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Home , Alaeddin Mosque, Alp Arslan, Arslan Shah I, Ghaznavids, Kerbogha, Kilij Arslan I

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Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the Sultanate! My name is Hira Rahman and I am honored to serve as your Chair for this year’s conference. As of Fall 2016, I am officially an alumni of New York University with degrees in International Relations and Biochemistry with a minor in Middle Eastern Studies. I have a vast experience within the world of both Model UN as well as the actual UN (currently working there now!). I can’t wait to have you be a part of the largest Joint Crisis Conference with us and look forward to getting to know you better over the course of the weekend. Your Crisis Director, Siddharth Srikanth, is equally as honored to help you all live out your dreams of being representatives in the Seljuk Sultanate. As a junior at NYU studying towards a degree in Math & Economics, he’s thrilled you have chosen to take part in this committee and will be working in the backroom to help you realize your ambitions and plans.

Over the course of the weekend, we will explore the Seljuk Sultanate as it was during the . While history has already been written, you will have the chance to rewrite it. We encourage you to be creative and engage with other committees. NYUMUNC always promises to be a very unique experience, and this year will be no different as our entire team has worked tirelessly to promise you an enlightened and exciting conference. To help you familiarize yourselves with our committee, we invite you to glance through the enclosed background guide. If you have any questions about the conference, please contact us. We look forward to meeting you in April.

Hira Rahman Siddharth Srikanth Chair Crisis Director NYUMUNCVIII NYUMUNCVIII [email protected] [email protected]

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History The Beginning of the Seljuk The Seljuk (Seljuq or Seljuq ) were a In the subsequent decades, Tughrul Begh dynastic Sunni Muslim empire from the 11th (Seljuk’s Grandson) and his brother Chaghri century. Their empire stretched from struggled to maintain power in the Jend to and included areas such region due to the tribal threats by the as , , , and most Qarakhanids and Gaznawids. With the of modern day . The Sunni Seljuk were looming threat to their newly established the antithesis to the Shi’a Fatimids of state, they migrated to Khorasan, an area in and towards the end of their empire, dealt the Northern part of Persia that was with the Crusaders from the West. considered their ancestral homeland. Originally, the Seljuk came from the Oghuz United with the , the Seljuk Confederation States, which were located brothers defeated the Gaznawids after a between the coasts of the Caspian and Aral series of battles. These battles consolidated seas. The Confederation included many the beginning of the . They different tribes in the area and elected a went on to conquer most of Persia and later leader called the Yabgu. Although the Yabgu signed a treaty with the Gaznawids, was the supreme leader, his power was establishing the Hidikush Mountains as the limited by the council of military tribal borders between the two . By 1055, aristocrats. Tughrul Begh conquered without During the early , an violence, as the Iraqi Caliph welcomed Begh commander named Seljuk incited an as a liberator from the Shi’as. The Caliph in uprising and separated from the gave Tughrul the and Confederation. He was a reputable tasked him with combatting the Fatimids of commander who served in the Khazar army Egypt from spreading Shi’a through and had a very strong tribe. The Seljuk tribe the . In 1063, Tughrul Begh died captured Jand, also Jend, a town on the in Ray, and was succeeded by is right bank of lower Jaxartes River in grandnephew (Chaghri Begh’s Son), Alp , and named it the Seljuk Arslan. capital. It was here where they converted to Islam, and created the foundation of what The Great Seljuks would become the Seljuk Sultanate. oversaw the Seljuk Empire at its zenith. Under his rule, the empire expanded its territory by acquiring and

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Georgia in 1064. Four years later, Alp it bordered in the east and the Arslan annexed Anatolia and defeated the Byzantine in the West. Malik- I also in the Battle of . moved the capital from Ray to . The This victory marked the decline of the Abbasid Caliph entitled Malik-Shah I as “the Byzantine Empire. Although Arslan did not Sultan of East and West”. Malik-Shah I enter Anatolia himself, he sent his generals reigned until his death in 1092. It is unclear to seize the lands. This strategy allowed how he died as some said the Caliph them to create small principalities (aka poisoned him, while others stated that the “beghliks”) in return for loyalty to him. The supporters of Nizam al-Mulk were generals, speficially the Turks, took behind it. Minor in two years, extending the Seljuk Arslan and Malik-Shah I are considered the Empire all the way to the two great of the Seljuk. The Empire (between and ). During this flourished and went through its period, many “beghliks” were founded, most under the father and son. Not only were notably the Seljuk (Rome, they remembered for the expansion of the Anatolia). Rum was the last Seljuk Seljuk Empire, they were also proponents of stronghold both crusades until the Mongol the revival of Sunnite Islamic practices in invasion of Anatolia. After Arslan’s invasion the empire. With their , they created of Anatolia, there was some infighting in the of slaves (mamelukes) to replace the Seljuk Empire, which led Arslan to to traditional warriors. Furthermore, the eastern border to quell the brewing civil they established an elaborate bureaucratic war. However, Yusuf Khraezmi, the hierarchy that provided the government commander of Fort Barzam, assassinated framework for the Middle East for many of him in 1072. His son, Malik-Shah I, hundreds of years. They constructed the succeeded him. Islamic educational system, creating Malik-Shah I spent the first few years of his madrasahs (universities) to train reign defeating his uncle Qawurd, who government and religious officials. wanted to be Sultan, to consolidate his The Divide, the Decline power. He also quelled rebellious uprisings The death of Malik-Shah I in 1092 marked from the Qarakhanids and Gaznawids. the decline of the Great Seljuk. The Malik-Shah I had two Persian viziers (high beghliks, principalities, became more ranking political advisors or ministers), independent while the Seljuk fought Nizam al-Mulk and Taj ul-Milk, who helped each other to become Sultan. The Empire him expand the empire to such a degree that became divided. Malik-Shah I was

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succeeded by his five year old son in Persia, transportation ensured the connection , who was quickly overthrown by between different parts of the empire, which his brother Berkyaruq. Under Berkyaruq, not only ensures economic connection, but the troubles for the empire began to also reinforces the political connection accumulate. The Crusades began, Palestine through which the ruler rule the empire. went to the Fatimids, and the Assassins of The development of over-land Hassan Sabbah (who became a problem transportation, made by the construction of while Malik-Shah I was still Sultan) new roads and better wheels, intensely sabotaged many of the Empire’s leaders. In benefited the diversity of goods on market, Anatolia, Arslan, who founded the providing much more choices and therefore Sultanate of Rum, took over and his brother making the Seljuk market as a whole vibrant Tutush I took Syria. When Tutush died, his and diverse. Transportation overseas does sons further split and , have an importance in domestic economy; dividing the Empire even further. but instead of speeding up the rate of By the in 1095, the Seljuks exchange and making diversity as overland already lost Palestine to the Fatimids. transportation did, it introduced more During this period, Ahmed Sanjar, who economic needs to the economy. The succeeded from Mahmud II, tried to development of overseas transportation- suppress multiple revolts in the empire. He ships-provided another way for immigrants had to deal with the Qarakhanids in to the empire, thus increasing the need for Transoxian, Ghorids in , every part of domestic production from Qarluks in modern Kyrghystan, and Kara- cloth making to food and from tax collecting Khitais in the East. During this chaos, the to soap production. empire also suffered intermittent conflict Along with their entrances to the empire, with the crusaders. The increasingly the trade overseas became stronger and independent principalities would ally with stronger. The demand for ships increased the crusaders in hopes of gaining other the need for labor to build ships, the principalities. Most notably, resources to build decks, and the began consolidating lots of management of trade, which all increased (governors) of Syria. the production of the empire. International imports and outputs increased significantly

Economy during the previous 5 decades, raising the Transportation played a vital part in Seljuk’s importance of Seljuk as an international economics. In domestic context, overseas transportation centre. More

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immigrants brought new and different in Seljuk among themselves and with and techniques with themselves to the other major centers of trade in the the Seljuk, which made it diverse in not only Middle East at that time, which included market products, but also technology and in Iran, Baghdad in Iraq, and Aleppo culture. New agricultural techniques were in Syria.The trade currency was the introduced, different ways of entertainment dirrhem, generally struck with the reigning were injected to the ordinary lives of Seljuk Sultan's name, and sometimes with peasants, making the society rich in culture. elaborate symbols, such as a horseman, star, Mail, and documents of official and sun, lion, or . Most of the coinage governmental nature were also transported was minted in , in copper, silver and along these routes made possible by gold. Some of the royal claimants to the improvement in transportation. throne contrived to mint bearing their The military expansion and movements also own names. At the time of Alaeddin had a great influence in Seljuk’s economy. Keykubad, the currency issued by the Caliph From 1071 onwards, the Seljuks benefitted of Baghdad, the Fatimids, the Beys of from several factors to aid the development Aleppo and the Italian florin were all in Anatolia’s commerce and trade. The accepted as legal tender throughout the Seljuks intensely enhanced their potential in sultanate. Also employed as a banking agricultural development, which supported exchange was the informal transfer system its transition from a nomadic to a more known as the hawala, the word for sedentary culture, by taking over the fertile trust. Money was deposited in one place, its sector in Anatolia and applying new sum and availability communicated to the agricultural techniques found in Anatolia. desired party, who then picked it up at a Moreover, the Seljuks managed to control a more convenient place or at the end of his corridor of centuries-old trade routes was journey. Large sums of money were already in full operation and begged for transferred by trust, a handshake and a code further development. Controlling, word. This system was used by the Chinese, safeguarding and encouraging this trade who called it fei qian, or "flying money". It potential was of utmost importance for the was extensively used by Islamic traders as a emerging Seljuk state. means to avoid robbery along the deserted Trade routes crossed Anatolia in all and isolated trade routes. directions, from south to north, from east to Patterns of trade varied. Merchants bought west, and in a broad diagonal running from and sold along the way, bumble-bee style, or southwest to northeast. These routes linked drove specific convoys of goods to a specific

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client, urban market or port of call. Trade led by the eponymous leader Seljuk was carried out inside hans as well, where (originally Selchuk). merchants could meet with local clients and After multiple power struggles, the negotiate prices and orders. The pack grandson of Seljuk, Tughrul Begh, lost the animals used for trade were camels, as they newly-formed Seljuk State to the Gazawids. were perfectly adapted to local geographic Eventually, the Seljuk Turks regained their conditions, and were the most efficient of all power once again. The first Seljuk rulers animals for speed, endurance and load were Toghrul Beg, Chakir Beg, and Ibrahim capacity. Those used were a breed Niyal-- the sons of Mukail, Seljuk, and combining the dromedary (one hump) Tukak, respectively. The foundation of the camel with the sturdier eastern Bactrian Seljuk Empire as it came to be known in race (two-humps). They could carry some modern history was the immediate result of 250 pounds on their backs and could cover a victory of Alp Arslan, the son of Chakir some 20 miles a day. A camel train (called a Beg, over the . Arslan established "katar") was comprised of little groups of 7 himself as one of the first rulers of the camels led by a donkey, and could transport Seljuk Empire after making himself master a ton of goods between Konya and and a . His successor, Malik in approximately 10 days. Time is money, Shah, was also successful in his battles, but but so is load capacity. The more a camel was known for his relations with Omar could carry, the more money the merchant Khayyam, a free thinking poet and also with could make. If extraneous baggage was Hasan Sabbah, a mathematician. eliminated, such as tents, gear and food, the was succeeded by his elder son, load capacity could be further increased. Barkiyarok, whose short reign was mostly And the Seljuk Sultanate made great just a series of rebellions. His brother progress in the domestication and breeding Mohammed rebelled against him, and his of such animals. greatest enemies were the Ismalites, but under the Seljuk system, leaders gained

Structure their formidable power from the bands of The original imperial family of the Seljuk fidavis, who were always ready to sacrifice Empire was part of the Kinik Oghuz Tribe. their own lives no matter who they were This tribe, that settled north of the commanded to slay. When Mohammad in the 9th century, migrated to Jend and died, , his brother, became the head of became a Muslim Tribe. This transition was the family, creating yet another part of the . His rule was characterized

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different expeditions, ending with him this the central government broke up into bestowing the throne upon Behram Shah, several different , but still in these who was then on obliged to mention Sinjar’s smaller dynasties the same rules and name firs in the official prayer-- neither transitions of power were observed. Malik Shah or Alp Arslan ever achieved this However, when Turkish were not part honor. When Behram Shah failed in this of the original family, they were given the obligation, Sinjar invaded. However, he was title “atabek”, which translates to “father eventually captured. boy”. This title was first given to Nizanm al- The Seljuk Empire had a governance system Malik, and expressed the relation to which that was based off the tribal organization of he stood with the , as his tutor. His Mongol and Turkic . Under this real name was Abu Hasan ibn Ali Tusi. ‘family federation’ or ‘ state’ After the of Alp Arslan, he system, the leader of the paramount family held power for nearly 20 years. He wrote would assign different domains, as , the Book of Government, autonomous , to different which told a great deal about both his members of his family. The Seljuks method of governance ant government rule considered themselves defenders of the of the Seljuk Empire in general. The book Orthodox Muslim faith, and of the Abbasid was written at the request of Malik Shah, . They received all of their and details religion, dangers at the time, and sanction from the successor of the and the ascendant threat of the Ismalis. prophet. In this respect, all members of the The Seljuk rulers called for piety of all of Seljuk House had the same obligations-- but their rulers and believed that rulers were they did not have the same rights. They held responsible to God, as defined by functioned similarly to the and the custom and Muslim . People such as Great in later times, and their Mahmud of Hanza and Shah Kushraw positions were almost analogous to the Anushrivan were seen as examples of good inheritance system of the Khans. The and virtue and were seen as popular heroes position was generally passed down from at the time. father to son, meaning that issues between The Seljuks were known to be tolerant of the oldest son and the family son often race, religion, and gender. The tolerance resulted in violent disputes and issues. seen all of the way in government is what However, after the death of Malik Shah, the allowed for the development of the Golden head of the family, the Seljuk Empire was Age. , hospitals, universities, and not strong enough to enforce obedience and libraries were all built on the orders of

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empresses and princesses. Jalaleddin of the the Seljuks took over, was one of these people who flourished restored, and elaborated the traditional during the Seljuk empire, preaching the Perso-Islamic administrative apparatus Mislim religion and earning him a huge developed in late Abbasid times, relying following and even a fanbase amongst the largely on Persian ministers who Seljuk government. emphasized their own culture, reviving the Governance and largely eliminating When it comes to the specifics of Arabic in government and culture alike, government in the Sultanate, historians using in most of the administrative note “With northern Iran entirely under positions of the empire, even those in areas Seljuk control and Iraq professing inhabited mainly by .” submission, the Seljuks were confronted The administrative methods of the Empire with the problem of consolidating their rule largely harkened back to a “civil service and restoring order and prosperity in the system borrowed from the ” as Middle East while providing their nomadic “when the Seljuks entered the region, many vassals with the booty and grazing lands bureaucrats and commanders in the service they demanded. Were the Seljuks still of the Ghaznavids came under Seljuk rule.” leaders of nomadic Turkomans, or were One of the remnants kept by the Seljuks they now rulers and protectors of the from their nomadic ways to the reign of civilization they had conquered? It was the Malikshah was “the old nomadic idea that latter role that came to dominate, leading to rule had to be shared among all members of conflicts between the Seljuk rulers and their the ruling dynasty. The sultan gave large nomadic commanders and followers, who provinces to members of his family, and were dissatisfied with the restrictions they began to create their own armies and imposed on them to save the settled treasuries. Maliksah also compensated his populations of the area. The Seljuk leader, officers with similar feudal estates as sultan, assumed most of the caliph's where they built autonomous power.” authority to legislate and rule in matters In terms of finance, they “were based on a concerning administrative, military, and land grant system called iqta. Most land secular questions not directly regulated in belonged to the state, and the tax revenue the Muslim law. The caliph remained more from the land was used to pay salaries to as a spiritual leader with the power to government staff and military personnel as regulate matters of personal behavior and well as to the vassal rulers. The system was individual relationships. As temporal rulers administered by iqta holders, who in times

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of peace were responsible for administering of revenue to protect commercial the lands delivered to their custody and in caravans and travelers.” We also see that the times of war for recruiting soldiers in their addition of “illegitimate dues”; “the region.” We can thus see a parallel here introduction of illegitimate dues was rarely between the old feudal system of early reported, and, if mentioned at all, then England and the iqta system of the Seljuks. sometimes along with mention of resulting Because a large part of the Seljuk’s urban protest and unrest.” Hence, in the dominance lay in its military, “the time period we’ll be working with, there hinterlands of the conquered cities were exists the problem of “Unlawful taxation divided into iqta-districts and distributed and currency, which were the causes for the among army commanders, amirs, and their complaints of the religious and legal detachments. … The iqta was an immediate scholars.” In addition, the Seljuk claim on the land tax revenues as a government were very free with their public remuneration for military service.” Because works: “The Seljuks set up innumerable of this direct funding, there lead to an , mosques, zaviyes (convents or increase in military campaigns: eastern lodges), hospitals (dar al-shifa), Anatolia in 1065, defeat of invading caravansaries, and bridges.” But, the Byzantine forces in 1068, the continual Empire was not without its enemies; conquering of Eastern Anatolia through throughout the reign of Malikshah, “The 1069. Seljuks were also undermined by the In regards to taxation, we see that by the activities of a new Shia movement that arose end of the , “the government was within their own boundaries, that of the denied nearly any chance to tax the urban Ismaili Assasins founded by Hasan al- population legally. Under Islamic law, urban Sabbah from his fortified center at , dues, such äs zakat or sadaqa, appealed south of the . He began a more to the solidarity of the Muslim successful campaign of assassination and Community than to the necessities of terror against political and religious leaders running a state or an empire. The state was of the Seljuk state.” only allowed to collect: and 'ushr on agriculture, the poll-tax, , on non- Military ; and the zakat upon the nomads The Beginning of the Dynasty and long-distance trade. The latter was The Seljuk Turks, converted Sunni Muslims, conceded to the state because the were pastoral, nomadic, and shared a government was regarded as being in need background of strong warrior tradition. The

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Seljuk Turks began by raiding the territory military and very heavily relied upon for of the Ghaznavid Turks. The Ghaznavids their endurance and mobility. The Seljuk resisted the Seljuk’s raiding, which led to administration could not convince the gazi the Battle of the Dandanaqan in 1040. The tribesmen to live in a bureaucratic Persian Seljuk Turks won and the Ghaznavids lost state. The gazis were not content with all of their power in Iran and . collecting taxes and patrolling trade routes, After this battle, the Seljuks occupied rather they raided nonbelievers and stole Khorasan and the other cities in the area, treasure from them. Some gazis began to be with little resistance. In 1005, a Seljuk hired as for the private wars Khan, Tugrul occupied Baghdad, the that Byzantine nobles partook in; eventually former ’s power base. they would settle on the land they Tugrul was the head of an army composed conquered. Thus, the Seljuks followed the of many gazis and . Gazis are gazis into Anatolia, in order to maintain warriors of the Islamic faith, often control over them. This and other factors, horsemen. Mamluks are slave-soldiers, who such as the desire to expand for power, led are usually Circassian or Kurdish. With this the Seljuk Turks to resume conquest of the army, Tugrul forced the caliph to recognize Muslims in the Byzantine–Arab Wars him as Sultan in Persia and Mesopotamia. initiated by the and Umayyad His regime eliminated Arabs from caliphate. They successfully conquered the government and relied on Persian ministers Byzantine Empire by replicating tactics to administer what became known as the practiced by the , but combining it Great Seljuk Sultante. It is important to note with newfound Islamic zeal. the distinction between caliph and Sultan. In 1067, the Seljuk Turks invaded Anatolia Although, the caliph in Baghdad maintained (Asia Minor) by first attacking Caesarea and a spiritual supremacy, the Sultan exercised then attacking Iconium in 1069. the real power in the empire. Additionally, in 1069, the Byzantines Western Expansion of the Seljuk counterattacked and drove the Seljuk Turks back across the . However, in 1071 Turks the Seljuk Turks returned to defeat the The Seljuks emerged as champions of Sunni Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Islam against the Shia, but before Tugrul’s Manzikert. Alp Arslan, the leader of the successor could prepare to wage a campaign Seljuk Turks, withdrew from Manzikert, against the Shia in Egypt, which served as a tactical withdrawal that he had to divert his attention to Anatolia. allowed his army to ambush the Byzantines The gazis were a crucial part of the Seljuk

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and win the battle. The Strategies and Weapons played an important role in weakening Many attributed the Seljuk’s success to their Byzantine authority in Anatolia and mounted archers. These archers were Armenia, as well as allowing for the known to be highly effective with their long- of Anatolia. The battle ranged weapons because they practiced a resulted in many civil conflicts and an strategy of “attack and retreat,” which was economic crisis for the Byzantine Empire, based on horseback archery skills. This was which allowed for the mass movement of possible because the shorter bows made it Seljuk Turks and other Turkic allies into easier to handle on horsebacks and gave the central Anatolia. It took another 20 years fighters a better flexibility. for the Seljuk Turks to gain full control of For example, during the First Crusade there the Anatolia peninsula, but the Byzantine– was a Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097, where Seljuk Wars signaled a shift in the balance the Seljuk sultan was able to surround an of power in Anatolia and Syria from the army of crusaders and shoot them from a Byzantine Empire to the Seljuk Turks. distance. However, there are also certain Through the Seljuk’s expansion, they were disadvantages to mounted archers. During seen as the restorers of Muslim unity under this same battle, the opposing army was the Sunni caliphate. able to encircle the Seljuks where they could The Crusades no longer escape and where the Seljuks were At the time of the First Crusade, Seljuk destroyed in close combat. expansion came to a halt. The Seljuks had a nomadic nature, in which they were no Culture prepared for the challenges of governing a The year is 1145, and the large empire. The Seljuks were more is in full-swing. The Islamic Golden Age can concerned with uniting their fractured be considered the Middle East’s analogue to states and controlling their neighbors, than the Italian . In addition to a working together against the crusaders. flourishing of and artistic techniques, the After the death of Malik Shah, one of the Golden Age led to a flurry of scientific last powerful sultans, local rulers known as advancement in mathematics, physics, emirs began to take over and by 1130 there chemistry, etc. In addition, the Golden Age were three major sultanates that made up led to the construction of many Islamic the Seljuk Empire. There were also many schools called “madrasas.” The Seljuqs in smaller, independent, and unstable powers particular were renowned for the creation of that made up the Seljuk world. many madrasas, “[most] notable, however,

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was the Nizamiya, founded in Sultanate faced considerable hardship, Baghdad by the great Seljuq vizier Nizam al- including the “burning of libraries of Mulk (r. 1063–92) to support Orthodox scientific works” by Sultan Beg. The Sunni education (1067).” In addition, the anti-Shi’i sentiment in the Empire was so Seljuqs modeled their customs and culture pervasive, it led to many prominent Shi’i off of the Ghaznavids, a Persian dynasty that scholars & figures fleeing the lands to safer existed around the same time as the Seljuqs lands. In the case of , “within a but were in their decline. By modeling couple of years of the Seljuq’s arrival, al- several aspects of their civilization around ūsī had left the capital and moved to the the Persians, “The most important and Ṭcity of al- . [From] that point onwards, immediate effect of … was the very Najaf together with its neighbouring town, widespread diffusion of Persian as a literary al- Hilla, became the major Shiʿi intellectual language alongside Arabic. The [Seljuks], centre.” who had no comparable cultural and literary The Seljuqs prided themselves on heritage of their own in Turkish to counter presenting themselves as the devout Persian, accepted and cultivated the protectors of , with D.G. Tor prestigious literary tradition provided by noting the Sultanate continually Persian language and culture. By so doing, “[propogated] the view of themselves as they played a significant role in the diffusion Sunni heroes: generous supporters of Sunni of the Persian literary language and of the religious scholarship, staunch champions of culture expressed by it, and this in turn led the Abbasid caliphs, and indefatigable to a reappraisal and partial rejection of the defenders of Islam against , heretics dominance of Arabic as the lingua franca of and . Their success in projecting this educated society in the Middle East. On the image is reflected in the medieval basis of this prestige, the Persian of authors historiography; the Tārīkh- i guzīda, for from the Saljuq period played a instance, after enumerating the flaws of fundamental role in the standardization of every Muslim dynasty from the Umayyads the .” through the , asseverates: The Seljuqs were devotees of the Sunni sect ‘But the Seljuqs were free of these defects: of Islam and were “characterised as they were Sunni, and of pure religion and fanatical promoters of Sunnism in almost all good beliefs . . .’” However, as time passed, the primary sources and secondary more and more historians began to doubt literature.” As a resilt of this fanaticism of the presentation of the Seljuks as pious the Sunni sect, the Shi’i community in the defenders, and settled on the theory that

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their image came as the result of a dedicated western Iran since the caliphs had lost propaganda effort to portray them as such political control of these areas in the 10th and as the creators of the . century, and the greatest Sunni rulers of While there are historical sources their time.” portraying the first two Sultans as devout The Seljuqs maintained a patron system followers, they also portray them as zealots much like the . Said unwilling to tolerate anyone of non-Sunni patrons were sultans, the few people faith, yet as the line of sultans progresses, wealthy enough to fund the projects of historical records portray them as less and artisans. “As far as the Great Saljuqs of Iran less religious. But, “the Seljuq sultans are concerned, the first great patrons maintained ongoing close contact, in a were Alp Arslān (r. 1063-72), Malekšāh and variety of ways, with Sunni clerics and holy Sanjar. Poets, men of letters, and scientists men: as pilgrims and beseechers of their of great eminence were well received at their blessings; by placing themselves under their courts.” spiritual protection and guidance; and by In terms of the way the employing them or keeping them in the functioned, the first Sultans maintained court. Above all, the sultans treated their nomadic heritage and as a result “the venerable religious figures with a respect Seljuq ‘court’ … could be found wherever the and humility they rarely showed anyone else sultan happened to be. Like other medieval outside the family – certainly the sultans courts, that of the Seljuqs followed a were willing to submit to behaviour and predictable routine wherever it went.” This speech from Sunni religious figures that implies that the Seljuq monarchy initially they would tolerate from no one else.” focused more on conquest and controlling The influence of religion on public policy said conquered land. However, as soon as also appeared to be minimal; rather religion Sultan Malikshah gains the throne, “there played a role only when radical changes in seems to have been a greater tendency for policy were observed, such as wars being the Seljuq sultan, and therefore the court stopped from dream prophecies or taxes attending him too, to stay in one place for at being scrapped due to freak incidents in least certain periods of the year.” This nature. So in short, “the Seljuq sultans – or implies that as the kingdom grew, so did the at least most of them until the death of desire to maintain centralized government Sanjar in the mid- – were as well as the introduction of a royal court indeed genuinely pious Sunnis; the first system evocative of the Persians. This pious Sunnis, in fact, to control Iraq and included a rank system where “the nobles

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had their own prescribed positions, further expand and solidify their presence in according to rank and office held, and the region. Chaghri controlled the greater protocol dictated where they should stand Khorasan area, and Toghrïl in 1063, by the on official occasions.” time of his death, controlled majority of western Iran and Mesopotamia.

Foreign Policy Under the leadership of Toghrïl, the Seljuks The Seljuk Sultanate comprised of an took over Baghdad and by by the year 1055 expansive area covering the were seen as “restorers of Muslim unity Mountains to present day Eastern Anatolia. under the Sunnite Caliphate”. The Essentially all of Central Asia to the Persian expansion of not only the Seljuk Sultanate, Gulf was under the control of the Seljuks. In but also of Islam and the Persian-Turkic order to thoroughly expand their empire, heritage is greatly credited to two sultans of the Seljuks allied with the the empire, Alp-Arslan and Malik Shah. By (rulers of present day Afghanistan, parts of 1070, Alp-Arslan defeated the Byzantine Iran, , , , Empire and captured the Byzantine , and ) against the , Romanus IV Diogenes. The Qarakhanid Dynasty, which was Seljuks had now taken over Asia Minor. predominant in Central Asia. Alp-Arslan and Malik Shah continued their Ultimately the Samanids fell to the expansion of the empire throughout central Qarakhanids and the alliance proved to be Asia as well as the frontier of Egypt. In 1071, useless. Soon after collapse, a new dynasty Alp-Arslan has established his power in the emerged known as the Ghaznavids. The eyes of Byzantine generals and many Seljuks and Ghaznavids were involved in tribesmen were no employed by the long power struggle over the region until the Byzantines against rivals trying to gain Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids in 1050 and created their own independent base. The two grandsons of the namesake king, Chaghri & Toghrïl seeked Persian support to

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control of . Through this Knights, peasants, and serfs form many alliance, the Seljuks gradually gained different parts of Western to control over Anatolia. Constantinople and then towards Unfortunately, due to the Crusades, in 1097, to fight for the Christian cause. The first the Seljuks were forced out of Anatolia. At group of crusaders was filled with unskilled this point, the Seljuks were surrounded by French and German peasants who had little the from the west and the success. A group known as the “People’s Crusaders of Syria in the east. The Seljuk Crusade,” reached as far as Constantinople Turks decided to transform their limited before they were defeated by the Seljuks. control/presence in Anatolia to the In 1096, the main crusading force, which Sultanate of Rūm. This new sultanate was included 4,000 mounted knights and comprised of , , 25,000 infantry, began to move east. Greeks, and Iranian Muslims. Crusading knights were usually wealth men Commerce, agriculture, and art thrived in who owned a lot of land in Europe and were the new kingdom where racial and religious willing to give it all up for the holy mission. tolerance provided for stability and growth In other words, these knights did not of the empire. become Crusaders because they expected material wealth, rather they became

The Crusade Crusaders because they were aware of their With the start of the 11th century, Christians sins and wanted to do an act of charity and in Jerusalem continued to be persecuted by love. In 1097, Raymond of Toulouse, Islamic rulers. This became especially true , Robert of Flanders, and when control of Jerusalem went from the Bohemond of Otranto led the army of , who were very tolerant, to the Christian knights into Anatolia. Seljuk Turks in 1071. During the latter half From the beginning there were always of the 11th century, the Byzantine Emperor, tensions between these different leaders, Alexius Comenus, felt so threatened that he but the papal legate, Adhemar de turned to the West for aid. In 1095, Puy, kept these tensions under control until Urban II called for a crusade for two specific his death. The different groups agreed to reasons: to assist the Eastern Christians and convene at Constantinople, where they each recover the holy lands of Jerusalem. traveled to separately using different routes. Western Europeans responded to the Pope’s To further exemplify, each group might have call for action immediately. had slightly different beliefs from those with a different leader. Crusaders led by Count

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Emicho of Leiningen went through Rhine, the emperor of the Byzantine emperor was where they robbed and murdered all the able to negotiate surrender. This is another Jewish they could find. The local instance of how the relationship between tried to stop the Crusaders from doing this, the Crusaders and the Byzantine Empire although they weren’t very successful. In the worsened. eyes of these Crusaders, the Jewish, just like In the battle of Dorylaeum in July 1097, the Muslims, were enemies of Christ and by Bohemund’s men were almost destroyed by killing them was a righteous deed because the Turkish forces, but the arrival of the Jewish’s money could be used to fund Godfrey’s and Reymond’s men saved them. the Crusade. However, this is not the way After this battle, there was more division the Church saw it and the Church was sure and tension present amongst the leaders. to strongly condemn these anti-Jewish The main crusader army reached attacks. and sieged the from October 21, 1097 to When the groups met at Constantinople, the June 3, 1098. The Christian army was not large army overwhelmed the Byzantine doing very well due to starvation, but they emperor, as he was only expecting a few were saved by the English and Pisan fleets thousand mercenaries. From the winter of and they were able to capture the city with 1096 to 1097, the Byzantine emperor and the help of a Turkish traitor. In the battle of the Crusaders argued because Alexius the Orontes, the Crusaders (15,000) were wanted to re-conquer Anatolia, but the heavily outnumbered by the Muslim army Crusaders did not. Eventually, they agreed (75,000), but they still won. In this battle, that the emperor would aid the Crusader’s the Christians massacred thousands of march to the and the Crusaders citizens and enemy soldiers; were able to promised that any land they conquered take everything except for the city’s fortified would be given to the Byzantine Empire. citadel. Later in June, a large Turkish army Although this allowed for short-time tried to regain the city, but they were cooperation, the Crusaders never ended up defeated; thus the Antioch citadel was giving the land to the Byzantine Empire. surrendered to the Europeans. It was after In spring of 1097, the Crusaders came to the this battle, that Bishop Adhemar passed re-conquest of Anatolia, where they began away and tensions between the Crusade with , which was very close to leaders grew worse. When the Crusaders Constantinople. The of Nicaea lasted went to march against Jerusalem, for 14 days, but right when the Crusaders Bohemund and the remained in were going to break into the city and attack,

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Antioch, where they were able to establish established territories, while also their own principality. establishing churches that would be loyal to After a six-month reorganizing period, the Rome. Specifically, the Latin kingdom of crusaders began to work towards their Jerusalem possessed 15 cathedrals and ultimate goal: Jerusalem. The Christian repurposed many great Islamic structures. army had 1,200 and 12,000 foot For example, the Christians held the soldiers left. On June 7, 1099 the Christian of the Rock to be the Temple of Solomon army arrived at Jerusalem to find a heavily and the Aqsa was converted to a guarded city and an army that outnumbered and stables. theirs. In response, the army built three enormous siege towers. On July 13, the & Culture towers were finished and the Christians Under the Seljuk Sultanate, Iran enjoyed a began fighting their way across Jerusalem’s period of material and cultural prosperity. walls. On , Godfrey’s men were the and the arts flourished and set first to infiltrate the defenses and were the stage for future artistic developments. successful in opening the Gate of Saint Even when the Seljuk Sultanate divided due Stephen. Thus, the rest of the knights and to internal conflicts, the impact of cultural soldiers rushed in to kill the occupants of and artistic development extended well Jerusalem and capture the city. beyond the sultanate’s political influence. In Godrey of Bouillon was elected as Guardian fact, many art pieces are labeled as part of of Jerusalem, but before he could fulfill this the “Seljuk” empire even though they were rule the Fatamid relieving army from Egypt created much afterwards and are only arrived. Although this army outnumbered attributed to the time due to the fact that the Crusaders at a 5 to 1 ratio, Godrey still they were created in the name of the Seljuks won the on , of Iran. 1099. The Crusaders established four Art of the Seljuk Empire is a combination of different principalities—Jerusalem, , the universal decorative lexicon of the , and Antioch—which still had in the Islamic world. Small tensions with one another. objects, created by many different empires After taking over Jerusalem, the Crusaders of the time, were often traded and carried continued to take over cities in the over great distances. This trade not only Mediterranean coast so that they could helped the Seljuk’s develop their own build fortified castles around the Holy Land. distinctive style, but it also contributed to This served as a way to protect their newly the efflorescence of their style and notoriety.

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Seljuk art is praised for together One of the most famous books of the era Persian, Islamic, and central Asian-Turkic comes from the writings of Ibn al-Razzaz al- elements. Jazari, a famous Muslim creative genius Eventually, the Seljuk’s began to use their who has been attributed to such inventions art as gifts to Sultans viziers to the as water wheels and automata, which later courts of adversaries, in particular, the came to be known as robots. This illustrated Mongols. In fact, one of the greatest artistic , The Book of Knowledge of competitors of the Seljuks was the Mongols, Ingenious Mechanical Devices, is one of the and the two were known to work to surpass few remaining books that demonstrate the each other in artistic feats. Both empires many advances in medicine, technology, worked to design larger and greater and science under the influence of the to late leaders to signify each Seljuk Sultanate. other's power and authority. Artists, such as Abdullah Ibn al Fadhl and The Sultanate was known for its metalwork Yahya ul Wasit, defined the time period with in the beginning. They used copper, silver, their paintings. Both, especially Yahya ibn and gold and decorated their pieces with Mahmud al-Wasiti, were known for their Arabic inscriptions. These same illustrations seen in books. inscriptions, that developed into what came Seljuk art can be characterized by its to be known as “animated” script, eventually inspiration. It was inspired by Islamic transferred to contemporary . , which regarded appearance as a Although there is little remaining examples reflection of the divine will. This can be seen of this, the Seljuks were praised for the arts reflected in architectural stone decorations, of book writing and decorating. They were which worked to change the conception of also great patrons of architecture, building universal order with a trend in thought and structures throughout their realm. Seljuk spirituality based off of Islamic Sufism. vizier Nizam al-Mulk commissioned one of Most Seljuk art contains depictions of the most impressive architectural feats, a animals, both real and mythological. building called the Madrasa Nizamiya, Harpies (body of birds and face of humans) created to support Orthodox Sunni as well as sphinxes and two-headed eagles, education. During Seljuk rule, an incredible were shown frequently and seen as symbols number of mosques, theological seminaries, of the Seljuk Sultanate and later their hospitals, and were built successor states. during this era. The most enduring legacy of the Seljuk Empire—their architecture, is a reflection of

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not only daily lives of citizens at that period, Greek and Roman sphere, Armenians and but also the technology and thriving culture. Byzantines. Although inspired by many Of exceptionally high order and quality, this design and construction elements, Seljuk is a powerful and direct architecture: architecture developed its own distinct rectilinear, dignified, imposing and identity. imperious. It projects an image of noble The distinguishing characteristic of Seljuk determination at the same time as one of architecture is the “monumental portal”, built subtle majestic beauty. The sculptural of stone, ornately decorated in a wide carved stone decoration, an integral part of variety of techniques. These portals extend the building scheme, provides a balanced outward from the facade. The entrance gate complement to the forceful strength of the is surmounted by a triangular arch filled architecture. The fact that such a with elaborate stalactite carving (known as sophisticated building program was muquarnas). achieved in such a short period of time Another feature is the decoration in stone makes the accomplishment all the more and faience. The Seljuk design program impressive. combines intricate stone carving and The Seljuks built mosques, the educational colorful glazed ceramic decoration in a and charitable institutions known as palette of turquoise blue, cobalt blue, black medreses, hans, mausoleums, bridges, and white. Design elements include , public baths, and fortifications. Art , polychrome bands of stone, historians have defined a broad chronology vegetal and geometric patterns, and human of based on an analysis and animal figures. Decoration on Seljuk of the carved decoration of the monuments. monuments was used in moderation, and And according to them, a short beginning was concentrated around the main door or period up to 1215 is characterized by a the sides of the entrance, or, in the case of limited, sober and restrained use of mosques, on the or . The decoration (Alaeddin Mosque, Onu and exuberance and color of the stone sculpture Altinapa hans). The design repertory and work lightened the severe consisted of triangles, zigzags, the Greek appearance of the plain stone walls. key, and dogtooth motifs. An important element used in Seljuk The architecture of the Seljuks inherited building construction is the iwan, a large many aspects from the numerous empires vaulted chamber left open at one end. The that preceded it or with which it came in iwan provided shelter and allowed contact contact: Persians, Assyrians, Sassanids, the with the outdoors. Buildings could have 1, 2,

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3, or 4 iwans around a central courtyard. Civil Construction and The dome, employed in Middle Eastern Infrastructure since Assyrian times, is another The urban plan of the Seljuk city comprised distinctive feature of Seljuk architecture. an administrative sector, which included an The dome was supported by squinches or inner castle or palace, a commercial district pendentives in a peculiar triangular shape, which included bazaars, markets, and known as "Turkish triangles". The interior squares, as well as residential face of the dome was decorated with or neighborhoods. The city was dotted with glazed bricks. one large Ulu mosque and numerous As opposed to the brick architecture of the neighborhood mosques. Urban Iranians and Byzantines, the walls of Seljuk constructions comprised covered and open buildings are made of rubble or rough stone markets, houses, gardens, streets with which was then faced with large blocks of conduits for water and sewage, public water beautifully dressed stone, laid with great , pools, and public baths. The accuracy. Building materials were readily more important cites (Konya, Kayseri and available from the rich stone quarries in ) were surrounded by walls with entry western Anatolia and the extensive gates. limestone quarries in the central plateau region. There were numerous clay deposits Baths for the making tiles as well. Abundant mineral springs exist in Turkey, Military Structures and the Seljuks took advantage of them by encouraging a building program for baths, The most outstanding example of Seljuk spas and fountains (Havza, Kirşehir, Ilgin). military architecture is the Kizil Kule (“Red Some of these mineral spas were reserved Tower”) castle on the hill above , for and valuable animals. The plan built in 1226 by Alaeddin Keykubad I. It appeared to be centered on an octagon with extends down to the sea and encloses a four iwans, and there was no central naval dockyard and arsenal guarded by a pool as in the Roman-style baths. There 33m. high octagonal tower of red stone and were separate sections for men and women, brick. Other military constructions include with a disrobing room, tepidarium, and hot the city walls and fortifications of Alanya, room. Konya, and Sivas, as well as the sea walls at Sinop. Bridges An impressive number of Seljuk bridges exist to this day. They were built to

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accompany the building program of the Paganism. Emphasis of , hans, and comprise spans of pointed arches. literature and history was prevalent They were built over both the major rivers throughout society and it was because of of Turkey and also smaller rivers. this that majority of the people not only Religion spoke Persian or Turkish but also Arabic. The Seljuk Sultanate was a medieval Turko- Arabic was an important language because Persian empire whose predominant religion it was the language of and was Sunni Islam. The Seljuks controlled the the Qur’an therefore majority of the entire region from Central Asia to the scholars spoke Arabic. Persian was the . The Seljuks played a huge role official state language of the empire, in both the first and second Crusades and however the average commoner would were major factors in the speak Turkish. Through the expansion of throughout the greater Middle East and Islam as a religion, more and more people parts of Europe. became literate and began writing Islamic poetry and were drawn towards more towards the spiritual aspect of Islam giving birth to the Sufi sect. Even though the empire’s region varied in cultural and ethnic backgrounds, Islam unified them. People of all ages and backgrounds were encouraged to learn to read and write Arabic in order to be able to Majority of the people within the Seljuk read the Qur’an and understand/spread Empire were followers of Sunni Islam Islam. One of the most famous Seljuk- following the School of Persian state administrators, Nizam-ul- . However, given the vast Mulk, was a devout orthodox Muslim and he geographical location of the empire there made it his mission to build and spread were also followers of other sects of Islam, madrasahs (theological seminaries) Zoroastrianism, and other forms of

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throughout the empire. Many other struck back at the Crusaders and defeated bureaucrats advocated for the building of them to gain control of the Syrian city of madrasahs and mosques, some of which are Aleppo, the leader of the army, the son of a still prevalent throughout parts of Iran and Seljuk governor, Zenghi, was celebrated as a Turkey today. defender of Islam. The Seljuk Empire eventually began to expand in to the Christian dominated Seljuk – Byzantine Empire. This caused Pope Urban

II to call upon Christian forces to not only Relations aid and protect the Byzantine Empire but As stated in the core section, the Seljuks also to “recapture” the Holy Land of were a dynastic Sunni Muslim tribe who Jerusalem, which was under Muslim were originally part of the Oghuz control. This marked the beginning of the Confederation states. Therefore, the Seljuk Crusades. originally consisted of Oghuz who were While the Seljuks were caught up with western Turkic people (Turcoman, fighting the Christian Crusaders, the Turkoman), who spoke the Oghuz language. Fatimid Caliphate sent a force to the city of However, by the time the Great Seljuk Tyre, approximately 150 miles from Empire came around, it encompassed many Jerusalem. The Fatimids (predominantly different types of people in vast area, Shia Muslims) took control over Jerusalem stretching from Asia Minor into central in 1098 and offered an alliance to the Asia. So, the Seljuk faced the dilemma of Christian Crusaders against the Seljuks being the leaders of the nomadic (predominantly Sunni Muslims). The Turkomans, or becoming rulers and Fatimids offered control over Syria to the protectors of the civilizations they Christians so long as Jerusalem remained conquered. It was the latter that became theirs. This alliance unfortunately did not pertinent for the Seljuk, which caused work out the Fatimids were defeated. conflicts between the Seljuk rulers and their Due to this attempted alliance, there nomadic commanders and followers, who was a huge divide in Islamic unity within were unhappy with settling down in one the empires between Sunni and Shia area. Muslims. However, with the continuous Traditionally, Turkish tribes of the period attacks from the Christian Crusaders, encompassed tribal characteristics: chief defeating them and protecting Jerusalem orientated organization, a mixture of became the first priority. When the Seljuks farmers and pastoral nomads; herding

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sheep, cattle, camels, and horses. However, regularly paid with salary. The Turkoman this lifestyle starkly contrasts the other were becoming more and more useless in civilizations the Seljuk took over in Iran and the new Seljuk Empire. Iraq. The leaders of the Seljuk became By the 11th century, the Sultan wanted the Sultan and assumed most of the Abbasid’s nomads to move against the Fatimids as a Caliph’s authority to legislate and rule in the way of sending them further away from the realms of administration and military. The integral part of the empire. However, The Sultan also encompassed Perso (Persian)- Turcoman, being the rowdy nomads they Islamic administrative apparatus into their were, saw better chances of moving to the empire, relying on Persian ministers who mountainous area of the north and west emphasized on Persian culture and rather arid of the south. Thus, the language. As a result, the Seljuk shifted nomads moved towards and into Anatolia away from Arabic and Turkik traditions, instead of Syria and Egypt. leaving many Turkoman disenfranchised and uncomfortable in a settled society. This was not the only problem the Turkoman posed to the Seljuks. The Turkoman also undermines the conversion and embracement of Islam. At first, the Sultans had to deal with the opinions of the Turcoman, as the nomads made up the force of the Seljuk Army. The Turkoman demanded booty and fodder for every campaign they went out and they were very hard to control. Wherever the Turcoman went, they left destruction in their path, which was counterproductive to building an empire for the Seljuk. However, the Persian advisors implemented a solution to this; they introduced slave armies (mamelukes) to replace the traditional nomad warriors. This resolved the issue of Turcoman demanding booty and fodder, as the mamlukes were slaves who were

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The move for Anatolia against the Byzantine Empire was actually beneficial for the Seljuks. The Christian defense was extremely weak and the was also weakened by infighting and revolts. Thus, the Turcoman were able to push far into the West. At this point, Alp Arslan was faced the Emperor Roman Diogenus in the came out of the carving up of the area was famous battle of Manzikert but did not push founder of the Ayyubids (master of all Syria further west himself. It was the Turcoman and Egypt at the end of the 12th century) and who raided further west. This was the the Seljuk of Rum. These principalities were beginning of Seljuk principality states in theory supposed to have loyalty towards (beghliks) in the Seljuk Empire. The Sultan the Sultan of Seljuk. However, due to their of Seljuk has now solved the issue with the nomadic nature and the unruly trait of the uncontrollable Turks; they gave the Turks Turkomen, the principalities were in reality their states. very unreliable. Some sided with the The Turkomen were able to carve out most Sultante while others sided with local of the Byzantine Empire, creating Byzantine princes. Some nomads became principalities in their wake. These included: mercenaries and actually fought along the Saltukids in , the Danishmendids Christians during the first crusades. in the North West, the Mengujukids in the By the time the first crusade came around, Upper Euphrates, the in Central there were many different Seljuk Anatolia, the Kharazem of the lower principalities that were semi-independent of Oxus, and the Zangids and Kurish Ayyubids the Seljuk Sultante. There was a recognized in Syria. These principalities were very ruler for most of the major areas; ruler of ephemeral, not lasting more than 2 Syria, ruler of Anatolia, ruler of generations. They were usually absorbed Turkmenistan, etc. This caused major into the Anatolian Seljuks or the Mongols. division in the empire as many contended The two most prominent principalities that for the Sultan of the Seljuk Empire.

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The Western Half of the empire fell to Foreign Relations barbarian invasions and collapsed in 476 AD, France while the Eastern Half survived and underwent Hellenization, and eventually The Seljuk Sultanate has yet to have a became the Byzantine Empire. On the other formal introduction with the Kingdom of hand, the Seljuk Turks migrated into Persia in France. However, the Seljuks have heard the 10th century and led to the fall of the rumors of a kingdom to the north and Ghaznevids. consider it a possible future territory to have Since the 11th century, the Seljuks were over. However, the Sultanate of notorious for attacking and expanding their Rum, an empire established by Malikshah’s empire. They chose a very opportune time to grandfather, Suleyman, and re-established strike the Byzantine Empire because the by his son , have encountered Byzantine were very weak when the Seljuks various members of French in the attacked. In 1067, Seljuk Turks invaded Asia Crusade; the Rum Sultanates are told to Minor and attacked Caesarea and in 1069, have defeated the second and third waves of they attacked Iconium. In 1069, the Crusaders coming, after the failure of the Byzantine Empire launched a counterattack first wave. that led the Seljuks to withdraw these lands. Holy However, as battles and attacks took place While there exists no historical record of the between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks encountering the Holy Roman Seljuk Turks, the Seljuks proved to be more Empire, there exists evidence that Holy successful. In fact, when Seljuks occupied Frederick Barbarossa was Byzantine territory, the Byzantines looked based in the region as “after the Crusaders at the Turks as if they were mercenaries captured Antioch in 1098, they ruled the requested by Byzantine factions. At one coast from northern Syria to the for point the Seljuk’s were at a peak where they nearly two hundred years.” From this, it is had conquered a lot of Byzantine territory possible to gather the Seljuks have and they were continuing to win. This is experienced contact with the Holy Romans. when the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Byzantine Empire Comenenus, sent a message to Pope Urban II asking for weapons, supplies, and troops, The Roman Empire faced a severe military which thus led to the Crusade. and political crisis, which was worsened by an economic and population problem. As the Fatimid Empire Roman Empire conquered less, its whole The Seljuk Empire covered an enormous population, as well as slave population fell. area from the Hindu Kush Mountains all the 25

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way to eastern Anatolia and from Central welcomed the Seljuks because they were the Asia to the Persian Gulf. The Empire’s liberator from the Shi’as. The Caliph gave predominant strength and unity derived Tughrul the title Sultan and tasked him with from their belief and acceptance of Sunni fighting against the spread of Shi’a Islam of Islam. The Fatimids, on the other hand, the Fatimid’s further east. During the were a predominantly Ismaili Shi’a Empire subsequent reign of Alp Arslan and Malik which controlled majority of the North Shah, the Abbasid were essentially African region. submitting to the Seljuk Sultans. Although The Seljuks had already previously defeated the Seljuk sultans preferred residing in the Ghaznavid Empire as well as the Persia, they held power of the Abbasids in Abbasids in Iraq. While there was distinct Baghdad. The Seljuk found the Abbasid enmity between the two empires, when the useful enough to not kill them, keeping the Seljuks were attempting to expand in the Caliphs around. The Caliphs had very little Christian dominated Byzantine Empire, the use other than being the religious figure Fatimids sent a force to Tyre and ultimately head in Baghdad. ended up taking control of Jerusalem. This However, after the death of Malik Shah, the increasingly grew animosity between the grip on the Abbasid Caliphate withered. By Sunni & Shia empires and the Seljuks the reign on Caliph Al Mustarshid (1118- decided it was time to go after the Fatimid 1135), the control the Seljuk had over the controlled territory of present day Palestine. Abbasid weakened. By the time the Caliph al The Fatimids attempted to create an Muqtafi came around, the question of Seljuk alliance with the Christians, offering them reign over the Abbasid came into serious Syria in exchange for protection of question. Jerusalem, however this alliance had failed. When it came down to defeating the Fatimids, the Seljuks joined forces with their allies and waged war in Fatimid controlled Egypt, defeating them right before the First Crusade and regaining control over Jerusalem Abbasid Empire When Tughrul Begh conquered Iraq in 1055, the Iraqi Caliph conceded without any violence. On the contrary, the Iraqi

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