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Radicalism, Rational Dissent, and Reform : the Pla- Tonised Interpretation of Psychological Androgyny and the Unsexed Mind in England in the Romantic Era

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Radicalism, Rational Dissent, and Reform : the Pla- Tonised Interpretation of Psychological Androgyny and the Unsexed Mind in England in the Romantic Era BIROn - Birkbeck Institutional Research Online Enabling Open Access to Birkbeck’s Research Degree output Radicalism, rational dissent, and reform : the Pla- tonised interpretation of psychological androgyny and the unsexed mind in England in the Romantic era https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/44948/ Version: Citation: Russell, Victoria Fleur (2019) Radicalism, rational dissent, and reform : the Platonised interpretation of psychological androgyny and the unsexed mind in England in the Romantic era. [Thesis] (Unpub- lished) c 2020 The Author(s) All material available through BIROn is protected by intellectual property law, including copy- right law. Any use made of the contents should comply with the relevant law. Deposit Guide Contact: email Radicalism, Rational Dissent, and Reform: The Platonised Interpretation of Psychological Androgyny and the Unsexed Mind in England in the Romantic Era. Victoria Fleur Russell Department of History, Classics & Archaeology Birkbeck, University of London Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) September 2017 1 I declare that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Victoria Fleur Russell 2 Abstract This thesis investigates the Platonised concept of psychological androgyny that emerged on the radical margins of Rational Dissent in England between the 1790s and the 1840s. A legacy largely of the socio-political and religious impediments experienced by Rational Dissenters in particular and an offshoot of natural rights theorising, belief in the unsexed mind at this time appears more prevalent amongst radicals in England than elsewhere in Britain. Studied largely by scholars of Romanticism as an aesthetic concept associated with male Romantics, the influence of the unsexed mind as a notion of psycho-sexual equality in English radical discourse remains largely neglected in the historiography. Far from a misogynistic concept concerned with male power and the appropriation of the feminine, closer analysis of the broader socio-political ideas not only of Romantic poets but of non- Romantic associates - journalists, physicians, educationalists, ministers and scientists - reveals a more egalitarian ethos, inspired by a revival of ideas from a resurgent Platonism and in particular by Plato‘s dialogue on love and friendship, the Symposium. A revolution of the human mind was sought through critical reforms to the two great and largely private bastions of patriarchal control, education and marriage. Focusing on androgyny reveals a largely overlooked form of heterodox radicalism on the margins of Rational Dissent, supportive of psycho-sexual equality and distinct and increasingly isolated from more conventional forms of radicalism, concerned largely with public issues of religious freedom, parliamentary reform and universal (male) suffrage. Revealed also, is the important, yet subtle, distinction between a Platonised and egalitarian interpretation of androgyny, influenced by German-led advances in biblical exegesis as well as the natural and human sciences, and a more patriarchal Judeo-Christian and Neoplatonic interpretation of the androgynous union of sexual opposites, enshrined in the conservative doctrine of separate spheres and endorsed increasingly from the 1830s onwards by the generality of society. 3 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 8 Introduction 9 Androgyny and Present-Day Scholarship 13 Androgyny and Feminism 16 Rational Dissent and Radicalism 25 The Complexities of Writing a History of „Influence‟ 33 Deciding on a label 35 Methodology and Chapter Outlines 38 Chapter One: The Platonic Androgyne and Heterosexual Uranianism 42 Androgyny and its Classical Origins 43 Androgyny and the Influence of Platonism 44 Androgyny in Nature 53 The Reception of Platonism in England 57 Heterosexual Uranianism 67 The Hermaphrodite as the Dual-Sexed figure of Chaos and Inequality 85 The elision of androgyny with hermaphroditism 88 Conclusion 98 4 Chapter Two: The Attractions of German Interdisciplinary Learning and a Resurgent Platonism 100 German Philosophy and the Revival of Platonism 102 Kantian Influence in England 112 Print Media and the Decline of German Influence 116 German Centres of Learning 126 German Universities and Reform 130 The Scottish Intermediary 134 The Attractions of German Scientific and Theological Debate 138 The New University of London 140 German Theology, Platonism and the Myth of Creation 149 Coleridge and German Influence 155 Conclusion 160 Chapter Three: Androgyny, Emulation and the Public/Private Debate on Education 162 Rational Dissent and the Psychology of Mind 162 Androgyny, Mediation and the Public/Private Debate 166 The Gender-Neutral Textbook and the Power of Conversation 174 The Familial Bonds of Education 178 The Gender-neutral curriculum 180 5 A Shared Vision 189 Male/Female Emulation and the Risks of Gender Inversion and Effeminacy 192 Conservative and Evangelical Opposition 197 Conclusion 212 Chapter Four: Marriage and the Union of Androgynous Equals 213 Marriage in England 217 The Hermaphroditical „Shackles‟ of Spousal Unity 221 The Eradication of „Obedience‟ from the Marriage Ceremony 224 Spousal Unity and the Influence of Locke and Milton 230 Heterosexual Uranianism and Marriage 240 Platonic Love Misinterpreted 245 Conclusion 253 Chapter Five: The Decline of the Heterodox Radical Concept of Psychological Androgyny after 1832 255 The Great Reform Act of 1832 256 The „Male‟ Voter 258 The Standardised Property Qualification 262 The Act for Marriages in England 1836 267 The New Poor Law 1834 270 The Spectre of the Hermaphrodite 277 6 The Saint-Simonians and the Hardening of Sexual Division 278 Conclusion 282 Conclusion 284 Bibliography 295 7 Acknowledgments A huge debt of gratitude is owed to many. I am eternally thankful to Sean Brady for agreeing to supervise me and for taking control of what at times threatened to be an unwieldy topic of research. I‘d like to thank him for his unwavering support throughout and for his patience, humour and knowledge. Thanks is due also to Carmen Magnion, who supervised my MA thesis on Romanticism and Tractarian Women Religious, from which the idea for this thesis first emerged. I am also extremely grateful to my upgrade examiners, Joanna Bourke and Jerry White for their friendly yet rigorous and insightful comments. Thanks also to Barbara Taylor for pointing me in the direction of John Goodwyn Barmby and to my mentor Matt Cook for his valuable suggestions regarding books on LGBTQ matters. Huge thanks also to Jan Rüger for his comments on a draft chapter of this thesis. Thanks also to the librarians, archivists and staff at The British Library, The John William‘s Library, UCL Special Collections, The National Archives and the Bodleian. I would also like to thank Birkbeck for generously funding a conference trip to Paris and the Hobsbawm Scholarship Fund for financing a research trip to the Bodleian. I would also like to extend an almighty thank you to my parents for their belief, encouragement, financial support and reading skills. Huge thanks also to the rest of my family and friends who have stuck by me throughout. And last but by no means least, an all-embracing thank you to my husband, Craig, for his support throughout; never once questioning my decision to embark on this extremely exciting if at times slightly crazy adventure. 8 Introduction In 1818 the Romantic poet, Percy Bysshe Shelly (1792-1822), wrote in the preface to his unpublished translation of Plato‘s Symposium that the ‗invidious distinction of human kind, as a class of beings [of] intellectual nature, into two sexes, is a remnant of savage barbarism which we have less excuse than they for not having totally abolished.‘1 Aristophanes‘ famous tale of divided humans, pining for their other halves, had a profound effect on radical imaginations in England during the Romantic era, acting for some as an allegory for the troubled and divided times in which they lived and as evidence of the androgynous origins of humankind. All but overlooked in British historiography, this thesis examines the Platonised concept of psychological androgyny or the unsexed mind that emerged and developed amongst radicals on the margins of Rational Dissent in England between the 1790s and the 1840s. In place of the emerging and ever stricter binary ‗two-sex‘ model of human sexuality,2 the concept of the unsexed mind or what we might term in retrospect, psychological androgyny, supported the notion that, regardless of biological sex, the human mind in its natural or perfected state was fluid and unsexed. Writing in 1793, the Unitarian physician and writer John Aikin (1747-1822) confessed to being of the opinion ‗of those who would rather form the two sexes to resemblance of character, than contrast them. Virtue, wisdom, preference of mind, patience, vigour, capacity, application, are not sexual qualities: they belong to mankind…‘3 ‗Human beings‘, the Romantic poet and one-time Unitarian, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) argued, were ‗differenced from each other by degrees only, and these 1 Percy Bysshe Shelley, Plato's Banquet Translated from the Greek, A Discourse on the Manners of the Ancient Greeks Relative to the Subject of Love, also a Preface to the Banquet, Revised and Enlarged by Roger Ingpen, (London, Curwen Press, 1931), pp.16-17. 2 See Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, Harvard University Press, 1990), pp.149-192. 3 John Aikin, Letters from a Father to his Son (London,
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