyanide 1.0 mg/L Total chromium 0.42 mg/L • using still rinsing Copper 1.30 mg/L • using spray or fog rinsing. Nickel 0.93 mg/L Silver <0.05 mg/L 4. Prevent dust from the adjacent buffing and Oil and grease 0.2 mg/L polishing room from entering the plating room and Temperature 21°C contaminating the plating baths.

5. Segregate cyanide wastes from the rinse tanks, Use DeDe---lonisedlonised Water for MakeMake---UpUp Solutions and and from other wastewater streams, such as floor Rinse Water washings and paint stripping wastes. Using de-ionised water will reduce the build-up of Team members independently reviewed the options impurities in the plating solutions. In particular, the and then met to decide which merited further study. build-up of hardness minerals from tap water will be The team chose the following for the feasibility avoided. This, in tum, will avoid the precipitation of analysis phase. carbonates in the plating tanks.

• reduce drag-out by using drain boards The assessment team decided to combine the evaluation of this option with the previous option of • extend bath life using de-ionised water for using drain boards. The initial purchase and make-up installation costs of the de-ioniser was $267. When • use spray rinsing to reduce rinse water usage adding the cost of the drain boards, the total capital cost of this option was $582. The de-ioniser can be • segregate prescribed wastes from other wastes. rented and serviced by an outside water treatment Feasibility Analysis service company for $450 a year. The savings in disposal costs and make-up chemical costs are $900 The assessment team conducted technical and a year. Therefore, the annual net operating cost economic feasibility analyses on each of the four savings will be $450 a year, with a payback period of options. 1.3 years. Segregate Waste Streams Segregate Waste Streams Install Spray Rinses The team recognised that segregating the waste Installing spray rinses will reduce the amount of streams could be implemented at virtually no cost rinse water required to clean the items. With spray and would save money immediately. No technical rinse nozzles and controls, rinsing can be done on problems were identified. demand. Rinse water usage was estimated to be Use Drain Boards to Reduce DragDrag---outout reduced by 50 per cent. The resulting rinse wastewater is more concentrated and some can be Drain boards can be used to collect plating solution returned to the plating tanks as a water make-up. that drips off the racks and the workplaces after they are pulled out of the plating tank. The plating The assessment team determined that four spray solution then drains back into the plating tank. This rinse units would cost $2120 plus an additional $705 option reduces the amount of dilute rinse waterwaste for piping, valves, and installation labour. The total but impurities build up faster in the plating solution. capital cost was $2825. The reduction in disposal Since drag-out is reduced, make-up chemical costs were estimated at $350 a year, based on a 50 consumption is reduced. per cent reduction in rinse wastewater. This resulted in a payback period of over eight years. The purchase price of drain boards is estimated at $115 with installation costs of $200, for a total Implementation capital cost of $315. This option was expected to The procedure for segregating wastes was reduce rinse water disposal costs by $500 per year implemented before the feasibility analysis was and reduce make-up chemical costs by $400 per completed for the other three options. The year. The resulting payback period was 0.35 years, or installation of drain boards and the purchase of a about four months.

water de-ioniser were made shortly after the feasibility analysis was completed. The de-ionised water system was on line two months later. The assessment team decided not to implement the spray rinse option because of the long payback period.

Future Waste Minimisation Assessments

During the next cycle of waste minimisation assessments, the assessment team will review previously suggested options in the plating area and will look at ways to reduce the generation of metallic dust in the buffing and polishing area. In the meantime, the team will continue to look for additional opportunities to reduce wastes throughout the factory.

APPENDIX D: TYPICAL CAUSES sources, causes, and other factors that influence AND SOURCES OF WASTE waste generation. The following tables provide information for some common industrial operations. In order to develop a comprehensive list of waste reduction options, it is necessary to understand the

Plant Function Location or Operation Potential Waste Material

Material Receiving Loading docks, incoming pipelines, Packaging materials, off-specification materials, damaged containers, receiving areas inadvertent spills, contents of transfer hoses

Raw Material and Tanks, warehouses, drums storage Tank bottoms; off-specification and excess material; spill residues; leaking Product Storage yards, bins, storerooms pumps, valves, tanks, and pipes; damaged containers, empty containers

Production Melting, curing, baking, distilling, Washwater, rinse water, solvents; still bottoms; off-specification products; washing, coating, formulating, catalysts; empty containers; sweepings; ductwork clean out; additives; oil; reacting filters; spill residues; excess materials; process solution dumps; leaking pipes, valves, hoses, tanks, and process equipment

Support Services Laboratories Reagents, off-specification chemicals, samples, empty sample and chemical containers

Maintenance shops Solvents, cleaning agents, degreasing sludges, sand-blasting waste, caustic, scrap metal, oils, greases

Garages Oils, filters, solvents, acids, caustics, cleaning bath sludges, batteries, tyres

Powerhouses and boilers Fly ash, slag, tube clean out material, chemical additives, oil, empty containers, boiler blowdown, water treating chemical wastes

Cooling towers Chemical additives, empty containers, cooling tower bottom sediment, cooling tower blowdown, fan lube oils

Table D-1: Typical wastes from plant operations

WastWastee & Origin Typical Causes Operational Design Factors

Chemical Reaction • incomplete conversion • inadequate temperature control • proper reactor design • by-product formation • inadequate mixing • proper catalyst selection • catalyst de-activation (by • poor feed purity or flow control • choice of process and reaction poisoning or sintering) conditions

Contact between • condensate from steam jet • indiscriminate use of water for • vacuum pumps instead of steam aqueous and organic ejectors cleaning and washing ejectors phases • presence of water as a reaction • use of reboilers instead of steam by-product stripping • use of water as a product rinse • choice of process • equipment cleaning • spill clean-up

Process cleaning • presence of cling • drainage prior to cleaning • design reactors or tanks with wiper equipment • deposit formation • production scheduling to reduce blades • use of filter aids cleaning frequency • Reduce cling • use of chemical cleaners • equipment dedication

Heat exchanger cleaning • presence of cling (process • inadequate cooling water • design for lower film temperature side) or scale (cooling water treatment and high turbulence side) • excessive cooling water • controls to prevent cooling water • deposit formation overheating • use of chemical cleaners

Metal parts cleaning • disposal of spent solvents, • indiscriminate use of solvent or • choice between cold dip tank or spent cleaning solution or water vapour degreasing cleaning sludges • choice between solvent or aqueous cleaning solutions

Metal surface treating • dragout • poor rack maintenance • countercurrent rinsing • disposal of spent treating • excessive rinsing with water • fog rinsing solution • fast removal of work piece • dragout collection tanks or trays

Disposal of unusable or • off specification products • poor operator training or • use of automation out of specification caused by contamination, supervision • maximise dedication of equipment materials improper reactant controls, • inadequate production planning to a single function inadequate pre-cleaning of and inventory control of feed equipment or work piece, stocks temperature or pressure excursions

Clean-up of spills and • manual material transfer and • inadequate maintenance • choice of gasket material leaks handling operations • poor operator training • choice of seals • leaking pump seals • lack of attention by operator • use of welded or seal welded • leaking flange gaskets • excessive use of water in cleaning construction

Table D-2: Causes and controlling factors in waste generation

APPENDIX E: WASTE Table E-2 — Waste reduction options for equipment REDUCTION TECHNIQUES cleaning operations

The tables below list techniques and practices for Table E-3 — Waste reduction through good operating waste reduction in operations applied in a wide range practices of industries. Most of the techniques listed here are Table E4 — Waste reduction options in materials source reduction techniques which can be used in handling, storage, and transfer clearer production or waste minimisation programs. Table E5 — Waste reduction options for parts Table E-1 — Waste reduction options for coating cleaning operations operations

Waste Source or Origin Waste Reduction Measures Remarks

Coating overspray Coating material that fails • maintain 50% overlap between spray pattern The coated object does not look to reach the object being • maintain 150-200mm distance between spray gun streaked and wastage of coating coated and the work-piece material is avoided. • maintain a gun speed of about 75 metres If the spray gun is arched 45°, the • hold gun perpendicular to the surface overspray can be as high as 65%. • trigger gun at the beginning and end of each pass • proper training of operators By air pressure adjustment, • use robots for spraying overspray reduces to 40%. • avoid excessive air pressure for coating Overspray can be reduced by 40%. Increases transfer efficiency. • reduce overspray • use electrostatic spray systems • use air assisted airless spray guns in place of air spray guns

Stripping wastes Coating removal from parts • avoid adding excess thinner Reduces stripping wastes due to before applying a new coat rework. • use abrasive media stripping Solvent usage is eliminated. • use bead-blasting for paint stripping Solvent usage is eliminated. • use cryogenic stripping Solvent usage is eliminated. • use caustic stripping solutions Solvent usage is eliminated. • clean coating equipment after each use

Solvent emissions Evaporative losses from • keep solvent soak tanks away from heat sources Lower usage of solvents. process equipment and • use high-solids formulations coated parts • use powder coatings Avoids solvent usage. • use water-based formulations Avoids solvent usage.

Equipment clean- Process equipment • light to dark batch sequencing up cleaning with solvents • produces large batches of similarly coated objects instead of small batches of differently coated items • isolate solvent-based paint spray booths from water-based paint spray booths • re-use cleaning solutions and solvents • standardise solvent usage

Overall • re-examine the need for coating, as well as available alternatives

Table E-1: Waste reduction options for coating operations

WaWasteste Source or Origin Waste Reduction Measures Remarks

Spent solvent or Tank cleaning operations • maximise dedication of process equipment inorganic based • use squeegees to recover cling of product prior to cleaning solutions rinsing • avoid unnecessary cleaning • closed storage and transfer systems Scaling or drying-up can be • provide sufficient drain time for liquids prevented • lining the equipment to prevent cling Minimises leftover material. Reduces cling. • "pigging" process lines • use high pressure spray nozzle Minimise solvent consumption. • use clean-in-place systems • clean equipment immediately after use Prevents hardening of scale that requires more severe cleaning. • re-use clean-up solvent • re-work clean-up solvent into useful products • segregate wastes by solvent type • standardise solvent usage • reclaim solvent by distillation • schedule production to lower cleaning frequency

Wastewater Heat exchanger cleaning • use bypass control or pumped recycle to maintain On-site or off-site recycling. sludges, spent turbulence during turndown acidic solutions • use smooth heat exchange surfaces Electroplated or Teflon tubes. • use on-stream cleaning techniques "Super scrubber", for example. • use hydro-blasting over chemical cleaning where

possible

Table E-2: Waste reduction options for equipment cleaning operations

Good Operating Practice Program Ingredients Remarks

Waste minimisation • form a team of qualified individuals These programs are conducted to assessment • establish practical short-term and long-term goals reduce waste in a factory. • allocate resources and budget for the program • establish assessment targets • identify and select options to minimise waste • periodically monitor the effectiveness of the program

Environmental assessment • assemble pertinent documents These assessments are conducted to • conduct environmental process reviews monitor compliance with regulations. • carry out a site inspection • report on and follow up on the findings

Loss prevention programs • establish spill prevention, control and counter measure plans • conduct hazard assessment in the design and operating phases

Waste segregation • prevent mixing of hazardous wastes with non-hazardous wastes These measures can result in lower • isolate hazardous wastes by contaminant waste haulage volumes and easier • isolate liquid wastes from solid wastes disposal of the hazardous wastes.

Preventative maintenance • use equipment data cards on equipment location, These programs are conducted to cut characteristics and maintenance production costs and decrease • maintain a master preventative maintenance schedule equipment downtime, in addition to • deferred preventative maintenance reports on equipment preventing waste releases due to • maintain equipment history cards equipment failure. • maintain equipment breakdown reports • keep suppliers maintenance manuals handy • maintain a manual or computerised repair history file

Training and awareness • providing training for The programs are conducted to reduce building programs -safe operation occupational health and safety of the equipment hazards, in addition to reducing waste -proper materials handling generation due to operator or -economic and environmental ramifications of hazardous waste procedural errors. generated, and disposal -detecting releases of hazardous materials -emergency procedures -use of safety gear

Effective supervision • closer supervision may improve production efficiency and Increased opportunity for early reduce inadvertent waste generation detection of mistakes. • management by objectives (MBO) with goals for waste reduction Better coordination among the various parts of an overall operation.

Employee participation • quality circles or group discussions between employees and Employees who intimately understand supervisors can identify ways to reduce waste the operations can identify ways to reduce waste.

Product scheduling and • maximise batch size Altering production schedule can have planning • dedicate equipment to a single product a major impact on waste minimisation • alter batch sequencing to minimise cleaning periods, ie light to dark batch sequencing • schedule production to minimisation cleaning frequency

Cost accounting and allocation • cost accounting for all waste streams leaving the facilities Allocating costs to the waste- • allocate waste treatment and disposal costs to the operations producing operations will give them an that generate the waste incentive to cut waste.

Table E-3: Waste reduction through good operating practices

Waste or Source Waste Reduction Measures

Material or waste tracking and • avoid over purchasing inventory control • accept raw material only after inspection • ensure that inventory quantity does not go to waste • ensure that no containers stay in inventory longer than a specified period • review material procurement specifications • return retired material to supplier • validate shelf-life expiry dates • test outdated material for effectiveness • eliminate shelf-life requirements for stable compounds • conduct frequent inventory checks • use computer-assisted plant inventory system • conduct periodical materials tracking • proper labelling of all containers • set up manned stations for dispensing chemicals and collecting wastes

Loss prevention programs • use properly designed tanks and vessels only for their intended purposes • install overflow alarms for all tanks and vessels • maintain physical integrity of all tanks and vessels • set up written procedures for all loading, unloading, and transfer operations • install secondary containment areas • forbid operators to bypass interlocks, alarms, or significantly alter set points without authorisation • isolate equipment or process lines that leak or are not in service • use seal-less pumps • use bellows-seal valves • document all spillage • perform overall material mass balances and estimate quantity and dollar value of all losses • use floating roof tanks for vapour control • use conservation vents on fixed roof tanks • use vapour recovery systems

Spills and leaks. • store containers to allow for visual inspection for corrosion and leaks • stack containers in a way to minimise the chance of tipping, puncturing, or breaking • prevent concrete sweating in drum storage areas • maintain procedures to correctly handle spill situations • provide adequate lighting in the storage area • maintain a clean, even surface in transportation areas • keep aisles dear of obstruction • maintain distance between incompatible chemicals • maintain distance between different chemical types to prevent cross contamination • avoid stacking containers against process equipment • follow manufacturers' suggestions on the storage and handling of all raw materials • insulation and inspection of electric circuitry for corrosion and potential sparking

Cling • use large containers instead of small containers wherever possible • use containers with height-to-diameter ration equal to one to minimise wetted area • empty drums and containers thoroughly before cleaning or disposal

Table E-4: Waste reduction options in materials handling, storage, & transfer

4411

Waste Source or Origin Waste Reduction Measures Remarks

Spent solvent Contaminated solvent from • water-soluble cutting fluids instead of oil-based This could eliminate the need for parts-cleaning operations fluids solvent.

• use peel coatings in place of protective oils • use aqueous cleaners

• use cryogenic stripping • use bead-blasting for paint stripping • use multi-stage concurrent cleaning

• prevent drag-in from other processes • prompt removal of sludge from the tank A single, larger waste that is more • reduce the number of different solvents used amenable to recycling.

Air emission Solvent loss from • use roll-type covers, not hinged covers 24 to 50% reduction in emissions. degreasers and cold tanks 39% reduction in solvent emissions. • increase freeboard height

• install freeboard chillers

• use silhouette entry covers

• proper equipment layout • avoid rapid insertion and removal of items The speed that items are put into the tank should be less than 3.3m/minute.

• avoid inserting oversized objects into the tank Cross-sectional area of the item • allow for proper drainage before removing item should be less than 50% of tank • avoid water contamination of solvent in area to reduce piston effect. degreasers

Rinse water Water rinse to remove • reduce solvent drag-out by proper design and The drag-out can be improved by a solvent carried out with the operation of rack system factor of 60 for poorly drained parts. parts leaving the cleaning • install air jets to blow parts dry tank • use fog nozzles on rinse tanks • proper design and operation of barrel system • use countercurrent rinse tanks • use water sprays on rinse tanks More efficient rinsing is achieved.

Table E-5: Waste reduction options for parts cleaning operations

APPENDIX F: WASTE • not detrimental to product quality MINIMISATION OPTION RATING • low capital cost — WEIGHTED SUM METHOD • low operating and maintenance costs The weighted sum method is a quantitative method for screening, ranking, and selecting the best option • short implementation period and minimal for our waste problems. It allows us to quantify the disruption of plant operations main criteria affecting waste management in a • ease of implementation. particular factory. This method involves three steps: Place weights (on a scale of 0 to 10, for example) on 1. Determine the goals of our waste minimisation each of these criteria according to their importance. assessment program and our overall corporate goals. Compile a list of important criteria, such as the 2. Rate each option against each criterion. A scale of following that reflect these goals: 0 to 10 could again be used.

• reduction in waste quantity 3. Multiply the overall rating of each option by the weight of each criterion. • reduction in waste hazard for example, toxicity, flammability, reactivity, corrosiveness The options with the best overall ratings are then selected for the technical and economic feasibility • reduction in waste treatment and disposal costs analyses. Table F-1 shows a practical example of how • reduction in raw material costs the weighted sum method can be used. An explanation of the table is given in the following • reduction in liability and insurance costs paragraphs. • previous successful use within the company

Rating Criteria Weighting X Y Z

Reduce treatment costs 10 8 6 3

Reduce safety hazards 8 6 3 8

Reduce liability 7 4 4 5

Ease of implementation 5 2 2 8

Sum of Weighting Times Ratings 166 122 169

Table F-1: Sample calculation using the weighted sum method

A company has decided that reducing waste An overall rating is then calculated for each of the treatment costs is the most important criterion of its options, by multiplying the individual ratings by the program and thus gives it a weight factor of 10. The appropriate weights. For example, the overall rating company also finds the following criteria to be for option X is calculated as follows: significant, but of lesser priority: (10x8)+(8x6)+(7x4)+(5x2)=166 • reduction in safety hazard (given a weight of 8) Option Z rates the highest with a score of 169, then • reduction in liability (given a weight of 7) option X with 166, with option Y lowest at 122. Since the scores of options Z and X are highest and are • ease of implementation (given a weight of 5). relatively close to each other, both should be The company is considering three waste selected for feasibility evaluation. Option Y can be minimisation options, X, Y. and Z. Each of these is discarded from further consideration. then assigned an effectiveness factor.

Because option X is expected to reduce waste by nearly 80%, it is given a rating of 8. A rating of 6 is given for reducing safety hazards, 4 for reducing liability, and, since it is somewhat difficult to implement, a rating of 2 for ease of implementation.

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