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Science for Energy Technology: Strengthening the Link Between Basic Research and Industry

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Science for Energy Technology: Strengthening the Link Between Basic Research and Industry ďŽƵƚƚŚĞĞƉĂƌƚŵĞŶƚŽĨŶĞƌŐLJ͛ƐĂƐŝĐŶĞƌŐLJ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐWƌŽŐƌĂŵ ĂƐŝĐŶĞƌŐLJ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ;^ͿƐƵƉƉŽƌƚƐĨƵŶĚĂŵĞŶƚĂůƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚƚŽƵŶĚĞƌƐƚĂŶĚ͕ƉƌĞĚŝĐƚ͕ĂŶĚƵůƟŵĂƚĞůLJĐŽŶƚƌŽů ŵĂƩĞƌĂŶĚĞŶĞƌŐLJĂƚƚŚĞĞůĞĐƚƌŽŶŝĐ͕ĂƚŽŵŝĐ͕ĂŶĚŵŽůĞĐƵůĂƌůĞǀĞůƐ͘dŚŝƐƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚƉƌŽǀŝĚĞƐƚŚĞĨŽƵŶĚĂƟŽŶƐ ĨŽƌŶĞǁĞŶĞƌŐLJƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐŝĞƐĂŶĚƐƵƉƉŽƌƚƐKŵŝƐƐŝŽŶƐŝŶĞŶĞƌŐLJ͕ĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ͕ĂŶĚŶĂƟŽŶĂůƐĞĐƵƌŝƚLJ͘dŚĞ ^ƉƌŽŐƌĂŵĂůƐŽƉůĂŶƐ͕ĐŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƚƐ͕ĂŶĚŽƉĞƌĂƚĞƐŵĂũŽƌƐĐŝĞŶƟĮĐƵƐĞƌĨĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐƚŽƐĞƌǀĞƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĞƌƐĨƌŽŵ ƵŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƟĞƐ͕ŶĂƟŽŶĂůůĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌŝĞƐ͕ĂŶĚƉƌŝǀĂƚĞŝŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶƐ͘ ďŽƵƚƚŚĞ͞ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐ͟ZĞƉŽƌƚ^ĞƌŝĞƐ KǀĞƌƚŚĞƉĂƐƚĞŝŐŚƚLJĞĂƌƐ͕ƚŚĞĂƐŝĐŶĞƌŐLJ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐĚǀŝƐŽƌLJŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ;^ͿĂŶĚ^ŚĂǀĞĞŶŐĂŐĞĚ ƚŚŽƵƐĂŶĚƐŽĨƐĐŝĞŶƟƐƚƐĨƌŽŵĂĐĂĚĞŵŝĂ͕ŶĂƟŽŶĂůůĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌŝĞƐ͕ĂŶĚŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJĨƌŽŵĂƌŽƵŶĚƚŚĞǁŽƌůĚƚŽƐƚƵĚLJ ƚŚĞĐƵƌƌĞŶƚƐƚĂƚƵƐ͕ůŝŵŝƟŶŐĨĂĐƚŽƌƐ͕ĂŶĚƐƉĞĐŝĮĐĨƵŶĚĂŵĞŶƚĂůƐĐŝĞŶƟĮĐďŽƩůĞŶĞĐŬƐďůŽĐŬŝŶŐƚŚĞǁŝĚĞƐƉƌĞĂĚ ŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨĂůƚĞƌŶĂƚĞĞŶĞƌŐLJƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐŝĞƐ͘dŚĞƌĞƉŽƌƚƐĨƌŽŵƚŚĞĨŽƵŶĚĂƟŽŶĂůĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐƚŽ ƐƐƵƌĞĂ^ĞĐƵƌĞŶĞƌŐLJ&ƵƚƵƌĞǁŽƌŬƐŚŽƉ͕ƚŚĞĨŽůůŽǁŝŶŐƚĞŶ͞ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐ͟ǁŽƌŬƐŚŽƉƐ͕ƚŚĞƉĂŶĞůŽŶ 'ƌĂŶĚŚĂůůĞŶŐĞƐĐŝĞŶĐĞ͕ĂŶĚƚŚĞƐƵŵŵĂƌLJƌĞƉŽƌƚEĞǁ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞĨŽƌĂ^ĞĐƵƌĞĂŶĚ^ƵƐƚĂŝŶĂďůĞŶĞƌŐLJ&ƵƚƵƌĞ ĚĞƚĂŝůƚŚĞŬĞLJďĂƐŝĐƌĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŶĞĞĚĞĚƚŽĐƌĞĂƚĞƐƵƐƚĂŝŶĂďůĞ͕ůŽǁĐĂƌďŽŶĞŶĞƌŐLJƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐŝĞƐŽĨƚŚĞĨƵƚƵƌĞ͘dŚĞƐĞ ƌĞƉŽƌƚƐŚĂǀĞďĞĐŽŵĞƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƌĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞƐŝŶƚŚĞƐĐŝĞŶƟĮĐĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJĂŶĚŚĂǀĞŚĞůƉĞĚƐŚĂƉĞƚŚĞƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĐ ĚŝƌĞĐƟŽŶƐŽĨƚŚĞ^ͲĨƵŶĚĞĚƉƌŽŐƌĂŵƐ͘;ŚƩƉ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ƐĐ͘ĚŽĞ͘ŐŽǀͬďĞƐͬƌĞƉŽƌƚƐͬůŝƐƚ͘ŚƚŵůͿ ϭ ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞĨŽƌŶĞƌŐLJdĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐLJ͗^ƚƌĞŶŐƚŚĞŶŝŶŐƚŚĞ>ŝŶŬďĞƚǁĞĞŶĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚĂŶĚ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ Ϯ EĞǁ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞĨŽƌĂ^ĞĐƵƌĞĂŶĚ^ƵƐƚĂŝŶĂďůĞŶĞƌŐLJ&ƵƚƵƌĞ ϯ ŝƌĞĐƟŶŐDĂƩĞƌĂŶĚŶĞƌŐLJ͗&ŝǀĞŚĂůůĞŶŐĞƐĨŽƌ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞĂŶĚƚŚĞ/ŵĂŐŝŶĂƟŽŶ ϰ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌDĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐƵŶĚĞƌdžƚƌĞŵĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚƐ ϱ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐ͗ĂƚĂůLJƐŝƐĨŽƌŶĞƌŐLJ ϲ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌůĞĐƚƌŝĐĂůŶĞƌŐLJ^ƚŽƌĂŐĞ ϳ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌ'ĞŽƐĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ͗&ĂĐŝůŝƚĂƟŶŐϮϭƐƚĞŶƚƵƌLJŶĞƌŐLJ^LJƐƚĞŵƐ ϴ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌůĞĂŶĂŶĚĸĐŝĞŶƚŽŵďƵƐƟŽŶŽĨϮϭƐƚĞŶƚƵƌLJdƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚĂƟŽŶ&ƵĞůƐ ϵ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌĚǀĂŶĐĞĚEƵĐůĞĂƌŶĞƌŐLJ^LJƐƚĞŵƐ ϭϬ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌ^ŽůŝĚͲ^ƚĂƚĞ>ŝŐŚƟŶŐ ϭϭ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌ^ƵƉĞƌĐŽŶĚƵĐƟǀŝƚLJ ϭϮ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌ^ŽůĂƌŶĞƌŐLJhƟůŝnjĂƟŽŶ ϭϯ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐĨŽƌƚŚĞ,LJĚƌŽŐĞŶĐŽŶŽŵLJ ϭϰ ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐdŽƐƐƵƌĞ^ĞĐƵƌĞŶĞƌŐLJ&ƵƚƵƌĞ ďŽƵƚƚŚŝƐZĞƉŽƌƚ KŶ:ĂŶƵĂƌLJϭϴͲϮϭ͕ϮϬϭϬ͕ĂƉƉƌŽdžŝŵĂƚĞůLJϭϬϬĞdžƉĞƌƚƐƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƟŶŐĂďƌŽĂĚĐƌŽƐƐͲƐĞĐƟŽŶĨƌŽŵŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ͕ŶĂƟŽŶĂů ůĂďƐ͕ĂŶĚĂĐĂĚĞŵŝĂĐĂŵĞƚŽŐĞƚŚĞƌĂƚĂ^ͲƐƉŽŶƐŽƌĞĚǁŽƌŬƐŚŽƉƚŽŝĚĞŶƟĨLJďĂƐŝĐƐĐŝĞŶĐĞĞīŽƌƚƐĂŶĚWƌŝŽƌŝƚLJ ZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚŝƌĞĐƟŽŶƐĨŽƌĂĐĐĞůĞƌĂƟŶŐƚŚĞĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚĂŶĚŐƌŽǁƚŚŽĨĐůĞĂŶĞŶĞƌŐLJƚĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐLJ͘WĂƌƟĐƵůĂƌ dŚĞ͞ĂƐŝĐZĞƐĞĂƌĐŚEĞĞĚƐ͟ƌĞƉŽƌƚƐŚĂǀĞďĞĐŽŵĞƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƌĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞƐŝŶƚŚĞƐĐŝĞŶƟĮĐ ĂƩĞŶƟŽŶǁĂƐŐŝǀĞŶƚŽŝĚĞŶƟĨLJŝŶŐŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJŶĞĞĚƐĂŶĚƚŚĞŝŵƉĂĐƚŽĨďĂƐŝĐƐĐŝĞŶĐĞ͕ŽĨƚŚĞƚLJƉĞĂĚĚƌĞƐƐĞĚ ĐŽŵŵƵŶŝƚLJĂŶĚŚĂǀĞŚĞůƉĞĚƐŚĂƉĞƚŚĞƐƚƌĂƚĞŐŝĐĚŝƌĞĐƟŽŶƐŽĨƚŚĞƉƌŽŐƌĂŵƐĨƵŶĚĞĚďLJ ďLJK͛ƐKĸĐĞŽĨĂƐŝĐŶĞƌŐLJ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ;^Ϳ͕ŝŶƌĞƐŽůǀŝŶŐƚŚĞƐŚŽǁͲƐƚŽƉƉĞƌƐƚŽŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐ͘ ĂƐŝĐŶĞƌŐLJ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞƐ͘ŚƩƉ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ƐĐ͘ĚŽĞ͘ŐŽǀͬďĞƐͬƌĞƉŽƌƚƐͬůŝƐƚ͘Śƚŵů KŶƚŚĞĐŽǀĞƌ͗ /^>/DZ dŚŝƐƌĞƉŽƌƚǁĂƐƉƌĞƉĂƌĞĚĂƐĂŶĂĐĐŽƵŶƚŽĨǁŽƌŬƐƉŽŶƐŽƌĞĚďLJĂŶĂŐĞŶĐLJŽĨƚŚĞhŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚ͘EĞŝƚŚĞƌƚŚĞhŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŶŽƌ ^ĐĂŶŶŝŶŐůĞĐƚƌŽŶDŝĐƌŽƐĐŽƉĞ;^DͿŝŵĂŐĞŽĨƐĞůĨͲĂƐƐĞŵďůĞĚŶĂŶŽƉůĂƚĞƐŽĨ;EŝϰͬϵŽϭͬϵDŶϰͬϵͿ;K,ͿϮ͕ĂƉƌĞĐƵƌƐŽƌ ĂŶLJĂŐĞŶĐLJƚŚĞƌĞŽĨ͕ŶŽƌĂŶLJŽĨƚŚĞŝƌĞŵƉůŽLJĞĞƐ͕ŵĂŬĞƐĂŶLJǁĂƌƌĂŶƚLJ͕ĞdžƉƌĞƐƐŽƌŝŵƉůŝĞĚ͕ŽƌĂƐƐƵŵĞƐĂŶLJůĞŐĂůůŝĂďŝůŝƚLJŽƌƌĞƐƉŽŶƐŝďŝůŝƚLJĨŽƌƚŚĞĂĐĐƵƌĂĐLJ͕ ĐŽŵƉůĞƚĞŶĞƐƐ͕ŽƌƵƐĞĨƵůŶĞƐƐŽĨĂŶLJŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ͕ĂƉƉĂƌĂƚƵƐ͕ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚ͕ŽƌƉƌŽĐĞƐƐĚŝƐĐůŽƐĞĚ͕ŽƌƌĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚƐƚŚĂƚŝƚƐƵƐĞǁŽƵůĚŶŽƚŝŶĨƌŝŶŐĞƉƌŝǀĂƚĞůLJŽǁŶĞĚ ĨŽƌŐƌŽǁƚŚŽĨƚŚĞŶĞǁůŝƚŚŝƵŵͲŝŽŶďĂƩĞƌLJĐĂƚŚŽĚĞŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůĐŽŶƚĂŝŶŝŶŐĂ>ŝ;EŝdžŽLJDŶϭͲdžͲLJͿKϮĐŽŵƉŽŶĞŶƚǁŝƚŚ ŚŝŐŚƌĞĐŚĂƌŐĞĂďůĞĞŶĞƌŐLJĚĞŶƐŝƚLJĂŶĚĂ>ŝ DŶK ĐŽŵƉŽŶĞŶƚƉƌŽǀŝĚŝŶŐŝŵƉƌŽǀĞĚƐƚĂďŝůŝƚLJ͘dŚĞƐĞŵŝdžĞĚ ƌŝŐŚƚƐ͘ZĞĨĞƌĞŶĐĞŚĞƌĞŝŶƚŽĂŶLJƐƉĞĐŝĮĐĐŽŵŵĞƌĐŝĂůƉƌŽĚƵĐƚ͕ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ͕ŽƌƐĞƌǀŝĐĞďLJƚƌĂĚĞŶĂŵĞ͕ƚƌĂĚĞŵĂƌŬ͕ŵĂŶƵĨĂĐƚƵƌĞƌ͕ŽƌŽƚŚĞƌǁŝƐĞ͕ĚŽĞƐŶŽƚ Ϯ ϯ ŶĞĐĞƐƐĂƌŝůLJĐŽŶƐƟƚƵƚĞŽƌŝŵƉůLJŝƚƐĞŶĚŽƌƐĞŵĞŶƚ͕ƌĞĐŽŵŵĞŶĚĂƟŽŶ͕ŽƌĨĂǀŽƌŝŶŐďLJƚŚĞhŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŽƌĂŶLJĂŐĞŶĐLJƚŚĞƌĞŽĨ͘dŚĞǀŝĞǁƐĂŶĚ ŵĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐŚĂǀĞƚŚĞƉŽƚĞŶƟĂůƚŽƌĂŝƐĞƚŚĞƌĞĐŚĂƌŐĞĂďůĞĞŶĞƌŐLJĚĞŶƐŝƚLJŽĨƚŚĞĐĂƚŚŽĚĞďLJŵŽƌĞƚŚĂŶϱϬйǁŚŝůĞ ŽƉŝŶŝŽŶƐŽĨĂƵƚŚŽƌƐĞdžƉƌĞƐƐĞĚŚĞƌĞŝŶĚŽŶŽƚŶĞĐĞƐƐĂƌŝůLJƐƚĂƚĞŽƌƌĞŇĞĐƚƚŚŽƐĞŽĨƚŚĞhŶŝƚĞĚ^ƚĂƚĞƐ'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŽƌĂŶLJĂŐĞŶĐLJƚŚĞƌĞŽĨ͘ ƉƌŽǀŝĚŝŶŐŐƌĞĂƚĞƌƐĂĨĞƚLJƚŚĂŶƚŚĞƉƌĞƐĞŶƚĐĂƚŚŽĚĞƐďĂƐĞĚŽŶ>ŝŽK ͘^ĐĂůĞ͗ĞĂĐŚŶĂŶŽƉůĂƚĞŝƐΕϭϬϬŶŵŝŶ Ϯ dŚĞƌĞƉŽƌƚŝƐĂǀĂŝůĂďůĞŽŶůŝŶĞĂƚŚƩƉ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ƐĐ͘ĚŽĞ͘ŐŽǀͬďĞƐͬƌĞƉŽƌƚƐͬůŝƐƚ͘Śƚŵů͘ ƚŚŝĐŬŶĞƐƐ͘^͘Ͳ,͘<ĂŶŐ͕s͘'͘WŽů͕/͘ĞůŚĂƌŽƵĂŬ͕ĂŶĚD͘D͘dŚĂĐŬĞƌĂLJ͕:ŽƵƌŶĂůŽĨƚŚĞůĞĐƚƌŽĐŚĞŵŝĐĂů^ŽĐŝĞƚLJϭϱϳ͕ WƵďůŝƐŚŝŶŐƐƵƉƉŽƌƚƐĞƌǀŝĐĞƐƉƌŽǀŝĚĞĚďLJƌŐŽŶŶĞEĂƟŽŶĂů>ĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJ ϮϲϳͲϮϳϭ;ϮϬϭϬͿ͘^ŽƵƌĐĞ͗^ƵŶͲ,Ž<ĂŶŐĂŶĚsŝůĂƐ'͘WŽů͕ƌŐŽŶŶĞEĂƟŽŶĂů>ĂďŽƌĂƚŽƌLJ Science for Energy Technology: Strengthening the Link between Basic Research and Industry A Report from the Basic Energy Sciences Advisory Committee Chair: John C. Hemminger University of California, Irvine U.S. Department of Energy August 2010 Prepared by the BESAC Subcommittee on Science for Energy Technology Co-chairs: George Crabtree Argonne National Laboratory and Alexis Malozemoff American Superconductor Corporation BASIC ENERGY SCIENCES ADVISORY COMMITTEE Chair: John C. Hemminger (University of California-Irvine) Simon Bare (UOP LLC) Nora Berrah (Western Michigan University) Sylvia Ceyer (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Sue Clark (Washington State University) Peter Cummings (Vanderbilt University) Frank DiSalvo (Cornell University) Mostafa El-Sayed (Georgia Institute of Technology) George Flynn (Columbia University) Bruce Gates (University of California-Davis) Laura Greene (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) Sharon Hammes-Schiffer (Pennsylvania State University) Bruce Kay (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory) Kate Kirby (American Physical Society) William McCurdy, Jr. (University of California-Davis and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) Daniel Morse (University of California-Santa Barbara) Martin Moskovits (University of California-Santa Barbara) John Richards (California Institute of Technology) John Spence (Arizona State University) Kathleen Taylor (General Motors, retired) Douglas Tobias (University of California, Irvine) John Tranquada (Brookhaven National Laboratory) Designated Federal Officer: Harriet Kung Associate Director of Science for Basic Energy Sciences SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE FOR ENERGY TECHNOLOGY Co-chairs: George Crabtree (Argonne National Laboratory) Alexis Malozemoff (American Superconductor Corporation) Simon Bare (UOP LLC)* Kurt Edsinger (Electric Power Research Institute) Richard Esposito (Southern Company) Charles Gay (Applied Materials, Inc.) Lori Greene (University of California-Irvine) John C. Hemminger (ex-offico, University of California-Irvine)** Marc Kastner (Massachussetts Institute of Technology) Bernd Keller (Cree) Patrick Looney (Brookhaven National Laboratory) Celia Merzbacher (Semiconductor Research Corporation) Omkaram Nalamasu (Applied Materials, Inc.) Gregory Powers (Halliburton) Bart Riley (A123 Systems) John Sarrao (Los Alamos National Laboratory) Thomas Schneider (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) * BESAC Member **BESAC Chair CONTENTS Notation..................................................................................................................................... iii Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................. 3 Chapter 2: Barriers and Solutions ............................................................................................. 11 Chapter 3: Panel 1 Solar Electricity from Photovoltaics ..................................................... 23 Chapter 4: Panel 2 Advanced Nuclear Energy .................................................................... 45 Chapter 5: Panel 3 Carbon Sequestration ............................................................................ 63 Chapter 6: Panel 4 Electrical Energy Storage ...................................................................... 83 Chapter 7: Panel 5 Electric Power Grid Technologies ........................................................ 101 Chapter 8: Panel 6 Advanced Solid State Lighting ............................................................. 127 Chapter 9: Panel 7 Biofuels ................................................................................................. 145 Chapter 10: Panel 8 Energy Efficiency: Buildings, Fuel Cells and Wind Power ................ 163 Chapter 11: Panel 9 Scientific User Facilities ..................................................................... 185 Chapter 12: Conclusions and Recommendations ..................................................................... 205 Appendix 1: Charge to the BESAC Science for Energy Technology Workshop ..................... 207 Appendix 2: Agenda for the BESAC Workshop on Science for Energy Technologies ........... 209 Appendix 3: Participants at the BESAC Workshop on Science for Energy Technologies ...... 213 i ii NOTATION $ dollar $/kAmp-meter dollars per kiloAmp-meter $/W dollars per watt $/Wh dollars per watt-hour ¢ cents PA microampere Pm micrometer or micron A ampere ac alternating current ACCR aluminum conductor composite reinforced ACSR aluminum conductor steel reinforced ACSS aluminum conductor steel supported AFM atomic force microscopy Ah ampere-hours Al2O3 aluminum oxide (alumina) AlF3 aluminum fluoride AlInGaP aluminum indium gallium phosphide ALS Advanced Light Source AMSC American Superconductor Corporation ARPA-E Advanced Research Projects AgencyEnergy AVO amplitude versus offset B billion BES Office of Basic Energy Sciences BESAC Basic Energy Sciences Advisory Committee BRN Basic Research Needs BTU British Thermal Unit BWR boiling water reactor C Celsius CCS carbon capture and storage CIGS copper-indium-gallium diselenide cm centimeter cm2 square centimeter Co cobalt CO carbon monoxide CO2 carbon dioxide CRADA Cooperative Research and
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