My Hero, Your Enemy

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1|2013 ISSN 2084-8250 | £4.99 | PLN 16.00 1(3)|2013 MY HERO, YOUR ENEMY TEacHiNg HisTORY iN cENTRal www.visegradinsight.eu www.visegradrevue.eu EUROpE Oldřich Tůma Mária Schmidt Juraj Marušiak Gábor Gyáni Paweł Ukielski NEigHbORs aNd sHadOws Pavol Rankov Viktor Horváth Krzysztof Varga Memory Beyond Nations interview with Péter Balázs

reportage by jános deme Abandoned Soviet Barracks

1 (3)|2013

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editor-in-chief Wojciech Przybylski (Res Publica Nowa, PL)

economy Martin Ehl (Hospodářské noviny, CZ)

intelligent mind Éva Karádi (Magyar Lettre Internationale, HU) and Marta Šimečková (www.salon.eu.sk, SK)

books Marek Sečkař (Host, CZ)

interview and communities Máté Zombory (HU)

visegrad abroad and looking back/arts in cooperation with Europeum (CZ)

arts section guest editor Anna Wójcik (Res Publica Nowa, PL)

language editors C. Cain Elliot (Res Publica Nowa, PL/USA)

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on the cover: Soviet military painting (Kiskunlachaza, Hungary 2012) © Tamas Dezso

We kindly thank researchers working for this issue: Jędrzej Burszta, Helena Kardová, Zofia Penza, Veronka Vaspál, Antoni Walkowski. With special thanks to Magdalena Cechlovska and Dáša Čiripiová.

Visegrad Insight is published by the Res Publica Foundation with the kind support of the International Visegrad Fund. The magazine maintains full editorial independence and opinions expressed in the articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily have to reflect or represent the official position of the International Visegrad Fund, the Visegrad Group, or the publisher.

2 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 editorial

The hero-enemy narrative has Memory proven particularly tenacious in the teaching of history Beyond in Central Europe. While it previously strengthened national identity based on unjustified prejudice, today it is an aging relict of compromised ideology. Recent interest in post- war history has only made this simplistic division more obsolescent. If anything, the records and archives only intensify the ambiguity of the past. The same holds true for shifts in perspective — glances from the other side of borders. Region- Heroic ally, the first generation capable of sustaining such perspectives was the generation born in the 1980s.

Wojciech Przybylski It is remarkable that Agnieszka Holland, a director from Poland, was the Editor-in-chief first to make a non-documentary film based on the story of Jan Palach, the Czech student who committed suicide by self-immolation in a protest after the Prague Spring (the HBO mini-series Burning Bush, 2013). Tellingly, the script writer and producer of the film were very young, not yet thirty. They and their audience seem to be mouthing the same question, “What was it really like?”. In this volume of Visegrad Insight we look at how this new generation seeks out such knowledge.

Memories of Cold War imprisonment are already beginning to show signs Marta Mieszczanek Marta of wear. Until recently, contemporary graduates in the region were deprived of access to unbiased history teaching about this past. History curricula usually ended with the trauma of the Holocaust. Teachers were thereby absolved of the difficult task of explaining the world of their own youth, leaving politicians to fight over the meaning of the recent past. But new education reforms have Wojciech Przybylski brought further challenges. How should we teach about friends and enemies in Editor-in-chief a shared Europe?

History textbooks are controlled by the state everywhere in the world. His- tory is an extension of official ideology (democratic or authoritarian) designed to shape common memory about the past and serve as the root of collective identification. Whether we speak of the memory of speeches by Martin Luther that demanded social equality or Jan Palach’s act in the name of freedom, all such events are inscribed in history textbooks to define who we are. Hardly anyone questions the political significance of history, but few are interested in its significance in light of Visegrad cooperation.

We therefore endeavor to look beyond hero-enemy narratives to draw attention to how neighboring nations make use of history for their co-existence. We report on changes in history education, on the politics of memory, and on the economies behind it all. The problems and promises associated with common history textbooks are also explored. Can we expect a common Visegrad history textbook in the future? This issue of Visegrad Insight asks what possibilities rest on the as-yet-unseen horizon.

3 contents

Europe history teaching My Hero, 6 Teaching History in Central Europe (survey) Oldřich Tůma, Mária Your Enemy Schmidt, Juraj Marušiak, Gábor Gyáni, Paweł Ukielski Interview with Petr Vágner 12 My Hero Your Enemy. Interview with Petr Vágner 16 We Are the Stories We Tell. Historical Conciliation of Ethnic page Tensions in Central Europe Dagmar 14 Kusá Former Visegrad Fund 22 Exploring History – Towards a director explains public Common Visegrad Image role of history research Piotr Bajda and debate in Central Europe Think Tank Watch Ideas for the region 26 Response of Think Tanks to Exploring History Visegrad Challenges Tomáš Strážay – Towards a Common Economy and Business Profits of memory Visegrad Image 29 Rise of the Tycoons Václav Štětka Piotr Bajda 34 Exhibitions Are Not Spectator Sports. Interview with Łukasz Wróbel by Martin Ehl 40 New Dilemmas About Textbooks page Wojciech Przybylski 22 Interview Reconciliation in focus 43 History Beyond Nations. Interview with Péter Balázs Intelligent Mind Practice and stereotypes 46 Neighbors and Shadows. Pavol Rankov in discussion with Viktor Horváth and Krzysztof Varga 50 History Education and Regime Change: The Case of Slovak History Textbooks Slávka Otčenášová 53 A History Lesson for Good Pupils Tamás Gomperz 56 The Ghost of Judeopolonia, or the Non-Existent Eastern European Confederation Zoltán Halasi Visegrad abroad Prognosis and evaluation 60 Poland’s Presidency in the Visegrad Group: More Than an Eastern Element Mateusz Gniazdowski 63 Should Central Europe Worry About Putin’s Return To The Kremlin? Václav Štětka from Oxford University on Jana Kobzová economic crisis and changing media ownership in page 30 Central Europe

4 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Communities The Art of remembrance 68 The Art of Remembrance. Artistic Strategies to Remember the Roma Holocaust Anna Lujza Szász Reportage Soviet barracks 75 Dead Ends of the Socialist Arms Race. Abandoned Soviet Barracks in Central Europe János Deme Urban Time travel 84 Remembering the City. A Guide Through the Past of Košice István Kollai page Books 43 The art of memoirs 86 First Step Toward Hope. Introduction History Beyond Nations to Jan Balabán’s prose Interview with Péter Balázs by Petr Hruška How researchers from the Center for EU Enlargement Studies look 88 Eye to Eye Jan Balabán at units larger than nations 92 Lost in Translation Jane deLynn Arts - Looking back Dead Ends Who defines Central European page of the Art? 75 96 The other (?) Europe Piotr Kosiewski Socialist 100 Theatrical Encounters between Poland and Hungary Judit Barta Arms Opportunities and Race Announcements János Deme New V4 grant opportunities 106 Future of the Fund. Interview with Abandoned Soviet Karla Wursterová Barracks in Central Europe Essay Democratizing art of remembrance The 108 A Different Country Marcin Król other (?) Europe Piotr Kosiewski on what Central European art actually On the cover Soviet military painting is and how and where (Kiskunlachaza, it is defined Hungary 2012) © Tamas Dezso

The author is a documentary fine art photographer working on long-term projects focusing on the margins of society in Hungary, Romania, and in other parts of Eastern Europe. His work has been exhibited worldwide and has been published page in TIME, The New York Times, National Geographic and Le 96 Monde Magazine, among others.

5 Teaching

istory

i n Central Europe H6 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 HISTORY TEACHING Europe

[survey] We asked prominent historians with different professional backgrounds from four countries istory about the role that teaching history and the politics of memory play in the region. H 7 Europe HISTORY TEACHING

Oldřich Tůma – What do you is a Czech historian and director of the Institute of Con- temporary History at the Academy of Science in the Czech Republic. His recent work is an analysis of totalitarian re- think is specific gimes and their mechanisms. Various oral history projects developed under his direction are aimed at reconstructing to the teaching the historical memory of Czechoslovakia after 1948.

of history in eaching history – and also exploring it and publishing articles about it – is not easy anywhere in the world. The old model of one big (and usually national) story Central Europe? that describes the past in order to explain and justify the present and future only rarely remains valid. Not Tonly historians, but also journalists, Internet broadcasters, and many other so called “amateurs” consider and analyze – What use history more critically than before. It is easy to teach history where freedom of the press, speech and/or education is limited. However, this approach only postpones challenges. (or abuse) do we A binding perspective on past claims breaks down into many partial and subjective outlooks. It is therefore more cha- otic and polemical, as it offers different competing views. Also, make the attitude toward historical documents and sources of all kinds has changed considerably in the past decade. Materials that were previously restricted and accessible only to erudite of history? experts are now available to the broader public. Just a few clicks on the Internet grants access to documents, pictures, newspaper articles, sound recordings, and research papers. Therefore, it is not surprising that the number of people who – Can we transform interpret and masterfully comment on the past has risen exponentially. enemies The situation in Central Europe is more complicated. Two devastating wars were started and ended here, and two of the worst species of non-democratic regimes that humanity has de- into friends vised performed their experiments on Central European societies, resulting in millions dead and forcibly resettled. Frontiers were moved along with regimes, and the interpretation of his- by changing tory was likewise repeatedly shifted. The victims and their unimaginable suffering are a painful impetus for the search into causes, villains, and judgment. The public role that history per- historical forms is perhaps more integrated in such societies than in the countries which do not have such a tragic past. Historians, therefore, have more responsibility and a more narratives? important role to play: to understand past actions and to interpret them, without passing judgment thereby allowing for new claims and immediate actions. Attempts to use or rather misuse history are relatively frequent, although probably much less successful than one hundred or seventy years ago. Attempts to reach some generally accepted and binding historical interpretations, and to create relevant institutional, economic, and political

8 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 HISTORY TEACHING Europe

circumstances for the given situation, are repeated. Today, through concealment and by falsifying history. For example, at least in the Czech context, this applies to national history in teaching history in secondary schools, disproportionately rather than to the history of relations with our neighbors. large emphasis was placed on antiquity, while the post-1945 There were substantial efforts to create a specialized institute period was given less attention. It is an unfortunate fact that of “national remembrance” to narrate history (particularly the Marxist ideology remained, even though its terminology communist past) in a clear way and in the public interest. But was weeded out of textbooks. Considerable efforts are still the “national remembrance” institution has achieved nothing, needed in order to introduce a method of teaching history at least with respect to how citizens vote. It is curious how that is truly focused on values and interests, one that does deeply rooted the idea is that a specific narration of the past not start with a “black-and-white” approach. In my capac- would be rewarded by the favor of voters. Also, it is interesting ity as a university professor and the founding director of that some politicians and media try to refer to historical argu- a museum, I have worked out and managed concepts for nu- ments. They are helpless because voters relate their choices merous projects that can help history teachers pick up new to the present and the future. Despite these failures, the strat- approaches (applying an “oral history” method in teaching egy has not changed. Each election in the Czech Republic has history, educating the general public about the concealed proven that. or falsified past in the form of extraordinary history classes, Even though we live in a more and more unstable world, etc.). Within the framework of a pilot project, for instance, these are somehow fortunate times for us: our old enemies, es- we have developed a multimedia course book module to pecially our neighbors, have become our friends. This became be used on modern tablets that represents an up-to-date possible because of a change in historical narratives and the re- approach and speaks a new language. I hope there will be placement of egotism and exclusiveness with multiple perspec- demand for its further enhancement, as this was the very tives. It is also possible because we are now capable on reflecting approach and vision, together with the knowledge of young on our own failures, mistakes, and crimes. people’s language and audiovisual culture, which resulted in The question is how to distinguish the causes from the the historical concept and success of the House of Terror consequences. It is true that we are increasingly able (or we Museum. are at least increasingly willing) to perceive that “the others” Due to the nature of education under a dictatorship, are considering the same things but from a different point of history is taught to serve propaganda purposes. Since history view and therefore cannot agree with our explanation. Can this in this region was taught according to Russian interests for make them our foes and cause a change in relations between a long time, it is high time to switch to a kind of teaching that European societies? Or is this rather a consequence of the grow- places our national interests in focus. Obviously, we need to ing intensity, interconnection, multi-stratification, and variety indicate, in all instances, that other people’s interests jus- of our relations? In any case, it is good that the varied flux of tify different viewpoints. It is our tremendous responsibility different national historiographies is not an obstacle to such de- that those generations for whom freedom is so natural now velopment. On the contrary, it is its constituent part. learn what a great price their predecessors paid for it. On this continent, the identity of nations can only be strengthened through a profound knowledge of their national and collective European past, all the while attempting to create a stable European identity. Of course, all this requires another important factor: a solid moral foundation must be given to future generations. We, the nations of Central Europe, must learn from our common history. No matter how much great powers liked/ would like to pit neighboring countries against each other, we must realize that we are each other’s allies. We share much more than divides us. I would be happy if we could take advantage of the Soviet occupation and our forced participation in the communist experiment, and if we could use Mária Schmidt it as a common foundational historical experience. We must is a Hungarian historian. She graduated from Budapest remember that we can understand each other’s problems by Eötvös Loránd University with a specialization in History and relying on this experience, and this is how we can pinpoint German literature. She served as chief advisor to the prime the common challenges that we face. All in all, our region minister of Hungary from 1998 to 2002. She is the general must join forces to win the 21st century. If we fail, Europe director of both the Twentieth Century Institute and the cannot succeed. For instance, our international conferences House of Terror Museum. She has been a board member are of great help in changing old narratives. At the same time, of the Stiftung Ettersberg since 2002. we also need to present the sacrifice that has been made. We have common heroes, who are tangible proof of the fact that we belong together. This is why our public foundation estab- rior to the changes in the political regime the lished the Petőfi Prize in 2009, on the 20th anniversary of the teaching of history used to be a monopoly. It political turnaround, as recognition of the sacrifice made and was the one-party system and the interests of its the achievements won for the freedom of Central European propaganda that dictated what and how to teach. nations. There are many to whom we must give thanks. We PThe methodology and textbooks were designed must not be ungrateful. 9 Europe HISTORY TEACHING

Gábor Gyáni Paweł Ukielski is a Hungarian historian and research professor at the is a Polish political scientist and historian, and currently Institute of History, Research Centre for the Humanities, a fellow at the Institute of Political Studies at the Polish and Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He is the author of Academy of Sciences. He is the deputy director of the numerous books on social history, e.g. Women as Domes- Warsaw Uprising Museum. He is the author of several tic Servants: The Case of Budapest, 1890–1940 (1989), books, including: Aksamitny rozwód. Rola elit politycznych Parlor and Kitchen. Housing and Domestic Culture in w procesie podziału Czechosłowacji [The velvet divorce. Budapest, 1870–1940 (2002), and co-author of A Social The role of political elites in the division History of Hungary, 1850–1999 (forthcoming). of Czechoslovakia, 2007].

he unique quality of researching and teaching the history he specificity of teaching the history of Central Eu- of Central Europe is the challenge of contrasting nation- rope stems from the specificity of the region itself. al images and canons with the many pasts to be found Every discussion about Central Europe begins with here. The ethnic, confessional, and structural diversity of a question about the actual existence of Central Eu- the region, represented primarily by the Habsburg Em- rope. Before trying to describe what is so distinctive Tpire (the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy following 1867), neces- Tabout teaching Central European history, I feel obliged to sitates a transnational historical approach. It is not an exaggera- clarify what kind of Central Europe I have in mind. tion to argue that the historical past of Central Europe is or may Central Europe was always a transitional region, a bor- be the true laboratory for transnational historical scholarship. der between two cultural circles – Eastern and Western. This scholarly endeavor already exists, but is practiced more in However, it often didn’t exist as such, for example when the United States than regionally. However, I strongly hope that Eastern and Western Europe had a clear border. Such a state this will be a future option for all of us who have some concerns of affairs existed in the 19th century, when Central Europe about the past of Central Europe. was divided between four world powers (the Russian Empire, The uses and abuses of history (à la Nietzsche) usually take the Ottoman Empire, Prussia, and the Habsburg Empire), more than one form. One of the more pragmatic functions of as well as in the bipolar world after the Second World War modern historical consciousness is to create and sustain national in which East and West were divided by the “Iron Curtain”. identity. I would not deny, at least not altogether, the positive role Consequently, during his visit to Warsaw in 1990, Henry attached to the identity-sustaining function of historical scholar- Kissinger recognized that Central Europe was back in the ship. Still, it is obvious that many distortions or abuses of history geopolitical arena by saying: “I’m delighted to be here in committed, even within the framework of rational recognition Eastern, I mean Central Europe.” (history writing), derive from that particular social function of There is no doubt that such moments of discontinu- modern historiography. Multiplying viewpoints applied to the ity, the absence of Central Europe, influenced the region, but (national) past may contribute to a far more satisfying image of they also provided a certain kind of bond, as common histori- history. This, however, leads to a lessening of the relevance of the cal experience is the most important element uniting Central category of the “national” as such, and paves the way for to sub- European nations. These nations were not sovereign when national and/or supranational historical perspectives. European countries began to take their modern shape, and The creation and maintenance of the Feindbild, the image of then were suppressed under Soviet totalitarian rule. To sum the enemy, is basic to the effort to nationalize the historical past. up, I am in favor of the theory developed by the prominent Enemies thus created may only be changed into friends by leav- Polish historian Oskar Halecki: in order to describe Europe ing behind, to the extent that it is possible, any rigid nationalist as precisely as possible, he defined two Central Europes – ethos. This, however, requires turning away from the practice of West Central Europe (i.e. German) and East Central Europe the traditional form of history writing, in which focus on the past (similar to Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk’s concept; i.e. consisting of state politics (statehood in historical perspective) is dominant. of the countries lying east of Germany and west of Russia). It may or should be replaced by adopting either a structural his- Of course, I will focus on “our” East Central Europe. torical approach or an anthropological view of the past. Inquiry This very brief outline of the individual character of the in the latter case is more at the level of historical experience than region shows how different the teaching of Central European any other objectified “fact” of history. Historians pursuing the lat- history ought to be. First of all, it is important to remem- ter kinds of historical scholarship, it seems to me, are much less ber that in the counties and nations of our region, freedom inclined to be nationalists than their colleagues, who are closely of discourse – speaking about our own history, developing concerned with the politics of history. a narration that won’t be restricted by censorship – has only

10 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 HISTORY TEACHING Europe

come into existence during the past two decades. This situation is similar to that which exists in the other fields of social and economic life, i.e. great suppression in comparison with Western Europe. In the case of historical experience this is particularly problematic; this is principally difficult because it is not possible to talk about “reducing the gap.” As if we could recapture our own place in that bright, “Western- centric” lecture of 20th century history in the West, which has already put down strong roots in social consciousness. In this narrative, there is no space left for the experience of Central Europe, as the countries of the region, at that time, Juraj Marušiak had no capacity to influence its formation. Hence, with so is a Slovak political scientist, historian, journalist, and many problems today in the historical sphere, the West is translator. He is the head of the scientific council at the outraged that Central Europe is trying to destroy an estab- Institute of Political Science at the Slovak Academy of Sci- lished vision of history, while Central Europeans, with their ences. He was chairman of the Society for Central and specific and distinct historical experience, feel ignored. Eastern Europe from 2004 to 2010. This issue seems crucial from a pan-European perspective: the debate about historical narrative (mainly regarding the place of Communism and its crimes in 20th century his- he main feature of historical thought in our coun- tory) between the West and Central Europe is one of the key tries is that history is primarily taught in national discourses that affect the future of the European integration frameworks; it is taught mostly as “National His- project. From the moment Central Europe was admitted into tory” and not as the history of Europe or the world. the European Union (even if it is not treated on equal foot- World history is taught, but generally as a separate ing with the “old” member states), its experience had to be Tsubject. We therefore know very little about the history taken into account in the process of constructing a European of our neighbors. In Slovakia, ideally, we know a little bit identity. It can no longer be exclusively Western European, as more about Czech history, about the existence of Czecho- – with the current design of integration – as it would simply slovakia. But we generally know very little about Poland. be incomplete. I think there was a public opinion poll financed by the This challenge is faced by two sides, both by Central International Visegrad Fund about historical knowledge, European countries, which have to do tremendous work in showing how little we know about others in the Visegrad order to introduce their experience and the specificity of Group. their region’s history into the mass consciousness of Western Of course, history is part of “civic religion” everywhere societies, and by Western European countries, which have to in the world. History is simply a part of the state’s ideol- do the difficult work of changing a well-rooted historical nar- ogy. We have already had to deal with the emancipation of rative. This task is even more difficult because there is a pow- history from politics, but generally it is instrumentalized erful and exceptionally influential entity that is interested in by the politics of fear, as a tool of legitimacy, of particular the failure of this reconstruction, namely Russia. national ideologies, or other political ideologies. The gen- Naturally, I am aware that for hundreds of years many eral purpose of political elites is to instrumentalize history. conflicts have arisen among Central European nations, con- It is manifestly possible to transform enemies into flicts which still burden bilateral relations. However, I would friends. It is even desirable. First of all, this requires the argue that these are minor issues in comparison to the re- will of political elites. If mutual reconciliation is the prior- gional problems outlined above. And if those aspects of ity of particular national political elites, anything is possi- history that divide nations prevail over those that can unite ble. Civil dialogue is also one of the very important tools of them, then all countries of the region will fail together. reconciliation. I would like to mention the bright example This awareness is finally emerging among those in- of Polish-German dialogue, and, the example of the decla- volved in the politics of memory in Central Europe. In most ration of the Polish Catholic bishops in the 1960s. We can countries, major institutions that study the recent past have change historical narratives because our history is not only already been created. These institutions have managed to the history of macro-structures like nations or states, but gain recognition, to establish themselves firmly among oth- it is also the history of human communities. We know that ers, and have begun to seek out areas for international coin the history of human communities and in the history of operation. An excellent example of this is the Platform of local communities, family history is very often quite differ- European Memory and Conscience, which has gathered ent from great historical narratives. thirty-seven institutions from several countries primarily in Central Europe. The task of this platform is to maintain the memory of totalitarian crimes, part of our common heritage. History is important. And it is not only a thing of the past; it has a demonstrable impact on the future. The well- Cooperation and translation: Olga Skórka, Pavla Trůblová, Anna Wek- being of the people of Central Europe depends on the pro- sej, and Milan Zubíček. cess of remembering and reconciling. Moreover, the future fate of European integration may very well depend on it.

11 Europe History teaching

h Illustration by Magdalena Karpińska. The author is a Warsaw-based Polish painter. She graduated from the Fine Arts Academy in Warsaw.

12 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 History teaching Europe

Commenting on last year’s V4 initiative My Hero – Your Enemy, the former director of the Visegrad Fund, a Czech historian and diplomat, explains the public role of historical research and debate in our part of the world.

My hero – Your enemy Jaroslav Říha

Interview with Petr Vágner former director of the International Visegrad Fund (2009–2012)

What purpose might it serve to talk about historical enmity in Central Eu- rope, rather than simply friendship? I think the expression of Cicero, Historia est Magistra Vitæ, expresses a commonly held idea or sentiment rather than a useful guide to action. Human beings love to repeat mistakes made by previous generations, but there is a certain hope that examples taken from history could retain some value for the present. This is particularly the case when we speak about historical foes.

13 Europe History teaching

You refer to history as a field that emerg- The fact that we can organize The decrees of Edvard conferences in which historians from es from scientific methods. In Central Central European countries discuss Beneš, the President Europe, the debate we usually have various historical sins committed in of the Czechoslovak about history is generally not fought on the region, and do so without preju- such grounds. History is often used, and dice, demonstrates that the situation Government-in- sometimes abused, in the struggles of has changed and is better than several Exile, were a series of laws politics and diplomacy. What is your years ago. opinion on the use of history in politics We have to catch this momentum drafted in the absence or the politics of memory? and illuminate controversial issues in of a Czechoslovak The use and misuse of history is at work our common history. We may thus be parliament during the everywhere and all the time, not simply able to prevent abuses of these very mo- in politics and diplomacy. What may be ments by groups of extremists. This is German occupation of different today is that the methods be- particularly important with respect to Czechoslovakia in World hind such distortions are more sophisti- younger generations. cated. In this sense, Central Europe does War II. not constitute an exception. Do we have many enemies in Central Things are perhaps much bet- Europe? What has thus far been the ter than several decades ago, when we outcome of such meetings? had a minimum of three parallel histo- My own sense is that younger gen- Among other things, ries: one provided by officialdom, the erations in Central Europe tend to the decrees dealt second told at home, and the third dis- live without foes, while a considerable with the treatment of covered through banned books and the segment of older generations remains “seditious” broadcasting of Radio Free haunted by ghosts from the past. This ethnic Germans and Europe. There were also closed borders is a pity. The twentieth century was Hungarians in postwar with our Western neighbors. This was very “fruitful” in this negative sense. an important precondition for the devel- If we want to discuss a recent ex- Czechoslovakia. opment of “the one and only true” his- ample, let’s have a look at the recent The decrees laid the tory, which was, in point of fact, simply presidential elections in the Czech based on prejudice. Even today, some of Republic. The so-called Beneš decrees groundwork for the these prejudices have survived and are are said to be extinct, but they are forced deportation of reflected in various representations and not. The decrees are still considered approximately three interpretations of history. The image of a a symbol of Czech victory over Nazi “good Czech and a bad German” might be Germany and an integral part of the million permanent just one of many myths. Czech system by many. inhabitants of German It is not possible to prevent the use Without suffering from national- and misuse of history in politics. Political ism or other similar diseases, historians and Hungarian origin. argumentation is very often based on are generally able to reach a common various analogies and history is a very and evenhanded position that respects reliable supplier of such analogies. Also, various national differences, in both re- you cannot effectively face the politics ality and memory. The most recent con- During the presidential of memory or selective memory be- ference to deal with such matters was elections of 2013, two cause you cannot change human nature. called, perhaps a bit provocatively, “My major contenders argued, Selective work with memory is inherently Hero – Your Enemy,” and demonstrating two-faced: it can have either therapeutic the improved reality very clearly. among other things, or devastating effects. At any rate, such events suggest an about the contemporary I think historians and history teach- obvious task: How can we disseminate ers should aspire to be the mediators of such evenhanded positions and thereby significance of the an evenhanded attitude to history and calm the historical stressors in Central decrees. accumulated experience. But how many European societies? The situation is not are able to accomplish that? They are also dramatic, but it could be much better. members of society, and they have their

14 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 History teaching Europe

own experiences and interests that affect century and to develop new models for tries, our activities might be interesting the results of their work. effectively teaching history. as long as they provide better platforms This does not mean that we ought to The third activity is perhaps not as for understanding our region and con- abandon attempts to improve the current well known as the preceding two, but I temporary interests. state of affairs, but it is necessary to un- consider it equally interesting and note- We belong to the second grouping. derstand that it is a very demanding and worthy. Working with similar centers These countries, like those of Central long-term process, always with uncertain from the V4 and other countries, the Europe, are mostly able to deal with their results. Slovak Club of Military History Beskydy own history, but the shadow of this his- presents the results of research on the tory is occasionally overwhelming. What do you think of the potential for history of the Great War, looking for and The third group is the most compli- civil society to act as such a mediator reconstructing military cemeteries on cated. These are countries that face the in the Visegrad Group? As the former battle fields in Central Europe. overbearing challenge of history. Ukraine Director of the International Visegrad These kinds of activities, in the so- may be offered as an example in this Fund, you must have encountered called “grassroots of civil society,” suggest case. I am currently preparing a project many NGOs that dealt with history and the potential that NGOs have and the ne- focused on Ukrainian historical burdens memory. How would you describe their cessity of their involvement. with my Ukrainian colleagues. We have impact? identified more than twenty personalities The potential of civil society with respect We might also mention the related ac- and historical events that substantially to history, particularly if we are speaking tivities of KARTA from Poland, involved divide Ukrainian society. In this case, our in terms of the effort to overcome his- in the documentation of oral history in experience of how to deal with history torical burdens, is enormous. But I think Central Europe, as well as the Hungar- may prove useful. these capacities have not been sufficient- ian Terra Recognita Foundation, which ly exploited, at least not yet. In this area, is extending its research and activity far If not history, what else can help us find I would characterize the potential role of beyond the V4. In what way do you think reconciliation and the drive to move for- the third sector as operating on at least this experience might be helpful to our ward? two levels. The first would be in support- neighbors in Europe? The responsible and evenhanded inter- ing everyday contacts amongst people The importance of such activities beyond pretation of history may play the role of in Central Europe. In this case, they ac- the Central Europe region is enormous, an instrument, however incomplete, in complish their task rather effectively. We particularly if we are discussing the ques- the reconciliation of society. But again, could cite an ever-growing list of projects tion of what to do with historical burdens. history can just as easily play a divisive focused on cross-border cooperation to Given the significance of the work role. substantiate this claim. But the second of memory for contemporary European And how can you move forward? level of work, which more directly ad- states, we could roughly divide the coun- Perhaps the best thing to do would be dresses your question, has not been suf- tries in question into three groups. The to just try and not become too cynical ficiently attempted. first group would be composed of coun- or disappointed, and to show a willing- I would like to mention three activi- tries which do not have substantive prob- ness to use all the tools at hand. Tomáš ties, all from different spheres, which are lems with their own history and in which Garrigue Masaryk, the first Czechoslovak each making significant strides. “Memory history has only a weak influence on their president, developed the idea of small of Nations” is a project by Post bellum, current situation. Generally speaking, everyday labor. In this context, it could a Czech NGO, which is focused on the older European democracies belong to provide a way to move forward. collection and mediation of the memo- this group. For experts from these coun- ries of witnesses. The project began in the Czech Republic, later targeted other Visegrad countries, and is presently be- My Hero – Your Enemy: Listening to Understand ing utilized beyond the V4 borders, in locations where their expertise can be of The conference took place on 1–3 December 2011 under the auspices of the particular use. Foreign Ministers of the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia in the Czernin The second also operates within the Palace. The event was organized by the Institute for Contemporary History of Visegrad format and was initiated by the the Czech Academy of Science in cooperation with the International Visegrad Czech NGO Pant. This project works to Fund and other partner organizations from the V4 countries. disseminate knowledge about the 20th

15 Europe History teaching

Profound reconciliation requires investigation and possible change in historical narratives. A thorough analysis of Central European cases is illustrated by international examples. Written by a Slovak expert on the theory and practice of conflict resolution.

We Are the We Historical conciliation of ethnic tensions in Central Europe

Dagmar Kusá

he Beneš Decrees1 are a of commotion. There are a number of political scene, history often only serves to result of World War II and such neuralgic hot spots in the Slovak- further divide communities. However, if therefore are unchangeable Hungarian past (as in any past of two history is a tool of political mobilization, and irrevocable. Those neighbors), and this brief heated exchange could it not also be used to foster cohesion who would like to nullify or illustrates a number of interesting points. or, at the very least, some grounds for change the Beneš Decrees Firstly, as Faulkner aptly said: “The mutual recognition? In what follows, my today would have to change past is never dead. It’s not even past.” remarks are generally concerned with the results of World War II, History is approached through the lens efforts to realize this latent potential the Treaty of Paris, and other documents. of current needs, frames of reference, and within historical narratives and historical TFor us, this issue is untouchable and political agendas. “The past is not was, it is.” education in order to provide concilliation we will not even consider the subject!” (again Faulkner). Furthermore, accounts of between communities burdened by (TASR, 2013). the past are charged with strong emotions conflicting collective memories. This resolute statement came from and can, and often do, thereby become Narratives form the fibers of our Slovak Prime Minister Róbert Fico during effective tools of political mobilization. The identities. We are the stories we tell. We a recent popular Sunday TV debate show exchange also illustrates the importance are the stories we tell ourselves about in direct response to the request of Béla of history to politics and of politicians ourselves, about others, and about the Bugár, the leader of the opposition political to history. Historians, often thinking of communities in which we live and develop. party Most-Híd, that the government their work as an objective science, might By this measure, historical narratives acknowledge the detrimental effects of hesitate to accept the selectiveness and form the very fibers of ethnic and national the Beneš Decrees on the fate of ethnic impressionability of historiography by identities. They provide the fabric that Hungarians living in Slovakia after the specific political constellations (though gives shape to an imagined community, war and issue a symbolic apology. These there are important voices devoted to the its legitimation and purpose, and frames statements were immediately picked up specificity of historical narratives – such of meaning-making. by the Slovak and Hungarian daily press as Connerton, White, or Ankersmit). In We perceive and interpret the world where they stirred the usual minor waves societies where ethnic cleavages define the in narrative frames. We select and reselect references 1. The Beneš Decrees were a series of presidential decrees immediately issued after World War II. The decrees had the power of law and regulated various areas of political and social life. Some of the decrees (e.g. No. 5, 12, 33, 88, 108/1945 Coll. or No. 5/1948) remain sensitive topics in current political discourse, as they deprived ethnic Hungarians and Germans of citizenship for three years, confiscated property, limited cultural rights, and served as a basis for “voluntary agricultural labor” in the regions vacated by the transfer of Sudeten Germans, and so on.

16 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 History teaching Europe information and we process, interpret, and conform to their physical limitations. sion or seclusion, a call for justice, etc. (see and communicate – either internally, to While observations from cognitive science e.g. Petersen, 2002). Those narratives that ourselves, or externally, to others. The sto- and psychology cannot be directly applied come packaged with strong emotions will ries we tell serve concrete purposes. They to the studies of collectivities – the probe particularly successful and viable, link- justify our behavior and thinking, they ex- cesses of representations on the level of ing broader cultural representations with plain, legitimize and vindicate. They give communities being more complex and the personal identity of the recipient. meaning to our actions. We construct our their anthropomorphic dimensions often Narratives that are presented as rep- personal identities in this complex mosaic. out of place – it is still useful to keep these resentations of a cultural trauma – and We also believe that we alone tell modes of operation in mind when con- most master narratives include some – are these stories on our behalf. That we are sidering how narratives are received and among the strongest and most persistent their sole authors and that we know when internalized by the individual audiences of narratives. Most nations have histori- we are being influenced by someone else. about which they speak. cal eras or events that are portrayed in the However, the truth is that we are largely Cultural representations that relate language of trauma, connected with the unaware of the significant influence to stories about our past – historical community’s suffering, injustices perpe- of others. David McRaney (2011) has narratives – are those that are often trated against it, its victories, heroes, and helpfully synthesized common myths we among the rare stories with long martyrs. The vocabulary used is colored have about thinking and collects the logical lifespans. They fill the depository of our accordingly and speaks of trauma, injury, fallacies we commit. Outside of priming – longterm cultural memory, which Jan catastrophe, the yoke of suffering, and so the belief that we are independent rational Assmann distinguishes from day-to- on. The emotional information carried in thinkers who can seperate our own ideas day communicative memory (Assmann, such narratives also includes the message from outside influence, we commit a 1995). Cultural representations in turn about who is to blame – someone else, the whole range of fallacies on a daily basis. operate within the dynamic mechanism of “other”. Branding builds on this by giving us the our ethnic identities, and mediate between Historical events, as with any com- option to create the individuals we think our personal, intimate identities and our municated events, tend to be interpreted we are through choosing to align ourselves perceived belonging to larger entities, through a number of available narratives, with the mystique of certain products. We such as ethnic groups. which are sometimes diametrically op- proclaim our loyalty in this way and tend In his critique of methodologies posed. Narratives of the dissolution of the to feel an emotional attachment to an ob- used in collective memory literature, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the status ject (or entity) of choice. When our sto- Kansteiner laments that most of the of the Trianon Treaty in history textbooks ries clash or are incomplete, we try to fill studies on memory focus on chronologi- in Hungary and Slovakia could serve as in the gaps. We cannot verify every piece cal depiction of events in a specific geo- prime examples of such divergent narra- of information that comes our way, and we graphical space, paying little attention to tives. For Hungarians, they represent the don’t feel the need to; we happily accept an the audience of these representations. crippling of historical Hungary, a disaster argument on the basis of the authority of Therefore, many of the new approaches to that has lessened the geopolitical status someone we hold in esteem. In McRaney’s collective memory cannot be connected of Hungary in the region, and has also words, we are not so smart. with specific social collectivities and their physically divided many families. For the Dan Sperber (1985) has elaborated the historical consciousness (Kansteiner, Slovaks, Trianon does not mean much model of communication patterns among 2002, p. 179). Kansteiner highlights the more than the organic start of independ- people, likening them to an epidemiology dynamic of collective memory: rather ent statehood, interpreted as a logical and of representations. What we transmit are than a simple depository of past events, inevitable outcome of World War I. On schematic, selective representations of it should be recast “as a complex process its own, Trianon simply does not receive events, which we organize as stories. They of cultural production and consumption much attention. spread much the same way as diseases that acknowledges the persistence of cul- Divergent narratives have a direct – they are communicated virally. While tural traditions as well as the ingenuity of impact on inter-ethnic relations. Just as mutation is an exception in the spread memory makers and the subversive inter- some topics from the Slovak-Hungarian of disease, it is the rule in the spread of ests of memory consumers” (Kansteiner, past prove explosive in contemporary cultural representations. The content of 2002, p. 179). The memory makers are politics, the shared past of the Czechs and each story is slightly changed during its the authorities that have priority access Slovaks played a role in the dissolution of communication. to the channels of cultural representa- Czechoslovakia. Igor Lukes (1995) aptly It is also worthwhile to note tion. They serve as the carriers of ethnic pointed out that divergent perceptions of that certain types of stories tend to identities, redefining their content in the the key events of the twentieth century in be more successful in the process of context of communicative as well as cul- the master narratives of the Czechs and communication, having better chances of tural memory (Smelser, 2004). Slovaks – a number of events and eras becoming cultural representation, while Emotions attached to these narra- that represented a dark age for one nation others may pass unnoticed. Puzzles and tives play a significant role in this process, and, at the same time, a period of relative mysteries that we can relate to other for they serve as a trigger or a catalyst; they stability and growth for the other – led to cultural representations seem to be have the ability to stir an individual into a “failure to find a decent common past,” especially attractive to our minds. When action by tapping into his or her reservoir and thereby a failure to find a common stumped for interpretation, we rely on of emotions. Negative emotions in partic- platform for the future. sources of authority as guides. ular – fear, hatred, resentment, and rage Successful historical narratives of Historical narratives operate within – are prone to lead to a specific reaction: cultural trauma tend to have an impact this space of communication networks fight or flight, a quest for revenge, depres- on the narratives of other communities

17 Europe History teaching

as well. They achieve the status of sacred generations from each other, and thereby successful, it needs to go hand in hand events, authentic and untouchable, and causing rifts in communities and families. with the symbolic support of political and the aura of suffering elevates cultural Since remnants of the regimeoperated in opinion leaders. As this field and approach trauma above other narratives. This can various parts of the country for three and a evolves, more and more organizations and lead to a phenomenon of “trauma envy” half decades, the memory of genocide was academic institutions are taking part in it (Mowitt, 2000), whereby the other com- too violent and recent for conciliation to and discovering the importance of these munity searches for an equally strong nar- be possible earlier. When the country was elements to their work. rative that involves an even greater share finally preparing for the start of the trials We can distill the key elements of of loss and suffering. For example, the of the top leaders of the Pol Pot regime in a successful process of historical con- Slovak master narrative tends to elevate the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts ciliation from these experiences, as well the era of Magyarization, consciously or of Cambodia, society was increasingly as the growing amount of literature on unconsciously, to such a role in historiog- ready to address the past, and to use his- participatory education that stresses a raphy, history lessons, literature, and film. tory as a healing mechanism. Successful learner-based approach with the devel- Historical narratives thus tend to operate efforts were initiated at the local com- opment of competencies rather than rote in context, reflecting current political re- munity level. The International Center memorization. alities and reacting to other historical nar- for Conciliation (ICFC) and other NGOs The self-determination of the partic- ratives in turn. In the case of narratives led sustained community dialogues in ipants in the process tends to be of crucial charged with strong negative emotions, individual, often remote, villages that ad- importance. Direct participation, choice, they tend to reinforce each other and en- dressed the topic of life under the Pol Pot and ownership of the process in studying force which positions and interpretations regime for the first time. These dialogues history provide for a far more authen- are considered divergent. often took months or years and brought tic experience than memorizing dates, How can this centrifugal trend be the whole community through a process names, and places. overcome by historians, teachers, and of grieving, acknowledgment, and sym- Multiperspectivity goes along with communities at large? Is it possible to re- bolic acts of memorialization. These dia- self-determination. For a meaningful write history with some collective effort logues also served as an important source process of learning, it is important to or is this a futile battle against windmills? for court trials and provided materials for encounter various perspectives and in- Places that are burdened with the the Documentation Center of Cambodia, terpretations of events and especially memory of violent and protracted ethnic a non-profit organization devoted to the questions regarding diverging interpre- conflicts – Rwanda, Israel and Palestine, establishment of a thorough historical re- tations. Problem-solving is didactically Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia, cord of the era. Together, these processes among the most successful approaches. Armenia and Azerbaijan, and so on – prepared the ground for the first careful EUROCLIO, the European Association share the kind of social cleavages that are introduction of the topic into history text- of History Educators, has been devoted to deeply imbedded in the ethnic, religious, books. Without them, the topic would still promoting history education in primary and cultural identities of history that are be closed. and secondary schools that have been particularly challenging, and sometimes Rwanda’s government has tried a built on these principles since 1993. Their explosive. In such regions, it is therefore more direct approach to foster historical efforts have primarily focused on the de- all the more important that the master conciliation, only some ten years after the velopment of teaching materials and the narratives of history that shape public dis- genocide. The results have been mixed. training of teachers. All of the projects course and history curricula in schools be The attempt to prescribe a common iden- bring together educators from various given particular attention. The approach tity, forbidding reference to Hutu and countries (e.g. from Serbia, Croatia, and which is so often adopted – to purposely Tutsi identities, except when referring to Bosnia and Herzegovina), who then work ignore the painful parts of history – does the events of the genocide itself, has not together on educational material and train not tend to result in a society moving for- been very successful. However, the more together in its implementation. Their cur- ward towards conciliation. But these tran- participatory models introduced into pub- rent project, “Sharing History: Cultural sitions provide us with important lessons lic education, and especially, again, in local Dialogues”, is working toward the imple- learned and models and methods of suc- community dialogues and trials, which al- mentation of dialogues and training in the cessful (and warnings against unsuccess- lowed communities to address grievances Black Sea region, bringing together history ful) historical conciliation. together, and to give voice to individual educators from five countries (Azerbaijan, In Cambodia, almost thirty-five narratives and acknowledge them, thus Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, and Ukraine) years passed before the history of the establishing empathy and trust, seem to to develop common approaches to history Pol Pot regime was even introduced in be paying off at local levels. education. historical textbooks, and it was a taboo Successful historical conciliation Empathy: To deal with historical topic for the media, schools, and public works on multiple levels, from the individ- narratives in regions divided by ethnic discourse as well. This has resulted in an ual, to the community, and up to national tensions likewise requires dealing with entire generation growing up without any levels. The level on which they operate people’s identities, and with stereotypes knowledge of the genocide and many of naturally influences the working meth- and preconceptions of the “other” that these same young people not believing ods utilized, but methodologically, they have emerged from prior socialization. the stories their parents and grandparents tend to have several factors in common: Teaching history that connects others told them. This has caused a fascinating, self-determination of the participants, therefore requires shifting attitudes, ad- yet grave, social problem in many vil- different perspectives, acknowledgment dressing myths, and establishing empathy. lages, separating the younger and older and empathy. For the process to be fully Positive emotional connections cannot

18 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 History teaching Europe

be fostered without direct encounters. one might object to the static juxtaposition flecting on the history of the Slovaks and Dominant and negative mainstream nar- of the narratives, the textbook received ac- Slovakia, including acknowledgment of ratives tend to dehumanize and the work colades from conflict resolution experts. It wrongdoings against others – as “scars of re-humanization requires direct contact has been pilot tested in a few schools with on the face of the country” (Hrušovský, and relationships. Therefore, emphasis has great success. Yet the textbook has not 1 January 2003). Meetings of Slovak and to be on local levels and models of engage- been implemented since political will ap- Hungarian historians, which do take place ment that allow for such interactions. pears to be lacking on both sides. regularly and do not leave out difficult The Imagine Center for Conflict In such processes, it is important to subjects, reflect much the same dynamic. Transformation conducts difficult and sus- emphasize the role of acknowledgment of How do we know that a process of tained dialogues that revolve around his- wrongdoings in one’s own past rather than historical conciliation is successful? When torical narratives between Armenians and that of apology and forgiveness. Apology is can we say it has definitely worked and Turks and Armenians and Azerbaijanis. outward-oriented and implicitly demands when have the efforts at shared narratives An approximately two-week process fa- a reaction of some kind (ideally forgive- fallen flat? Is it necessary for historical con- cilitates a dialogue that addresses initial ness). It may however be perceived as cal- ciliation to take place at a national level or stereotypes that the two groups hold culation or arrogance (such as the attempt does it require a face-to-face interaction? against each other and moves through the of British scholars and activists traveling Unfortunately, history is such a live process of sharing fears, needs, hopes, and to China to apologize officially for the subject, intimately connected to the con- concerns that participants have about the Opium War, or the request of Chinese of- crete political, social, cultural realities future. At the end of this group process, ficials that Japan issue a written apology of ethnic communities and, sometimes, people who would initially refuse to shake for the occupation of China) and result in dependent on the emotional readiness hands are able to provide a small but viable the escalation of conflict. We do not have or political agenda of the leaders of the platform for other projects of cooperation to travel so far. When František Mikloško, community, that it is impossible to pro- in the future, something that would other- then a member of parliament, initiated at- vide a definite verdict. But certainly, if the wise be unimaginable. tempts at symbolically making an official process is to mark a shift in attitudes and There are several examples of excel- apology by Slovaks to the Hungarians, and sensitivities in an entire community, it will lent academic endeavors that have all of vice versa, in the early 1990s, things failed necessarily require both symbolic political the components of a great historical con- on both sides. Slovaks would not budge support and individual engagement. ciliation project, but which fail in practice on the issue of the Beneš Decrees, and due to several obstacles. Professor Eyal Hungarians were not willing to apologize The author holds a PhD from Bratislava Interna- Naveh of Tel Aviv University has devel- for the Vienna Arbitrary Award and its tional School of Liberal Arts and is a senior fellow oped an exemplary textbook of Israeli and consequences, etc. A far more successful at the International Center for Conciliation. Palestinian history based on a shared nar- symbolic measure that is still remembered rative (Naveh, et al., 2003). Each page has by some (especially by the representatives two columns – one recounting the Israeli, of ethnic Hungarians in Slovakia) was the the other the Palestinian narrative, with a New Year’s address of the speaker of the space for notes in the middle. Although parliament in January 2003, critically re-

Bibliography – Alexander, J., R. Eyerman, B. Giesen, N. J. Smelser, and P. Sztomka. Cultural Trauma and Collective Memory. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, Ltd., 2004. – Assmann, J. “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity. New German Critique, no. 65 (spring/summer 1995): 125–133. – Caruth, C., ed. Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. – Connerton, P. How Societies Remember. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. – Findor, A. Representations of the “Beginnings of National Histories” in Slovak History Textbooks (1918–1938) [Reprezentácie „začiatkov národných dejín“ v slovenských učebniciach dejepisu (1918–1938)]. Doctoral Thesis. Bratislava: Department of Philosophy, Comenius University, 2005. – Hartling, L. Humiliation: Real Pain, A Pathway to Violence. Wellesley: Wellesley Centers for Women at Wellesley College, 2006. – Kansteiner, W. “Finding Meaning in Memory: A Methodological Critique of Collective Memory Studies.” History and Theory, no. 41 (2002): 179–197. – Lukes, I. “Czechs and Slovaks: The Failure to Find a Decent Past.” Cultural Survival Quarterly no. 2 (1996): 19–24. – McRaney, D. You Are Not So Smart. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 2011. – Mowitt, J. “Trauma Envy.” Cultural Critique no. 46 (autumn 2000): 272–297. – Naveh, E., S. Adwan, D. Bar-On, A. Mussallan, S. Steinberg, and L. Livni. Learning Each Other’s Historical Narrative: Palestinians and Israelis. Beit Jal- lah: A PRIME Publication, Peace Research Institute in the Middle East, 2003. – Petersen, R. Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, and Resentment in Twentieth-Century Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. – Rothschild, J. Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework. New York: Columbia University Press, 1981. – Smelser, N. J. “Psychological Trauma and Cultural Trauma.” In Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity, edited by J. C. Alexander, R. Eyerman, B. Giesen, N. J. Smelser, and P. Sztompka, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, Ltd, 2004. – Sperber, D.. “Anthropology and Sociology: Towards an Epidemiology of Representations.” Man, New Series, no. 20(1) (March 1985): 73–89. – TASR. “Fico: Benešove dekréty sú nezmeniteľné a nezrušiteľné.” Aktuality.sk, January 13, 2013, http://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/221154/fico-benes- ove-dekrety-su-nezmenitelne-a-nezrusitelne/.

19 Europe History teaching

Experiences of Writing Common History Textbooks in Europe

Antoni Walkowski

said Peter Geiss, one of the book’s two Many aspects of the countries’ past are publishers.1 4looked upon differently. For example, the United States is typically considered The book is considered a landmark a rival to French interests, while in Ger- 2in Franco-German relations and has many, post-1945 America has always great psychological significance for a been looked upon as a helping hand in younger generation of French and Ger- the post-war reconstruction in Germany man students. It is the only textbook that (Marshall Plan, Berlin Airlift, etc.). In- has been approved for use in all sixteen stead of hiding or manipulating the in- German federal states. The project was formation, the teams tried to explain the started at a French-German Youth Par- differences in the ways it is presented. A liament meeting on the occasion of the similar problem occurred when the team 40th anniversary of the Franco-German took on the history of communism, tradi- Élysée Treaty on January 21, 2003. Ac- tionally regarded as an important ideol- cording to the German Department for ogy in shaping the French political scene Foreign Affairs and the French Ministry (especially in the 1950s and 1960s), but Histoire/Geschichte – a series of Fran- of Education under Chancellor Gerhard often associated with terror and dicta- 1co-German history textbooks pub- Schröder and President Jacques Chi- torship in Germany (Soviet occupation, lished since 2006, written by a joint team rac respectively, it is not only a result of GDR, Berlin Wall, etc.). of ten historians (five from each country). better understanding, but also a tool for “You always have two views, at least two even better Franco-German relations in The topic of World War II has been views, and that allows pupils to develop the future. 5carefully avoided in the first book, but their own standpoint, their own image of was included in the second volume, which history. That’s very useful within demo- In Germany, textbooks usually give was heavily criticized by authors includ- cratic and liberal teaching of history”, 3pupils some space to find their own ing the Polish historian Wojciech Rosz- sources of information. kowski.2, 3

references 1 “Joint German-French History Book a History-maker Itself.” Barbara Gruber, Deutsche Welle July 10, 2006, accessed December 19, 2012, http://www. dw.de/joint-german-french-history-book-a-history-maker-itself/a-2078903. 2 “Opinion on French-German secondary school history textbook.” Wojciech Roszkowski, (Histoire/Geschichte. Europa und die Welt vom Wiener Kon- gress bis 1945 (vol. I) and Histoire/Geschichte. Europa und die Welt seit 1945 (vol. II), accessed December 19, 2012, http://www.euroclio.eu/down- load/2009/Wojciech%20Roszkowski%20-%20Criticism%20of%20New%20History%20Textbook.pdf. 3 “The Franco-German history textbook is a failure.” Dominika Pszczółkowska, April 15, 2012, accessed December 19, 2012, http://polandintheeu.blox. pl/2009/04/The-Franco-German-history-textbook-is-a-failure.html.

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2007. It was supposed to be supplemen- vakia as an integral part of their north- tary material to traditional textbooks, but ern territories that was from them, while the matter was sidelined in 2008 by the the Slovaks have reinforced their view of Slovak educational minister because of national sovereignty and independence, tensions between Slovakia and Hungary causing both countries to clash over over a large Hungarian population living history on numerous occasions. This in southern Slovakia and unresolved ter- prevented any agreement over a history ritorial disputes. The relations between textbook from happening, despite the the two countries have sharply deterio- fact that both countries joined the EU in rated since 2006. May 2004.

The current Slovak territory was part On 13 May 2009 the Slovak news 2of Hungary from the 11th to the 20th 3agency TASR published a report that a centuries, with modern-day Bratislava joint Slovak-Hungarian history textbook even becoming the capital of Royal Hun- was due to be released by the end of the Slovak Prime Minister Róbert Fico gary until the 19th century. After World year. None of this came to fruition. 1and his Hungarian counterpart Fer- War I, Slovakia became part of the sover- enc Gyurcsány announced plans for a eign state of Czechoslovakia based on the joint textbook after a summit in Hungary agreements of the treaty of Trianon. at which the issue came up on 19 June Since then, Hungarians have viewed Slo-

team was established, which was joined ers, with the German side contributing by politicians and scientists from both about EUR 2.4 million. The first volume countries. will be published in the fall of 2014, with the other volumes being released over the The project aims to create identical following three years. 2books for both German and Polish students differing only in the language According to the Joint Polish-German of instruction. It is supposed to become 3Textbook Commission, in the spring a history textbook approved by the edu- of 2012 work with the chosen authors cation ministries of both countries and had started on the first volume. The text- it will be fully integrated into the school book will be used by 7th to 10th grade curriculum not as supplementary learn- students. ing material, but as the basis from which all students will learn. The textbook, pub- From the perspective of the education- lished in Germany by Universum and in 4al and scientific policy of both coun- Poland by WSiP, will comprise four vol- tries the project is of great importance. In the Fall of 2006 German Foreign umes covering the history of the world By participating in the project both sides 1Affairs Minister Frank-Walter Stein- and Europe spanning from ancient his- have shown willingness to include their meier presented the idea of a joint Pol- tory to the 21st century from a joint Pol- neighbor’s experiences in the process of ish-German history textbook. The matter ish-German perspective. The first volume learning history and to intensify scientific was taken up by the foreign affairs min- was supposed to have been published dialogue about common history. isters of Poland and Germany in January in 2013, but no publishing houses were 2008, who asked the Joint Polish-German willing to take up the project. In order to Textbook Commission to work on a suit- overcome the problem, both the German able concept. The project officially- be and Polish governments decided to pro- gan in May 2008, whereupon a project cure financial guarantees for the publish-

21 Europe History teaching

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Piotr Bajda

22 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 History teaching Europe

olitical history has term, strategic thinking. As members of in most cases, provoked quick reactions never been strong on the Visegrad Group we have benefitted intended to correct the phrasing and ex- the Visegrad agenda. from political and economic coopera- press regret for its use. Even the Slovak Besides political and tion. Why not join forces in an effort to SME daily wrote of a “Polish death camp” economic cooperation, build a reliable historical image of the re- in August 2012, in the context of Roma common V4 initiatives gion, or at least spotlight the major differ- Holocaust Remembrance Day, com- have mostly focused ences, controversies, and mutual injuries memorated on 2 August. It was not until on culture, cultural in order to cool underlying emotions and the intervention of the Polish embassy heritage, and education. And yet, we make room for more rational conversa- that the content of the article was modi- shouldP not forget that historical experi- tion? When it comes to the history of our fied in its on-line version. Of course, the ence was one of the driving forces behind region, the West can learn a lot from us. most notorious use of the “Polish death the creation of the Visegrad Group – it If we conduct research, debate and dis- camps” phrase was by President Barack was not only shared aspirations, but also seminate results in a common, Visegrad Obama when he posthumously bestowed the sense of a common, interlinked his- framework, they will resonate better and the Presidential Medal of Freedom on Jan tory that brought the member countries attract a wider audience. Not only can Karski. Working on behalf of the Polish together, as well as a determination to this put an end to distortions and blun- government in exile and the Polish Un- overcome historically rooted animosities ders in the Western media, but it may derground State, Karski reported to the still haunting the region. A better under- also transform the Visegrad Group into Western Allies about the extermination standing of history continues to be a goal a reliable partner in historical debates of the Jews in the occupied Polish terri- for us. Obvious though it may seem, the with the West, one able to tell its own tory; in July 1943 he presented his report Visegrad Group can only become po- story and provide sound arguments in its to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It is litically stronger if it manages to create a support. difficult to imagine a more inappropri- regional identity. That needs to be based In what follows, an attempt is made ate occasion for the mistake to have been upon a common understanding of the re- to highlight the problems of political his- made. gion’s past, which has so strongly shaped tory in the region and describe a unique It therefore needs to be asked why its current geopolitical status. historical project that could serve as a the “Polish death camps” phrase so often Moreover, many Visegrad citi- model for other common history-orient- appears, why something so obvious to us zens have all too often had the feeling ed initiatives within the Visegrad region. remains for others an inexplicable enig- that the historical image of both their ma? Of course, in many cases it is merely country and region is seriously misrep- *** a clumsy abbreviation, in others a matter resented in Western discourse. We also of ignorance, but it may also be consid- tend to have the impression that when The website of the Polish Ministry of ered a an attempt to redefine history and it comes to picturing the region’s past, Foreign Affairs contains the special place blame for the tragedy of the war on our own vision is neither voiced nor bookmark “Against Polish concentration other nations. This is why reports of the heard enough. At the same time, Poles, camps”. It was created in reaction to a occurrences of the phrase are particu- Hungarians, Czechs, and Slovaks often growing number of mentions in foreign larly astonishing and outrageous when it fall prey to their own national prejudices, media of “Polish death camps” or “Pol- involves the German or Austrian media. which damage historical narratives in ish concentration camps” in the context And yet, this distorted image of their own way. Shifting historical debate of World War II. These phrases, refer- World War II has not only been a prob- to a wider, Visegrad level might help to ring to Nazi camps built on the German- lem for the Poles, although the scale of remedy both problems – by simultane- occupied territory of Poland, which were atrocities perpetrated by the Germans on ously strengthening the region’s historical administered and operated by the occu- Polish territory during the war was un- self-consciousness and curbing national piers, are considered insulting and untrue precedented. Indeed, the media have also overindulgence. by the Polish diplomatic service. Inter- spread falsehoods, simplifications and It’s about time political history in the ventions by Polish diplomatic missions stereotypes about Czechs, Slovaks, and region received more attention and long- and Poles living in given countries have, Hungarians. The “Polish death camps”

23 Europe History teaching

may be the most outrageous lie, but it is terms, 2004 signaled a regional “return to invited Polish experts receive a number not the only one repeatedly publicized Europe.” And since a common Visegrad of manuscripts, submitted by the most in texts about the Visegrad countries. image, rooted in the region’s history, prestigious British and American pub- It is related to a broader phenomenon proved to be an effective instrument for lishers. Their task is to review them be- and points to a serious problem that we the construction of Central European fore the conference, focusing on those have with constructing a convincing im- identity, it should remain an important fragments – sometimes it may be entire age of our region, which was falsified in way to enhance the international pres- texts – that deal with Central Europe, communist times and has not been set tige of our region. The need for such a looking into the history of the whole re- straight until the present. Contrary to all common image is particularly urgent at gion or a specific country. In addition to appearances, we cannot escape history, it a time when we are witnessing endeav- historical books, the manuscripts also in- will always shape our identities and sensi- ors to reinterpret history. Poland and the clude analyses of contemporary process- tivities. It does make a difference wheth- Czech Republic, in particular, have been es of political transformation. Each text er, according to common knowledge, attentively watching the process of the receives two or even three reviews which Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, and Hungarians construction of contemporary German sometimes focus on very different parts are treated as victims or perpetrators identity. Here, the involvement of the of the planned publication. These reviews in the tragedy of the war. This does not federal government in the creation pro- are to be sent to the organizers before the mean that we ought to embellish facts, cess of a museum documenting German conference so that they can pass them on for this would simply mean putting one expellees after World War II can hardly to the authors and publishers for analysis. lie in place of another. But our own image be treated as mere domestic policy. There It is only after this preliminary stage that and the prestige of each of the Visegrad have been attempts to create a cult of ex- we are ready to get together and discuss Group countries depends solely on our pellees, without making reference to the each text, page by page. The conference own actions, and no one can relieve us genesis of the process, thereby falsely lasts for two weeks, during which time of this responsibility, neither today, nor equating victims and aggressors. In this each manuscript is closely examined in the future. context, phrases like “Polish death camps” for an entire session that can last up to The Visegrad Group was a unique or “the genocide of Sudeten Germans in three hours. This whole process creates a phenomenon at the time of its incep- Czechoslovakia” sound less astonishing. unique opportunity for us to confront dif- tion in 1991. Against the background of It now turns out that not only capital has fering visions and interpretations, and in the USSR falling apart and a war-shaken a nationality, but history too. This is sim- some cases to correct basic factual errors Yugoslavia, we put forward the image of ply one more reason for us to show more in the reviewed texts. three states able to cooperate with each concern about the image of the Visegrad Both authors and publishers par- other and were ready to make the effort region and about our remembrance of ticipate in conference events. In cases of transformation in order to become a things past. of highly critical reviews, confrontations reliable partner for Europe. It may be said The initiative of the Polish Ministry may lead to serious editing and rewriting that by establishing the Visegrad Group of Foreign Affairs is important and of the text or even, in some extreme cas- we gained geopolitical independence. As perhaps even deserves some form of es, it may persuade the publisher to with- a result of the joint declaration signed emulation by other Visegrad capitals. draw the text from publication. It was in the Hungarian castle of Visegrád, the Fortunately, this is not the only ini- Professor Kamiński who managed to con- concept of Central Europe was retrieved tiative in public and scholarly discourse vince major Western academic publishers by the language of political science, and tackling historical issues out of concern that it is worthwhile consulting experts owing to the initiatives of the V4 it still about the media image of our region. from the region who specialize in a given preserves its significance. The installation In May and June 2012, I had the oppor- field. Of course, the authors and publish- of a new European focal point was well tunity to participate in an atypical and ers can either accept or reject the experts’ described by Karl Schlögel, (professor extremely thought-provoking confer- opinions, but according to Kamiński they of the European University of Viadrina ence: “Recovering Forgotten History: are always willing to listen. Thus, when we in Frankfurt (Oder)) in his book Die The Image of East-Central Europe in reach for books like Jackson J. Spielvogel’s Mitte liegt ostwärts. Europa im Übergang American Academic Textbooks”. The Western Civilization, David Painter’s The (The Center Lies to the East). In one of author and organizer of the project was Cold War: An International History or the chapters, the author explains how Professor Andrzej Kamiński, who taught Gale Stokes’ The Walls Came Tumbing Germany “lost” Central Europe in the history at Georgetown University for Down. The Collapse of Communism in early 1990s, when the region became many years. The main partner on the Eastern Europe we need to keep in mind the subject of independent discussions Polish side is Łazarski University, one of that these books have been reviewed by in Warsaw, Prague, and Budapest, with the few private universities in Poland. Polish experts and discussed with them, Germany remaining an important but Taking place for the tenth time, this like many others dealing with the history external partner to the talks. conference differs from other events of of East-Central Europe that were pub- The direction taken by the Visegrad its kind. It is not divided into sessions lished in recent years by Cambridge and Group countries toward cooperation, re- with papers presented and time allotted Oxford University Press, the Longman form, and transformation or – to put it for discussion, and yet it fully preserves Publishing Group, Yale University and briefly – toward the future, opened the the character of a scholarly event. It also the University of Pittsburgh Press. doors to Western and Atlantic institu- requires more advance preparation than An important element of the pro- tions for us, and thereby changed our any other conference. Underlying the ject accompanying the conference is an entire geopolitical position. In historic conference is a very unique idea. The organized tour allowing guests to visit a

24 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 History teaching Europe

selection of sites in Poland. For a signifi- avoidance of overheated debates once the leaders in our region are equally inter- cant number of publishers, or even the book has been released. Of course, it may ested in historical issues. On the other authors themselves, this is their first op- often turn out that both sides are deter- hand, there are academic and expert portunity to visit Central Europe. Walks mined to enforce their views and defend groups in every Visegrad country that down the streets of Wrocław, Kraków, their judgment, instead of seeking the are likely to get involved in a joint effort Lublin, and Sandomierz, accompanied by truth. Still, only the “discussion before to construct a more positive image of the debates organized at Ossolineum or the publication” formula provides the author Visegrad Group, based on high scientific Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences, are with the unique opportunity of meeting standards. The International Visegrad not meant as tourist activities, but rather his reviewers and opens space for a calm, Fund may well be expected to become to facilitate discussions about the past matter-of-fact discussion. interested in such a project. Building a and the present. A visit to the Auschwitz Possible ways of expanding the pro- positive image, refuting stereotypes, and concentration camp and the Birkenau ject are well worth considering. It would debunking historical lies is part of the mass extermination camp is intended certainly be an advantage if, besides a vis- fund’s mission, and the results that the to provide a more adequate vision of the it to Kraków or Auschwitz, the American “Recovering Forgotten History” project tragic events of the past. Through such and British guests had the opportunity to have achieved so far almost guarantee activities, the region’s history becomes visit other places in the Visegrad Group future success. We are left to hope that more tangible to participants. countries. It would be no less important to the organizers decide to expand the con- It has not been my only intention to expand the team of experts reviewing the ference formula and obtain support from give credit to the organizers of the project manuscripts, including specialists from the relevant institutions. We should also for coming up with the idea and execut- other Central European countries. The look forward to other Visegrad-oriented ing it. My goal was also to demonstrate invitation of Professor Yaroslav Hrytsak projects, focusing on the history of the the kind of work and commitment that by Ivan Franko of Lviv State University region and carried out to strengthen our is still ahead of us so that Central Europe proved very rewarding last year. Of common Visegrad image. For when it can be talked and written about in a more course, in Poland we can find experts or comes to dealing with the past, it is al- thoughtful manner. In the eyes of many scientists ready to review manuscripts ways the future that is at stake. Western commentators and scholars, we about the history or contemporary poli- are still a vague land between Russia and tics of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, or Translated by Samanta Stecko Germany, too close to be called the East, Hungary, but it would obviously be more too far away to be considered the West. appropriate for such reviews to be pre- The author holds a PhD from Cardinal Stefan This is why initiatives such as Recovering pared in cooperation with experts from Wyszyński University in Warsaw, where he is a Forgotten History not only need to be the countries concerned. lecturer in international relations and European promoted, but further publicized. In Finding additional sources of fi- studies. He is also a research associate at the my opinion, the main idea of the project nancing for such an expanded project is Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Acad- should be endorsed as follows: authors likely to be difficult, especially today, at emy of Sciences. and publishers need to consult experts a time of financial crisis that dispropor- before publication. Not only does this en- tionately affects small countries. There sure better control over the content of the may also be a lack of political will, as it planned publication, but it also allows the can hardly be expected that all political

25 Think tank watch Ideas for the region

Response of Think Tanks to Visegrad Challenges

Regional policy-making has been supported by the think tank platform Think Visegrad since 2012. Its coordinator presents his views on the challenges and constraints that analytical groups have to face today.

Tomáš Strážay

ndoubtedly, the acces- With respect to the Eastern It would likewise be necessary to sion of the Visegrad Partnership and related issues in the mention coordination at the EU level. countries to the Euro- “neighborhood,” much remains to be done. Representatives of the V4 work to develop pean Union represents In this case, the main role of the V4 seems common positions before important EU an important milestone to reside in pressing for reform, harmoni- meetings and summits. And although these in regional cooperation. zation of legislation, and simply raising the special consultations have not resulted in For a long time, integra- profile of Eastern Partnership countries, the emergence of a single voice, they have tion into the EU was given that they are not considered potential produced a set of mutual priorities – par- the principal priority. This accession can candidates for membership in the EU – at ticularly concerning fiscal goals for the EU Ube considered an achievement of individual least for the foreseeable future. in the coming years. countries as well the Visegrad Group. Mem- This regional cooperation has also bership in the European Union provided been noteworthy in the area of energy The V4 Think Tank Platform the V4 with an enhanced ability to push for security. Beginning in 2009, the gas crisis – Why? national and regional priorities, precisely intensified an existing desire for secure The aforementioned areas of cooperation through the shaping of different EU policies. energy supplies and infrastructure. The and related challenges require adequate re- organization of Visegrad energy summits sponses. Solid bases of research and analysis Achievements and Remaining and appointment of high-level expert exist in all four V4 countries, but past coop- Challenges working groups is certainly a step in the eration between research centers and other The V4 has principally resulted in more in- right direction and tangible proof of the types of think tanks was based on ad hoc tensified cooperation, regionally and on the importance of the issue for the V4. The projects, rather than structured and regular European stage. This cooperation is most most important priorities include the de- activities. This was one of the reasons why noteworthy in negotiations with neighbor- velopment of the North-South gas corri- the V4 think tank platform was established. ing regions of the Western Balkans and dor, the development of the regional gas Another reason for the establishment of Eastern Europe. By tradition, the foreign market, as well as cooperation in the field this platform was for the strengthening of ministers of the V4 devote one summit of nuclear power. the non-governmental sphere in Visegrad yearly to the Western Balkans and another There are a number of additional ar- cooperation. Since analyses of independent to the Eastern Partnership. eas in which the V4 countries have only researchers are considered of added value As individual member states and un- begun to enhance cooperation – includ- for state institutions; the think tank plat- der the auspices of the V4, particular prior- ing infrastructure and spatial planning, as form counts on their potential. ity has been placed on providing a European well as security. Nevertheless, there is still Under the name Think Visegrad, this perspective for the Western Balkans. space for intensified coordination. In the grouping intends to become a platform Progress in this area is most apparent in future, it seems likely that security coop- for a structured dialogue among Visegrad the case of Croatia, although much remains eration will play an increasingly important to be done. The V4 can therefore continue role in the V4. The intention to create a to play an important role as an advocate at V4 EU Battle Group by 2016 is a very con- the EU level and a source of inspiration – in crete goal that has the backing of political x Illustration by Olga Micinska (1987), who is a terms of regional cooperation and integra- elites, and would represent a significant Polish visual artist and woodworker. Graduated from tion “know-how.” achievement. Sculpture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw.

26 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Ideas for the region Think tank watch

Tomáš Strážay

27 Think tank watch Ideas for the region

experts on issues of strategic importance. The network of think tanks participat- also be expected to develop a policy paper Similarly important is the goal of becoming in this work consists of a so-called “core on an agreed-upon topic. ing the source of recommendation to the network” of think tanks, including the eight governments of the V4, the Visegrad Group partner organizations (two per country) Sustainability presidencies and the International Visegrad with coordinating abilities – and a “general As mentioned above, the substance of the Fund. Think Visegrad aspires to cover the network,” encompassing all think tanks par- Think Visegrad project is the creation of a most important thematic priorities of the ticipating in the work of the platform. The network of cooperating think tanks from V4, including energy security, internal general network is open to cooperation all Visegrad countries and the development cohesion of the V4, EU institutions and with any interested think-tank from any V4 of expert analyses with recommendations. policies, the Western Balkans, relations country. This aim can only be achieved if the project with Eastern neighbors, development as- The project envisages the develop- maintains long term sustainability – the sistance, hard security, environmental pro- ment of a pre-agreed upon number of continuous support of the International tection, Roma-related issues, migration, long-term analyses on topics of strategic Visegrad Fund therefore remains a crucial transport, etc. importance to the V4. All the V4 countries precondition for successful implementation The platform builds on the existing will be equally represented by one author. of the project. If this condition is met, Think network of think tanks in V4 countries, as In addition to long term analyses, Think Visegrad can contribute to the internal co- well as on their long-term cooperation in Visegrad is also working to develop short hesion of the Visegrad Group and become the framework of the Visegrad Strategic term analyses. In contrast with to long term an important instrument of cooperation be- Program. Each project partner enjoys a analyses, short term analyses are expected tween governmental and non-governmen- considerable reputation, and most have al- to be developed in the course of seven work- tal sectors in the region. ready successfully cooperated with the gov- ing days, with a length of approximately two ernments of their respective countries. It is pages. In addition, Think Visegrad will also For more information please visit also worth mentioning that applicants and enable eight visiting fellows from non-V4 www.visegradfund.org/think. partners are already members of well estab- countries to spend up to six weeks in vari- lished networks (EPIN, PASOS, etc.) and ous Visegrad think tanks. Besides giving The author is a senior research fellow at the Research thus have an outreach to many other think visiting fellows an opportunity to take part Center of the Slovak Foreign Policy Association. tanks in the region and beyond. in the institute’s activities, each of them will

In July 2012, the Aspen Institute global network opened its 9th branch in Prague, operating in Central Europe. The Aspen Institute Prague is a non- ideological educational and policy institution.

Aspen Institute Prague aims to facilitate the exchange of ideas within three main areas:

• Leadership Program that supports emerging leaders,

• Public Program that fosters open society through public debates,

• Policy Program that provides expert venue for analysis, consensus building and problem solving.

To enhance our efforts we publish Aspen Review Central Europe that covers a broad range of topics related to foreign and global affairs, with the special focus on Central and Eastern Europe. The magazine is available in Czech, English and Polish versions in selected bookshops and per online order.

For more information join our events, visit www.aspeninstitute.cz or contact us at [email protected].

28 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business Jędrzej Sokołowski Jędrzej

Economic Crisis and Changing Media Ownership in Central Europe

václav Štětka

he beginning of last year took many observers of the Czech media scene by surprise, when the owner of the largest agricultural and food processing conglomerate in the country, Andrej Babiš (whose wealth is estimated by Forbes magazine at some 1.4 billion dollars), announced a rather ambitious plan to launch the regional news weekly 5+2 Days, which would be distributed freely in over seventy local variations. What stirred debate more than the generous scope of this publishing project, which currently employs around 160 journalists and has a combined circulation of one million copies, is the fact that Babiš also heads the newly established political movement “ANO 2011” (Yes 2011), which aims to compete in the 2014 general elections. Although the movement is fueled by a strong anti- corruption rhetoric and a promise to improve political culture, the recent activities of its leader on the news media Tmarket – including a plan to buy the Internet news portal Aktualne.cz and to launch his own television channel – have sparked criticism, suggesting there is more to the business tycoon’s motives than pure “business interest,” as he has himself called it. After all, virtually the only advertisers in the new weekly have been his own companies.

29 Economy and business Profits of memory

Businessmen into Media coupling of business, Owners media and politics Andrej Babiš is not the only entrepreneur in the Visegrad region to have recently developed a taste for media. In fact, the last several years have witnessed a significant increase in this new type of media proprietor, with multiple business interests and profits largely made outside of the news media market. In the Czech Republic alone, about a dozen news media outlets are currently in the hands of local businessmen. The financial daily Hospodářské Patrik Tkáč, Ivan Jakabovič noviny and the weeklies Respekt and Ekonom are all in the hands of the “coal Business baron” Zdeněk Bakala. In addition, the owner of the largest media buying agency > construction of Gazela pipeline, in the country, Jaromír Soukup, controls connecting the Czech Republic with a media empire which includes several the Nord Stream – start-up: late news and lifestyle magazines as well as 2012 the fourth largest television channel, TV > development of reverse flow system Barrandov, recently purchased from an- at Lanžhot and Hora Sv. Kateřiny – other Czech industrial tycoon, Tomáš Olbernhau Chrenek. In Slovakia, the investment giant J&T Group, co-founded by two of Media the richest Slovak financiers, Patrik Tkáč and Ivan Jakabovič, controls the second > TV JOJ largest commercial network TV JOJ and > Pravda since 2009 – through one of their clients – allegedly runs the daily Pravda. The politics portfolio of Ivan Kmotrík, the owner of the largest printing press and distribu- > links to SMER party tion company in Slovakia, includes the influential television news channel TA3. In Hungary, such a list would have to include the owner of the construction com- The Impact of the Crisis: pany Közgép, Lajos Simicska, who bought The Departure of Foreign decline in circulation. Among the V4 the street daily Metropol in 2011 from Investors countries, Slovakia was most negatively the Swedish-based Metro International. The aforementioned cases of local busi- affected, as the advertising expenditures Another Hungarian business tycoon- ness elites buying stakes in news media in newspapers fell by 27% in 2009, twice become-media-proprietor, Gábor Széles, outlets are part of broader changes on the as much as in the Czech Republic. How- CEO of the Ikarus business group, owns map of media ownership in Central and ever, this was still not as dramatic as in the daily Magyar Hírlap and the cable tel- Eastern Europe (CEE), which is generally the Baltic countries, where advertisers evision station Echo TV. Apart from the characterized by a gradual exit of a num- cut their newspaper expenditures by 44% towering figure of Zygmunt Solorz-Żak, ber of Western investors from the region. in Estonia and 58% in Latvia. The dwin- the second richest Pole, whose broad- While the first signs of this departure dling revenues have had consequences casting and telecommunications empire could already be seen in 2006–2007 (es- not just for the operating budgets of news Cyfrowy Polsat is still at the center of his pecially with the withdrawal of Mecom media organizations, resulting in staff re- multiple business interests, Poland has from Lithuania and the exit of the Ver- dundancies and salary cuts, but often for been relatively immune to this particular lagsgruppe Handelsblatt from the Czech their ownership structures as well. See- type of media ownership, at least at the Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria), the ing their profits fall with little prospect national level. However, this situation process has considerably intensified in for change, several publishers decided to changed somewhat when 51% of shares response to the global economic crisis sell either some or all their assets in the in Presspublica, the publisher of Rzeczpo- from 2008 onward. Apart from Poland, Central and Eastern European markets, spolita, one of the leading national dai- the only country in the EU to have avoid- including: Swedish Bonnier (former own- lies, and other titles, were purchased in ed recession, all other CEE countries er of the Latvian daily Diena, which lost 2011 from the UK-based investment fund have experienced a considerable growth 75% of its advertising revenues in 2009); Mecom by Grzegorz Hajdarowicz, an en- reversal (8% on average in 2009), which German WAZ (which pulled out of Ro- trepreneur with a history of investments has had a direct impact on the advertising mania, Bulgaria, and Serbia); Swiss Ring- in various branches of industry, including sector, particularly in print media, which ier (selling its papers in Romania); British pharmaceuticals and film production. was already coping with a long-term Northcliffe International (owner of the

30 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business

Jaromír Soukup Gábor Szeles Andrej Babiš Business Business Business

> Médea agency (media acquisition, > Videoton > Agrofert PR, communication) > Ikarus Media Media Media > 5+2 Days > Instinkt > Magyar Hírlap > Týden > Echo TV Politics > Sedmička > TV Barrandov Politics > ANO 2011 (leader)

Politics > Fidesz (sponsor, supporter)

> Former Deputy Minister of Education (2007), sponsor of Green Party litical parties or even those personally involved in politics. Shortly before the 2010 ment of CEE media systems, in which general elections in Slovakia, a reporter local ownership, particularly by local of the J&T-owned TV JOJ was suspended business elites, plays a much greater role. for preparing a critical report which re- vealed controversial financing behind the Slovak daily Pravda until 2010); and Changing Business Models? ruling party SMER. The editor of TV JOJ Mecom (which left the Polish national From Seeking Profit to later admitted that he was given a direct daily market in 2011 with the aforemen- Gaining Influence order not to air the report by one of the tioned selling of Presspublica, although it What are the consequences of this new J&T owners. At another private television continues to publish regional titles in Po- model of proprietor for journalism and station in Slovakia, the news channel TA3, land). Unlike in the past, the buyers in all its ability to fulfill democratic functions, belonging to the advertising mogul Ivan these cases were not other international especially in the context of changing eco- Kmotrík, journalists were instructed on companies, they were local businessmen nomic conditions? Acknowledging differ- which particular people and companies willing to risk investing in a profit-losing ences between individual media owners, to accommodate or block in the news, market segment. All this means that evidence from across the region suggests depending on their personal and political while international players are still very that news media are often not purchased alignments or whether they were adver- visible in much of the Central and East- by local entrepreneurs in order to bring tising on the channel. The richest Central ern European media landscape, particu- profit, but rather to gain influence and European businessman, Petr Kellner of larly in the Czech Republic, Estonia and advance business and/or political goals. the Czech Republic, and owner of the Hungary, where they control up to 85% After numerous examples in Bulgaria, investment company PPF, reportedly in- of daily newspaper circulation and the Romania and Latvia, it is regrettably the terfered on several occasions with the ed- majority of television audience shares, case that such instrumentalization of me- itorial policy of the business weekly Euro their regional presence has notably di- dia by powerful oligarchs may no longer (before he sold it to his business partner minished over the course of the last four raise many eyebrows. However, it is per- Milan Procházka in 2011), ultimately or five years. The outbreak of economic haps more surprising that similar strate- leading to the departure of the editor- recession seems to have put an end to the gies of promoting and protecting political in-chief and a few other journalists, who long period of media internationaliza- and business allies, while suppressing op- later established their own online daily. tion, which had continued uninterrupted ponents or competitors, are used by me- Abrupt shifts in the editorial line are also since the privatization of media markets dia owners in Central Europe. And this not an unheard of consequence of news- in the early 1990s. We therefore may be seems particularly true when such cases paper buyouts in the region, as the case observing a new phase in the develop- involve those closely affiliated with -po of Magyar Hírlap demonstrates, with

31 Economy and business Profits of memory

-4.9 -7.2 BULGARIA 1.0

-4.1 Czech rep. 12.6 -2.7

-13.9 -20.0 Estonia 1.4

-6.7 -2.5 Hungary 0.1

-18.0 Latvia 1.0 1.0

-14.7 -15.0 Lithuania -5.0

1.7 -8.2 Poland 1.0 The impact of The economic -7.1 crisis on media Romania 1.0 1.1 markets in Central and Eastern Europe: selected -4.8 -4.1 Slovakia indicators (in %) 0.0

s GDP growth 2009/2008 -8.1 s A dvertising expenditures – newspapers 2010/2009 -10.0 Slovenia 1.1 s Advertising expenditures – television 2010/2009

32 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business Jędrzej Sokołowski Jędrzej

its transformation from liberal to right- to high politics and big business, which, risk of involvement in the local political- wing newspaper under its owner Gábor according to one of its editors, has nev- economic networks and power structures Széles, known himself to be a long-time ertheless taken a decision to keep away to which their owners belong. It goes supporter and sponsor of the govern- from the business affairs of its owner, the without saying that under such circum- ing Fidesz party. An attempt to shift the billionaire Zdeněk Bakala. Their decision stances, their ability to perform the role editorial line – albeit in the opposite di- was made out of fear of not being trusted of “watchdog” is constrained. In a plural- rection – has also been attributed to the by their readers on this topic, regardless istic media environment, this might be new owner of Rzeczpospolita, Grzegorz of the outcome of the investigations. less of a problem, providing there are still Hajdarowicz. This issue came to particu- outlets which supply the public with un- lar prominence in his recent conflict with Searching for Autonomy in biased information and conduct investi- the editorial staff over a report about Uncertain Times gations independent from the interests of the alleged presence of TNT on board There is no doubt that news media organ- owners. However, we don’t have to go far the presidential plane which crashed in izations in Central Europe, print media to illustrate the consequences of a situa- Smolensk in 2010. The publication of this in particular, are currently experiencing tion in which a large portion of the me- controversial story was followed by the difficult times. Coping with the “double dia market is concentrated in the hands firing of three journalists, including the crisis” of declining circulation and eco- of a businessman-turned-politician. The deputy editor-in-chief. nomic recession, the impact of which still shadow of the former Italian prime min- However, even news media in the haunts most of the region, they are even ister is still very visible even from Central hands of businessmen who reportedly less at liberty to choose their owners, and Europe, where he is certainly not short of show more respect for editorial inde- are therefore more likely to succumb to eager apprentices. pendence are not completely exempt economic and political pressures (the two from the negative effects of such own- often going hand-in-hand in this region, The author is a senior research fellow at the De- ership, as they might be prone to self- especially through the distribution of state partment of Politics and International Relations censorship when facing the challenge of advertising). In the struggle for survival, at Oxford University. He leads research on media writing about matters concerning their structural autonomy from the domains of ownership and market structures in the project proprietor’s other interests. This prob- big business and politics – traditionally “Media and Democracy in Central and Eastern lem is exemplified by the Czech weekly hailed as the normative prerequisites for Europe.” Respekt, an otherwise highly regarded free and independent journalism – ap- investigative journal responsible for re- pears to be too luxurious a commodity, vealing many corruption scandals related and the media are increasingly facing the

33 Economy and business Profits of memory Exhibitions Are Not Spectator Sports

History is usually considered grim stuff that is better left to older generations. Especially in Central Europe, it is considered more of a burden than anything else. Getting the attention of younger generations is harder and harder. That said, there is group of young professionals in Poland who have decided to look at history (especially museums and exhibitons) from a different perspective – not as a burden, but as an opportunity. This is not simply for philosophical or social reflection, but as a business opportunity by means of which they can make a living and contribute to public debate. “History is the reality in which we live,” says Lukasz Wróbel (b. 1979) who teaches literary theory at the University of Warsaw and, at the same time, prepares scenarios, scripts, and concepts for different exhibitions and multimedia presentations in this new niche of business we might call “museum outsourcing.”

34 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business Exhibitions Are Not Spectator Jędrzej Sokołowski

Sports Łukasz Wróbel Interview conducted by Martin Ehl

Can history be good business? only full arrangement concepts and content-related scenarios History is not a neutral medium. As I understand it, history but also building museums and exhibitions. That means that the is a way of problematizing various (social, political, literary, scope of products we sell is rather wide. The company also par- etc.) ways of constructing and reconstructing individual or ticipates in projects that belong to the educational and touristic social identity patterns. If that is the case, it is an active tool markets, such as creating cultural parks or sightseeing paths. that often problematizes its own rhetoric and semantics, along I would say that the main inspiration comes from within the with the very grammar of historical narratives. In these terms, field of modern scenography. It was the founder of the com- history encompasses the main fields of an individual’s personal pany, Krzysztof Lang, who came up with the idea and still is the interest by means of defining links to national and European source of new solutions, pushing us to search for new inspira- narratives of multinational and multicultural solidarity, for ex- tions. We are concerned with elements of visibility, spatiality, ample. I would say that history is sometimes a field of purely sound and light properties in order to design an exhibition as emotional policy, but it can also be outlined and described as a sort of performance and to provide visitors with a cognitive, a space for rational work within the field of social and political intellectual, and emotional experience. Our practice is therefore myths. Since this is the basis for various paradigms and indi- holistic and is concerned with the reception and engagement of vidual or collective decisions and choices (we simply cannot visitors. What we do is try to create exhibitions and museums exist outside history), it is one of the primary realities in which outside of conventional perspectives. We do not want visitors we live. In summary, I would say that in a way history has to be to watch an exhibition. They ought to involve themselves with a good business insofar as it concerns everyone. the museum space. The very basis of the concepts we create is always a particular How would you describe the work of your company Maksa? Is narrative. In point of fact, visiting a museum is participating it “museum outsourcing”? What was your inspiration? in a sort of plot. The narrative around which the exhibition re- The main goal of the company is to provide various museums volves enables us to unify thematic units (corresponding with with up-to-date ways of creating highly inventive and modern spatial divisions of an exhibition or museum interiors) along exhibitions. I author what are called arrangement concepts, ex- with directions for moving about. Everything is coherent with hibit content-related scenarios, and multimedia scripts. Like- soundscape, lighting, materials, and fabrics. The exhibition is wise, I participate in a team consisting of architects, sound and designed with a number of associations and several meanings lighting directors, graphic artists, multimedia designers, and ex- in mind, all of which visitors have the opportunity to discover. perts that provide us with their knowledge related to the partic- The narrative is usually derived from the theme of an exhibi- ular subject or theme of an exhibition or museum. As you have tion and is based on research that I do. This means that every called it, it is a kind of “museum outsourcing.” Maksa specializes exhibition concept is rooted in a subject; its motivation is always in creating exhibitions and expositions at all levels, creating not essential.

35 Economy and business Profits of memory

How is your work affected by the traditional Polish passion for historical policy, which is not so strong, for example, in the Czech Republic? First of all, the museums that employ us are not only historical, although we often work for municipal history museums across the country. But the presence of historical thinking in everyday politics enables me to abstract a number of various narra- History is the reality in which we live

tive patterns, along with symbolical complexes, that are widely shared by society or within particular communities. Such patterns, usually of the literary type, can be used as the basis for an exhibition experience of that which is different, in both historical and political terms. So it is not the passion for historical How large is the company? policy or its absence that creates the basis for my work. It is the We have several permanent staff members, but it is the specific need for narrative, plot patterns, historical, social, political, and character of each project that determines the number of people literary tales that hold and structure our identities, our ways at work. The same goes for successive subcontractors, such as of perceiving various issues. These narrative patterns are what various companies operating in the new technologies market, I usually look for, and what I try to distill and position within for instance. Creating a single exhibition does not necessarily in- particular scenarios. volve a multi-person team. But we are also engaged in designing museum buildings along with permanent and temporal exhibi- Why do you take that approach? tions. The number of people employed in such projects obviously The reasons are numerous. First of all, it is a genuinely interest- increases. ing and demanding job. Every project I participate in requires different knowledge. So I always have to read a new set of books How successful is the work, in terms of revenue or other and gain new knowledge. Apart from the creative gradient of my measurable features? work, I think this could be listed as the most important reason The success of the company should be measured with reference for working in this market. to current and previously realized projects. Maksa created the concept for The Katyn Museum, now being built in Warsaw. A Does occasionally employing your company mean that mu- few years ago, the company was also awarded the Sybilla Award seums (and the state) do not have enough money to pay em- for its “Central Industrial Region for the Future” exhibition. This ployees? is by far the most prestigious award in the museum market in Creating a museum or an exposition is not simply putting the Poland. The competition is organized by The Ministry of Culture exhibits on display in cases. Or at least, it is not anymore. Mod- and National Heritage in Poland. It is also worth mentioning that ern exhibitions require soundscapes, lighting systems and a co- it was Maksa that created and built The European Tale Centre herent concept of the whole. Museum councils and executive (Pacanow, Poland), where a vast range of multimedia technolo- branches are representative, but creating everything from the gies have been combined with traditional elements in order to concept to the moment of displayed exhibits is usually beyond create a highly interactive exposition. At present, Poland is the their professional reach. So actually, it is not finances that drive only country in which Maksa operates. museums to employ companies such as Maksa. Museum employees usually use cases, and they sometimes arrange a space Is there anything comparable within Poland or elsewhere in for the exposition. We come up with a coherent story, with an Europe? exhibition that is also a narrative employing various technolo- There are few companies in Poland that share the same field of gies, which enables us to provide a better product. And that is interest. The same applies to Poland’s neighbors, such as Ger- what it all is about: the marketability of an exhibition, and the many. I would say that these shared interests are defined by the number of visitors that will be willing to come, is it not? We conviction that a museum is not simply about exhibits on display, provide museums with the newest ideas and solutions. And the and that modern technology needs to be placed in the service of people who work on such projects have expert knowledge of the museum – not the other way around. various components of the exposition. Of course, there is also

36 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business

the issue of European subsidies, usually the very core of fund- cages from which we cannot escape (unlike Kundera himself, who ing. But usually everything ultimately comes from the demands in fact did). I would like to focus on this issue in relation to various of creativity and the need for professionally designed museum historical perspectives. The Visegrad Group is an alliance for inte- products. gration and cooperation, but it is also a highly multilingual area. Most of us can understand each other (maybe with the exception Did we already pay all our historical debts in post-communist of Hungarian – speaking people), at least aside from a historical, countries, in the sense that we have now discussed and de- political basis. But at the very core of the Central-European area, scribed all the forgotten or hidden events from our past? this multilinguality sustains the danger of incomprehension and I would not agree with the description of society as a community failures in understanding. What we share actually divides us. At that is able to reach a sort of static level of overcoming all his- the same time, we are deeply marked by the possibility and im- torical debts, dark memories, etc. Working on our own mistakes, possibility of understanding. What is more: history is a painful processing our own identity, our own prejudices, of the past and baseline for our identities. I would like to combine experiences present, is at the very core of modern society, is it not? I would say of various ways of naming and telling our own history, creating that the modes of working on what we call “the past” can either identities with historical events and literary traditions of each of define us as a free society or quite the opposite. It is not the posi- the four countries. I would like to draw upon the distinctions be- tion we have gained but the ways in which we employ various tween the factual, linguistic and literary. Do we all use the same modes of interpreting ourselves and our neighbors. To be free, rhetorical patterns? Are the figures of comedy or tragedy the only a modern society has to be able to think about itself and its our ones that we impose on our historical narratives? Which linguis- neighbors using different styles, rhetoric, literary genres, and with tic inventions are we are trying to escape in our particular modes the imperative of their equivalence, with the strong conviction of expression, and how do we communicate with others outside that none of our identity narratives is exceptional. the V4? Given 100,000 euro, I would research the subjects of literary, linguistic, and factual conjunction that have determined the If you were given 100,000 euros and asked to prepare a his- invention of the Visegrad Group. torical exhibition that would be important to all four Visegrad countries, what would you chose to do? Łukasz Wróbel holds a PhD from the Faculty of Polish Studies, University of Milan Kundera once said that the small nations of Central Europe Warsaw, where he teaches literary theory. constitute the arch-Europe: “the greatest variety within the smallest space.” He also held that while multilingualism structures the Martin Ehl is the chief international editor of the Czech daily Hospodářské truth of Central Europe, our particular languages are the fated noviny.

ÖRÖKSÉG • KULTÚRA • JELENKOR

A „Herito” egy 2010 óta megjelenő, a kultúra és örökség témakörére összpontosító kétnyelvű, lengyelül és angolul olvasható folyóirat. A fejtegetések kiindulópontja Közép-Európa, melynek kulturális dilemmái egyszerre sajátosak és korunk eszmefuttatásainak lényegét érintőek. A lap a téma sokszínűségét úgy a térségből származó szerzők, mint az azon kívülről érkező, de ezen régióval foglalkozó szakemberek nézőpontjából tárja elénk. A lap hasábjain megjelenő írások szerzői többek között: reklama_herito.inddBeke László, Bogdan 1 Bogdanović, Marta Bucholc, Ewa Chojecka, Ivan Čolović, Erhard Busek, Forgács Éva, 19.02.2013 16:12 37 Radu Pavel Gheo, Drago Jančar, Miljenko Jergović, Kiss Gy. Csaba, Peter Krečič, Detlef Kruth, Aleksandr Lipatow, Lubomír Lipták, Artur D. Liskowacki, Claudio Magris, Piotr Piotrowski, Martin Pollack, Jacek Purchla, Mykoła Riabczuk, Joan Roca, Anda Rottenberg, Agnieszka Sabor, Thomas Schulz, Janusz Sepioł, Simona Škrabec, Robert Traba, Joanna Ugniewska, Magda Vášáryová, Wojciech Wilczyk, Stefan Wolle.

Főszerkesztő – Prof. Dr Jacek Purchla Szerkesztő – Łukasz Galusek Kiadja – International Cultural Centre, Rynek Główny 25, 31-008 Krakow, Poland

www.herito.pl Economy and business Profits of memory Museum math in the V4

The Power Of Technology

Although first place on the list of the fifteen most visited museums in the Czech Repub- lic is held by the Jewish Museum in Prague and second place by the National Museum, institutions that attract the most attention deal with the history of the military and technology. 15 most visited museums in the czech republic in 2011

Military and technical museums (Military History Institute Prague, Museum of 1 115 029 Agriculture, Mining Museum, Museum of Silver, Technical Museum in Brno) Regional history museums (Wallachian Open-air Museum, Museum of Southeastern 786 868 Moravia, Museum of Valassko Region, Brno City Museum, Ethnographic Museum dr. Hostase) Political history (National Museum, Terezin Memorial, Hussite Museum) 730 350

Social history (Jewish Museum in Prague) 560 733

Source: The National Information and Consulting Centre for Culture (NIPOS) cz

Commemorating the Victims

The Recsk National Memory Park Recski Nemzeti Emlékpark, located in the biggest forced labor camp of the 1950s, was opened in 1996. In the early 2000s, two other museums contributed to commemorating and broadening knowledge about victims of Nazi and communist regimes – the Holocaust Memorial Centre and The House of Terror in Budapest. They sparked discussion from the very beginning and quickly attracted vast crowds – over 4 million people have visited The House of Terror since 2002.

Source: Museums' websites

38 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business

Under Construction

Historical museum fever started in Poland in 2005 and led to the establishment of at least six institutions dealing with important themes from the country’s history. While already assembling collections and organizing events, the majority of them still await exhibition spaces of their own.

museum city established planned opening Museum of History of Polish Jews Warsaw 2005 April 19, 2013 Museum of Polish History Warsaw 2006 Unknown European Solidarity Centre Gdańsk 2007 2013/14 Museum of the Second World War Gdańsk 2008 2014 PL Józef Piłsudski Museum Sulejówek 2008 2016 Emigration Museum Gdynia 2012 2014/15

Source: Museums’ websites

Castle Treasures

The most museums visited in Slovakia are situated outside of urban areas. Crowds are drawn by castles and open-air museums, which attract between 50% and 33% of visitors, respectively. The Museum of Slovak National Uprising in Banská Bystrica welcomed 379,705 visitors in 2011, which secured its title as the most popular history museum in the country. Additionally, there are state funded museums dedicated to all ethnic minorities, sk such as Carpathian German, Czech, Croatian, Hungarian, Jewish, Roma, Ruthenian, and Ukrainian minorities.

15 most visited museums in Slovakia in 2011

Castle museums (Orava, Stará Ľubovňa, Spiš, Bojnice, Betliar, Trenčín, Červený 1 303 428 Kameň) Regional history museums and open-air museums (Bratislava City Museum, 713 524 Liptov, Považie, Kysucké, Považská Bystrica) Political history museum (Slovak National Uprising Museum) 379 705

Technical museum (Mining Museum) 111 731

Source: Slovak department of the International Council of Museums h

39 Economy and business Profits of memory

Digital textbooks mark the beginning of a new age in debates about freedom of expression and equal rights in knowledge and education. Central Europe’s specific historical experience with totalitarianism and the manipulation of collective memory should help us understand the real challenges such developments will New ultimately pose. Dilemmas About Text books

Wojciech Przybylski

any economists cialized in analyzing the book market – and been dramatically limited at the high school often claim that textbooks are major source of income for level (ten versions are approved), but the va- freedom can many publishers in a country where only riety of approved books for the junior high be ranked and about 40% of the population admits to read- curriculum (thirty approved versions of measured. With ing at least one book a year. Some publishers textbooks) suggests the economic potential respect to mar- base their entire business around textbooks, of this sector. kets, economists but their future prosperity may now be en- The usual debates about textbooks such as Guy Sor- dangered by a revolutionary idea that the have concerned their use as tools of state man have argued that they are only “free” government has proposed. ideology. According to The Economist, whenM entry or participation is not blocked. Since 2012, the Ministry of Education California and Texas, for example, put a With that in mind, let’s consider millions of and the newly created Ministry of great deal of care into liberal or conserva- children and parents who, each year, have to Administration and Digitalization have tive messages respectively conveyed in their spend a small fortune on school textbooks, taken up the challenge of providing free textbooks "Textbooks around the world. It often costing more than a fourth of an aver- electronic textbooks to pupils, thereby lim- ain't necessarily so," October 13, 2012. In age monthly salary (minimum wage in Po- iting the high costs of entry into the global the same article, the editor enumerates a land is €400, and a single set of textbooks market based on knowledge. This is part of a number of serious cases of racial and ethnic usually costs €100). The market for school larger shift in the Polish book market. With discrimination found in school textbooks textbooks in Poland is valued at €200 mil- a change in the history curriculum, the that may influence the judgment of chil- lion by Biblioteka Analiz – a company spe- number of officially approved textbooks has dren, especially in regions like the Middle

40 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Profits of memory Economy and business

East or Africa. However, with the increas- unexpected protests against ACTA flooded service policy had been violated. According ingly frequent use of additional sources, Polish streets in January 2012. Meanwhile, to an article in The Guardian, this occurred most coming from the Internet, this kind the academic community in Poland awaits because the Kindle owner in question pur- of practice may have hit its limit. The arti- changes like those already introduced in chased books from a UK online store while cle therefore examines digital textbooks as London in 2012, that are to provide free ac- living in Norway (see “Amazon wipes cus- tools of progress, precisely in those parts of cess to government funded research. After tomer’s Kindle and deletes account with no the world where digital exclusion is great- all, public access to high quality research explanation,” October 22, 2012). est. In Nairobi, as the aforementioned arti- and knowledge is a key element of future In Central and Eastern Europe, such cle indicates, digital education with digital development. events sound like high-tech variations of textbooks in schools has recently become However, the discussion about digital very old themes. History textbooks, es- so popular (with sales rising ten times over education, at least at this stage, should not pecially during Soviet rule, were subject past year) that companies like Amazon are necessarily be about quality. It should rather to constant revisions ordered by political now considering bringing their tablet read- be described as a necessary tool for adapt- elites. Even today, political figures in Russia ers into the African market. Yet again, this ing to changing patterns of perception. and Belarus take far too much interest in reminds us that traditional paperbacks, let Research by Jakob Nielsen, of the Nielsen shaping the common memory of the past alone hardcover books, might go the way and Norman Group, demonstrates that by revising history textbooks according to of their predecessors, like clay tablets and our eyes usually follow the F-shaped pat- their political goals. It would be too much scrolls. tern online and tend to focus only on the to suggest that history might yet again re- What in fact is at stake in this shift first paragraph and later focus only on the peat itself, or that the Polish ministries have is the condition of public debate, which first sentences or even words of subsequent any intention to control and manipulate concerns the ability of citizens to critically paragraphs. The conclusions are dramatic: the minds of pupils. Nevertheless, this re- evaluate information in mass media and 1) online users will not read a text thorough- mains a weak point of the digital reforms. to make wise use of the variety, but very ly; 2) the first two paragraphs must state all No democracy is immune to populist gov- often low quality, of Internet content. The of the most important information; 3) the ernment and the temptation to manipulate idea of universal and free access to informa- structure of the text must be simpler, put- public opinion at the school level remains a tion, a basic principle of the Internet, is be- ting emphasis on bullet points, other graph- constant threat. ing continuously challenged on two fronts. ics, and information-carrying words. Not Books have been lost to humanity The first front relates to the aforementioned long ago, resources like Wikipedia seemed many times in history. Aristotle’s second onslaught of questionable or unreliable con- like serious challenges to books, but the book of Poetics and some of William Blake’s tent online. In a related point, the second above mentioned findings should make us poems have simply disappeared. Emperors, front concerns the absence of universal ac- take pause and reconsider. Pupils and stu- churches, and dictators marked their paths cess, specifically to high quality resources. dents already prefer to use online movie in history by waging war on ideas and burn- For some time, public libraries in clips and dynamic presentations, quickly ing both books and their authors. During Poland have been in the process of adapt- accessing and displaying the information the Second World War, huge collections ing to the future. With a great deal of as- they want instead of working through long, of books and archives were lost not only sistance from the Bill and Melinda Gates exacting books. Surely, print books will not during publicly staged bonfires but also in Foundation, they are now being redesigned be able to compete with such attractions. bombings, think of German planes destroy- as digital, social hubs for culture and com- But free-of-charge digital textbooks – why ing Załuski Library – one of the largest col- munity development, rather than simply not? Skeptics may point to one of basic laws lections in Poland. Digitalization may very book depositories. But one might very well of economy: there is no such thing as a free well offer protection against such losses. It ask: What about access to real, actual books? lunch. In which case, let’s consider the pos- also provides an opportunity to democra- Have they become obsolete? Decades after sible costs, other than financial, of the up- tize access to information and education. totalitarian control over book resources, coming reform. No doubt, it will provide additional the libraries of our region have not yet been Companies like Apple and Amazon challenges that have yet to be answered. rebuilt to even half the level that civilized have already seen a potential for this market What is more, digital content is not likely countries would expect or demand. In and have begun to provide tools and plat- to reside solely in the hands of corporations this sense, the digital age presents Central forms that will enable the digital education and governments. Groups like Anonymous Europe with a much needed opportunity. market to grow. However, in looking at the may very well target digital content, seam- Today, NGOs and government pro- power they have over digitalized content, lessly changing part of the content with- grams in Poland aim to fill this gap by there is a serious issue to be considered. In out anyone taking notice. Central Europe somehow providing free-of-charge access what almost seemed like a bad joke, George is particularly sensitive to such issues and to certain classical works of both Polish Orwell’s dystopian classic, 1984, was re- with the first publicly distributed free e- and foreign authors by following steps es- motely deleted by Amazon in July 2009 textbooks about to be released in Poland tablished by the well-known Gutenberg from all Kindle devices around the world. by 2015, other Visegrad countries will soon Project online. At the same time, young Although Jeff Bezos, the company’s CEO, have to consider similar dilemmas. people, hand-in-hand with the research responded by calling this a stupid decision community, have joined in the global de- and human error, the same thing happened The author is editor-in-chief of Visegrad Insight and bate about copyright law that restricts ac- nearly three years later. In October 2012, the Res Publica Nowa. cess to global culture. The government of account and content of a single Norwegian Donald Tusk had to change its policy from Kindle owner was reportedly deleted (with supporting the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade all purchased content), a decision which Agreement (ACTA) after mass and quite Amazon justified in saying that its terms of

41 Economy and business Profits of memory HISTORY TEXTBOOKS IN the V4 Hungary average salary Slovakia € 750 average salary € 000 874 0000 There are around 400,000 Czech students in Hungary and Rep The creation and average . their educational needs salary purchase of textbooks are met by between € four and six publishing is administered by the 970 Ministry of Education, houses. This number Science, Research, and 0 depends on whether Sport, therefore each Books are provided free Pol these institutions manage and to obtain permission to textbook must be approved of charge for primary before publication. Of the average salary publish textbooks from school students only. three publishing houses, There are eight publishing € the Ministry of National 860 Resources. In September, one is devoted solely to houses which provide providing state-guaranteed 00 a new syllabus for certain secondary school history textbooks. Secondary textbooks, the average cost classes will come into school students are is around €6.5. Textbooks The majority of the large effect, requiring that provided with their books are expected to meet the Polish textbook market has publishers obtain new free of charge, ordering educational criteria set by been dominated by seven permission to publish, them through a newly the Ministry of Education, major publishers, whose spreading confusion in share is estimated at 80% the schoolbook market. launched web portal. In Youth, and Sports. If 2012, the budget allocated of the market turnover, A textbooks costs around a textbook meets all for new textbooks reached expectations, it is included with numerous other €8.50 on average. €7.7 million, with each institutions competing During the 1990s and early on a list of approved textbook costing on educational publications for the rest. Last year, 2000s, the state provided average €4.5. New books for primary or secondary textbook sales totalled free textbooks for every have been published since schools. This endorsement over fifty million with student. Throughout the 2008 due to the ongoing is given six years, an average price of €6.8. last decade, primary school whereupon the textbook Various estimates put the students still received free reform of education. At needs to be reviewed in number of primary and textbooks, while secondary the moment, students of order to assess whether it secondary school students school students were able the first and second years still meets the criteria set at around 5.5 million. to get discounts, the size of secondary education are by the ministry. However, Most textbooks are bought of which size depended on using the new textbooks, and those for the third year any book (including those privately by families, to which of the four social not on the official list) enabling schools to lower categories (including those of secondary education can be used in the school expenses per student and for pupils with special are being developed. curriculum as long as use leftover funds for needs) each student The reform is not well it does not contradict other purposes. However, was assigned. Social received by public because the law. The person depending on their social support for buying books distribution problems responsible for choosing status, students may apply depends not only on the occurred during the first textbooks is the school for free books provided by kind of school a student year of implementation, the state, with €31 million attends, but also on the leaving students without principal. textbooks for several spent last year. involvement of the local months. government.

42 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Reconciliation in focus Interview AST NE WS Samuel Kubani/A F P/ E AST photo

History Beyond Nations

Interview with Péter Balázs

The geopolitical situation of Central Europe is relatively new and in order to understand it there should be both open debate about national perspectives of the past and a historical analysis of units larger than nations. Professor of Central European University, former EU Commissioner, and former Foreign Minister of Hungary Péter Balázs speaks about research on the subject carried out by his Center for EU Enlargement Studies.

43 Interview Reconciliation in focus

Wojciech Przybylski: Based on your extensive research at ing effect on various parts of that larger country. Now, there the Center for EU Enlargement Studies at the Central Eu- has to be a special approach to Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia, ropean University, how do you understand the relationship since all three are direct neighbors of Hungary. And perhaps between the current process of EU enlargement and col- it goes without saying, but they are very different countries. lective memory? Hungarians and Serbs committed mutual atrocities during the Péter Balázs: We are investigating the chances of EU en- Second World War. There were massacres committed by the largement based on the enlargement reports of the European Hungarian army in Novi Sad in 1942, and there was bloody Commission. It always produces a list of candidates at differ- revenge on behalf of the partisans of Tito in 1945. The two ent stages, some of them already at the negotiating table, like countries managed to commemorate both events together by Iceland and Turkey, while others have already been successful official visits to both sites. So these are very painful and very in negotiations, like Croatia. And there are still others that difficult operations, depending on the partners. There are- al have different qualifications, like “candidate” or “potential most no problems with Slovenia or Austria, but in most neigh- candidate.” The narrow circle of potential EU members cov- boring states radicalism and nationalism have re-emerged, so ers exactly thirty-six countries, including Iceland, Turkey, and we have more problems with such issues than twenty years the whole western Balkans, among others. The EU is in talks ago, right after the transformation. with all these countries without a clear plan, timetable or, blueprint for enlargement. However, promises are made and Do such matters influence national discourse to the point conditions are set. In such cases, the European Commission of questioning the current geopolitical position of Central motivates countries like Serbia, Bosnia, and Albania, saying Europe? that if they comply with all given requirements they can be- The geopolitical context is very good given that Hungary is come members. But, several questions remain. We have set up in NATO and the EU. It is ideal for mutual relations; it can an international research group which includes The University facilitate relations with national minorities on both sides of of California, Berkley, the Sendai University in Istanbul, the its borders. At the same time, in all these countries there are EBRD in London, and several others. Issue by issue we take abandoned traditions of nationalism. With an economic crisis, such questions into consideration, starting with the single extremists are always stronger, and this is currently the case. market, infrastructure projects, institutions, and the budget, Their activities and impact depend on their position in the and we try to develop some stimulating ideas. government. If they are in government then they are stronger. They can influence education, diplomacy and many other In the framework of this EU 36 project you make recom- things. This is the case in Hungary, for the time being, but mendations to the European Commission with respect to it is not the case in Poland anymore. It used to be the case in the role of history in the political process. But this is not Slovakia, already twice, once with Meciar and for the second the only research on the politics of memory that your insti- time in the first Fico government when Jan Slota was a coali- tution is carrying out. tion partner. Yes. One of the important issues for the EU Commission is developing historical reconciliation and relations between all What is the usual direction that such things take? potential EU members. But we have parallel projects that deal When radical right parties are in power they usually go back with that too, including “The Seven Neighbors of Hungary – to the historical roots of nationalism. In Hungary, but also in Questions of Historical Reconciliation and Cooperation in the Slovakia, there is a very clear connection between the con- 21st Century.” We are looking at the state of historical rec- temporary radical right parties and the fascist parties of the onciliation, as of today, and we are inviting the ambassadors Second World War, for example. The same or very similar uni- of neighboring countries like Romania, Croatia, Slovakia, and forms, the same rhetoric but with a less anti-Semitic and more others to ask them about their relations with Hungary, as seen anti-Roma angle. from the outside. It is very interesting given that the geopolitical situation for Hungary is entirely new, and it has never had Have we forgotten the past? Or perhaps we need a more seven neighbors. We have to identify key problems in a very scholarly approach to history that does not simply follow specific bilateral context, which also means that we have to the framework of a nation? deal with history education in seven different cases. It is extremely important and it can be very useful to restore objectivity in history. There are a dozen fairytales about the Can you give some examples? origin of Hungarians: how we came to the Carpathian Basin, For instance, relations with Slovakia are very different from about a few glorious kings, about our historical revolutions previous relations with Czechoslovakia. As a single state, it and losses – stories about the glory of the nation. But they was easier to settle neighborhood problems just between Bu- are not real; they are somehow too rosy or too dark. This is dapest and Prague. Going to Bratislava to build communica- what average citizens know about history, and this is not real tion with representatives of the Slovak state is simply more history. Therefore, it would be important to write about the complicated and sensitive. And we need an interpretation and present and the immediate past. solutions for the Beneš Decrees. It is harder when there are nationalist forces in power. How is this possible while avoiding the trap of fairytales? Serbia is an altogether different case. The setup is very First by addressing the immediate past that influenced the similar, since before it was part of Yugoslavia. Back then, when present situation. So we need a book about the history of the Hungarian and Yugoslavian officials had a talk, they were region in the twentieth century. Maybe in a few cases we can speaking about the whole of Yugoslavia, which had a balanc- go a bit further but not further than the ninetieth century.

44 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Reconciliation in focus Interview

books were produced on that reconciliation, in serious dramas and funny stories, all pushing the two nations to work with each other. It was also about the exchange of young people between the countries, learning each other’s languages, teaching each other’s history, geography and literature. It was a huge task which has to be done here, because only the old bad traditions will survive without that kind of work.

There was an effort made in this direction. Slovaks and Hun- garians jointly declared the desire to have such a common history textbook. However, nothing has been done to make

photo ASSOCIATphoto NE WS E D P RE SS/ AST this a reality.

It is extremely important and it can be very useful to restore objectivity in history.

This should help explain the present situation we are all in. We Well, something has been done. This was a mutual wish of some would then need to apply some historiographical methodolo- historians, but we could not agree with each other on common gy. For instance, we could show the mirror image of any nation studies, only parallel studies. But it’s already a good thing, a good in the eyes of its neighbors. How the Czechs have perceived first step in saying that we are describing the same event from two Hungarians, how the Hungarians have looked at Romanians, sides. It’s already meaningful to learn about mutual perspectives. and so on. We should learnabout our prejudices toward each However, the whole process is not moving forward, so we could other. Then we could make a comparative study of how rela- not reach the stage of publishing a book. There are a lot of manu- tions with neighbors developed. Why did they help each other, scripts, on both sides, and they should be published. why did they have conflicts, etc.? This is why I very much like American history books When it comes to multilateral relations there are hardly any about Europe. They treat history from a different perspec- examples of such a process. Nordic Council countries have tive. We also should progress toward units larger than nation consulted each other on their textbooks. Do you think it is states, like the Hungarian dualistic empire and the real reasons possible in a group of countries like the V4? of its failure and end. Just like the end of the Soviet Union, or Problems are bilateral, so you can define the problems in a bilat- the end of Yugoslavia. eral context. Hungarian and Slovak relationships are far removed from, let’s say, Austrian and Slovak relationships. Solutions That is a research task. But there is also a pedagogical should be developed in a bilateral context and in larger circles, task when history serves as a common point of reference. though not too large. The Visegrad Group, for instance, can in- Do you think it is an important tool in a process of recon- spire people, and they can learn from each other’s examples. In ciliation? this way, they can encourage each other and they can transfer the In my opinion, the best example is German-French reconcili- best practices. So yes, it is meaningful. ation, given that both nations had this as an objective. Such a reconciliation process can move forward only if both sides are Do you think such a process is also possible in relation to engaged, if they are motivated and are willing to act. If any of larger countries like Russia? the two sides decides to misuse the historical legacy and de- It is not a question of size, but it is a question of political attitude. liberately introduce false interpretations, then it’s very easy to Germany is a larger partner, but it was possible with Germany. increase nationalist feelings and to act against reconciliation. So you can speak openly with the Germans, and they are good But what must be present at the outset is will. partners. Relations with Russia are a very sensitive issue, particu- The EU has mostly neglected that issue, as did NATO, larly because there is still a question of self-identification on the when new members who have deep traditions of mutual ha- Russian side. Hungary was relatively lucky because we managed tred were accepted. So nobody asked them to deal with that to settle the 1956 confrontation with the Soviet Army. But I know issue, putting that to an end. It was just ignored. If you take that for Poland things are much more difficult. Sensitivity on both the German-French example, considering how many films and sides makes the process of reconciliation very emotional.

45 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes

conversation

Pavol Rankov is a Slovak writer, winner of the European Literary Prize for his novel It Happened on September the First (or Whenever).

Viktor Horváth is a Hungarian writer and translator who teaches at the University of Pécs. photos Lubo Bechný Lubo photos

Krzysztof Varga is a Polish writer with partly Hungarian origins, literary critic, and editor of Gazeta Wyborcza daily.

Three prominent Central European writers discuss prejudices about neighbors, focusing on traumas from the beginning of the twentieth century.

46 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

Neighbors and Shadows

Pavol Rankov: The topic of our discussion is how na- history there have been several events, based on mutual af- tions relate to their pasts and the pasts of their neighbors. fection, which brought the two nations together. Likewise, I would like to welcome Viktor Horváth, a Hungarian writer, there were times when we were neighbors for centuries and and Krzysztof Varga, a Polish author, who is half Hungarian had serious conflicts; conflicts that only historians would by way of his father. know about, since they were affairs of the aristocracy about Slovakia shares its longest borders with Poland and which 98% of the population has no idea. Hungary. These countries have frequently run Slovakia over, often through political alliance. We Slovaks often didn’t no- Krzysztof Varga: I am thrilled to be in such great tice this relationship. As an introduction, I’d therefore like company here, it must mean that the subject is very interest- to ask you each to describe this interesting friendship being. Relations with Hungarians are exceptionally important tween Poles and Hungarians; moments in history when they for Poles and operate on two levels: (1) historical and (2) expressed reciprocal support, solidarity and sympathy, mo- symbolic. The symbolic level starts with a proverb, which ments that show just how close Hungarians and Poles have is also well-known in Hungary: “Polak wegier dwa bratanki, been. tak do szabli tak do szklanki – Lengyel, magyar, két jó barát, együtt emel kardot, kupát!“ [Pole, Hungarian, two good Viktor Horváth: As far as I can tell, the relationship friends, together they battle and drink their wine!] Moreo- between the two nations is an ambiguous one, in which ver, Poles feel a strong spiritual connection with Hungar- facts are mixed with myths, and emotions and projections ians, one that is much stronger than with other nations. I am influence data. It often happens that mythical events are living proof of this bond. These close ties are also based on supported by suitable data; collective consciousness shapes Polish-Hungarian history. Viktor already talked about close events based on its needs, thus rendering the situation ab- connections in the Middle Ages, about Polish kings being stract. Even the word friendship itself is abstract, let alone Hungarian kings and vice-versa. Báthory István, Voivode of the friendship of nations. Transylvania, and King of Hungary was perhaps the most Of course, it’s easy to be friends when we are not neigh- successful Polish king. The key to understanding the rela- bors. Hungary occasionally had Polish kings, and in modern tions between the two nations is in the 19th century, when

47 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes

similarities in identities, such as the mutual need to fight optimistic, and melancholic. My views on Hungarians origi- off enemies, became evident. For Poles, it was the Russians, nated from these stereotypes, but they also overcame them, Germans or Prussians, while for the Hungarians it was the or at least they overcame the one believed by the majority of Germans, the Austrian parts of the empire and, of course, Polish society. There’s a certain paradox here. On one hand, the Ottoman Empire. Numerous Polish soldiers fought in as we mentioned, Poles, due to historical events, are highly Kossuth’s army in the revolution of 1848 and General Józef sympathetic toward Hungarians and think of them as a na- Bem is a hero in Hungary and Poland. Let’s fast forward 100 tion with very close ties, but they actually know very little years! The revolution of 1956 actually began with the monu- about Hungarians in general. Undoubtedly there are stereo- ment honoring General Bem. That’s going to be it for the types; however, I believe Poles are very different from Hun- historical overview. However, I’d like to point out another garians when it comes to mentality. Despite being neither fact, one which is not often mentioned. In 1920, as the Poles a psychologist nor sociologist, I notice the differences. For were fighting against Bolshevik Russia, the majority of Cen- example, Poles are a typical example of a community that tral Europe (mostly leftist and communist) did not support becomes angry quickly, they get really fired up! Just like a them, as they actually supported the Bolsheviks. Although flash in the pan! However, it’s also in their nature to quickly the very weapons the Poles were using to fight against the extinguish that same fire. Let me illustrate this with an ex- Bolsheviks were manufactured in a factory in Csepel. And ample: In the 19th century, the Poles had about four or five lastly, I’d like to mention one more point that perhaps pro- revolts, all unsuccessful and insignificant. Hungarians had vides insight into the origins of the relatively friendly rela- one in 1848, one which was the most significant in Europe. tions in question. Poles and Hungarians have never actually Similarly in the 20th century, Poland had minor uprisings in fought against each other. 1956, 1968, and 1970, again without major significance. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was heard around the world. Pavol Rankov: Our meeting today was actually inspired These examples show how quickly Poles “light up” and go by Krzysztof Varga’s book, Turul Stew. The book describes out just as fast. By contrast, Hungarians can sustain such Hungary and Hungarians from a Polish perspective. As an outbursts, and if they start something, they usually do it author, Krzysztof is concerned with Hungarian melancholy, right and finish the job. calling it a national trait. He claims that melancholy comes from nostalgia and has its origins in those glorious days and Pavol Rankov: Speaking of Polish and Hungarian up- memories of the past. My question would therefore be: Why risings, let’s stay in the 20th century. When the Poles fought is it that Hungarians feel this nostalgia, when the French, the against the communists in the 1920s, or in 1939 against the Spanish, or the English, who all had far more glorious pasts Germans, they naively believed that the West would help. In and have lost significantly larger territories and political in- 1956, the Hungarians similarly believed in Western aid. I’d fluence, seemingly do not? Why is melancholy and nostalgia like to ask the following question: What do Poles and Hun- so powerful and common amongst Hungarians? garians think about their countries' significance in a West- ern European context? If such an event were to happen now, Viktor Horváth: First, I would like to add to what Kr- do they think the West would rush to help? Or if the 20th zysztof said. He mentioned the origins of Hungarian-Polish century were repeated, how would they imagine the roles of friendship dating back to the 19th century in the context of their respective countries, again as viewed from a Western struggles for independence. That’s when the myth began, European perspective? when the situation, in the context of the history of ideas, finally changed. This was a period of the birth of nations and Krzysztof Varga: At present, the situation is very dif- nationalism, when the nation as an idea began to function as ferent, and it’s not necessary for Poland to expect help from a kind of religion. It was a great intellectual environment for the West. There are some events of the 20th century, which a nation to find another that seemed to share in its destiny. are rarely discussed within Poland, such as Poland’s support My point is that I wouldn’t necessarily attribute this shift for the eradication of Czeschoslovakia after the Munich to historical events (battles, rulers, wars, etc.), since those Agreement and right before the start of World War II. When had existed before. I would rather say that we are talking Poland was subsequently attacked by Germany, the Slovaks about an ideological shift. The question could therefore be attacked Southern Poland. However minor this war actually restated: After such a past, why are the Hungarians melan- was, it was still a Polish-Slovak conflict. Notwithstanding cholic? My own answer would be that such melancholy is a all of that, Central Europe remains an extremely interesting stereotype. But then again, stereotypes all have their seeds area, and that’s precisely why these hidden, dark events need somewhere, so there’s got to be something there in the case to be discussed, even if they are unpleasant for one country of melancholy. However, I’m not affected by it. or the other. It’s a common characteristic of the people of Central Europe to describe themselves as victims of history, Krzysztof Varga: I’d like to add to this point and em- talking about their endless suffering. It’s very rare to accept phasize the importance of the 19th century from the per- the reverse, that sometimes they actually caused suffering spective of the development of modern nations. Prior to for others. Yet another stereotype: it’s easier to be the victim that, it was a history of royal dynasties, so I would definitely of history. Now that describes Central Europe. agree with what Viktor said. Of course, stereotypes exist, especially as things relate to national mentality. Through Viktor Horváth: I’ve got a question for Krzysztof re- these kinds of mechanisms nations are labeled happy, sad, garding what he just said. In your opinion, how’s the process

48 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

of historical reckoning working out in Poland? I spent six ing much stronger – this is a type of nationalism that prefers months living in Germany, and one of the defining experi- to look at Hungarians as victims and only as victims. Actually, ences of my life was to hear how fascism and the Holocaust Hungarians are victims, just as many other countries and they were still, after all these years, discussed on a day-to-day ba- are just as culpable too. I hope there will come a time when sis on the radio. There were numerous programs on many these extremes will offset each other, creating a balance and channels dedicated to the issue, and it seemed like they then finally a common book of history can be written. The were constantly working on this notion of facing their past. French and the Germans also hated each other and fought for In Hungary, I don’t see this happening. One could say the centuries. By now, they’ve got their common history book. whole thing is missing. It’s replaced by a strange, sick fluctu- Just for the sake of discussion, I’d like to digress a bit and ation, one side blames the other, depending on which party talk about Hungarians and Serbs. When the Hungarian Army is in charge at the moment, and we’re all just victims. Then marched on Novi Sad, Serbia in 1942, the streets were filled the pendulum swings again. with Serbian bodies slaughtered at the hands of Hungarians. In return, when the partisans of Tito captured the city, they Krzysztof Varga: This is a very significant question. slaughtered Hungarians as revenge. Only the first incident The Germans are the chief culprits. They are responsible for was talked about prior to 1990, there was even a movie enti- what happened during World War II. And this process of tled Hideg napok (Cold days). After 2000, one could only hear dealing with the past has been going on since the end of the about the deeds of the partisans, and that’s a similarly un- war. As you have mentioned, it’s quite a long process, which healthy situation. Always being the victim is very suspicious. is a much deeper part of them, than it is of Hungarians, No individual or community is always the victim. Perhaps Poles, and Slovaks, all of whom have not properly dealt with we found the answer to Pavol’s question about melancholy. it. The problems in their respective cases don’t have such deep roots, and thus are not so strongly related to traumas Pavol Rankov: In his book Turul Stew, Krzysztof actu- as in the case of the Germans. If we look at Austria, for ex- ally sees no prospects for Hungarian efforts to successfully ample, we find a country that supposedly became the first revive that famous Monarchy. He mentions it several times victim of fascist Germany after its occupation. In reality, the in the novel, stating that it’s just never going to happen. Why situation is obviously quite different. Actually, Austria be- don’t you think it’s possible to reacquire even a small part came an organic part of Germany. The SS officers were part of the territories. Why do you reject the notion of Hungary of the regime. They awaited Hitler’s arrival in Austria. From reclaiming its past status? Can’t we bring back the glorious a Polish perspective, let’s look at the case of Jedwabne. It’s past? a small village on the Eastern border, where in 1942, after the Germans had attacked the Soviet Union, it wasn’t the Ger- Krzysztof Varga: I think these questions are a bit mans who murdered people, but rather the “Polish fascists”, provocative, since a Slovak is asking whether it’s possible who slaughtered their own countrymen. Jews were killed in for Hungary to revive itself or not. I happen to like the cur- brutal fashion; several hundred of them were led into sheds rent situation, being a part of the European Union and able that were then set on fire. This case was never talked about. to travel freely without a passport – both of these things And only when a book came out did some Poles acknowl- seemed like impossible, unattainable dreams just decades edge the truth. That’s when it became clear that they were ago. I don’t know how the future is going to play itself out, not just victims, but they actually carried out monstrous but one thing is for sure, the future of Central Europe de- acts. This event is so important, because it’s as if the Poles pends on how small nations can deal with their pasts as well were set free. They became aware that nothing is as obvious as their national egotism. Will they be able to get along with as it seems. Just like for Hungarians, when Szálasi took over their next – door neighbors? It’s not just a Slovak–Hungar- for Horthy in 1944. Terrible things happened to the Jews ian problem, but a Polish–Lithuanian one. (Lithuania, as a back then. Yet it still seems as if the Hungarians don’t want young nation, is trying to solidify its position by using Lithu- to talk openly about this issue, and it therefore gets swept anian names for everything, which isn’t really a great idea under the rug. and proves the nation’s narrow-mindedness rather than its greatness.) It’s going to be interesting to see how it will all Viktor Horváth: The point on which Krzysztof and pan out. Central European history is still in motion, Fukuy- I agree is that in the case of Hungarians and other Central ama was wrong about the end of history, it’s only just be- European nations, dealing with the past or reliving the expe- ginning! I’ve got another story: I was working for Gazeta rience just didn’t happen. Such mental cleansing starts with Wyborcza on an article. I don’t recall the year, but it was the coming out and talking about these things, discussing and anniversary of the Slovak National Uprising. The article was analyzing them. I don’t mean atonement or self-flagellation, written by a Slovak historian whose name I’ve forgotten. It but a weighing of the events, facing them, and realizing our talked about the enormous role played by the Slovak Na- responsibility. Right now, it seems as if the issue is between tional Uprising in ending fascism and thus World War II. two extremes. During 40 years of socialism, a small nation, President Tiso was never mentioned in the whole article. Yet especially a loser of WWII, had to atone for its sins. This is another example of important and inconvenient issues get- also unhealthy, as things do get overlooked. At present, the ting swept under the rug. Clearly it’s very difficult to talk decades-long suppression of healthy nationalistic feelings is about some of these topics; rather than risking provocation being paid off a hundred times over. This backlash began and they suppress them. has continued since 1990, with unhealthy nationalism becom- Translated by Ábel Mészáros

49 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes Teaching history is one of the never-ending public debates. A Hungarian journalist and a Slovak researcher investigate the nature of history teaching in their respective countries. Two points of view are accompanied by a short review of reforms in history teaching in the V4 and some of its neighbors. Imre V Imre arga arga

50 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

History Education and Regime Change: The Case of Slovak Textbooks

Slávka Otčenášová The History of Teaching istory education in Central thors. But often, the textbooks were either Europe, from the very out- Czech textbooks translated into Slovak or 1989–2012 set of its institutionaliza- they were “Slovakized” textbooks, meaning tion in the 19th century, has translated Czech textbooks that had addi- POLAND been tasked with develop- tional material referring to Slovak national ingH the loyalty of citizens toward their re- history. Interwar textbooks described the > After 1991: First new education laws in- spective states and advancing the values 9th century Principality of Great Moravia troduced after 1989. of governing elites. In this way, history as the first common state of the Czechs > 1999: Complex educational reform. education has been instrumentalized by and Slovaks, and Czechoslovakia was pre- Schools are required to follow the core the state to impart a collective identity sented as the reincarnation of this medieval curriculum and available selection of and memory to the citizenry. This was structure, reborn after hundreds of years of textbooks approved by the Ministry of achieved by the selection of topics from involuntary separation. Textbooks praised Education. At the primary level, these re- the national past for textbooks which the spread of Christianity supported by the forms introduce History and Civics. At the were effective in creating and identify- local ruling elites of Great Moravia, noting secondary level, four separate modules of ing friends and enemies, thereby yielding that “Poles and Hungarians became familiar history are introduced: World, European, images of “self” and the “other.” Next to with Christianity via Czechoslovaks.” This Polish and Regional History (additionally the family, media, and public ceremonies, created an image of the nation as a superior classes are included on family and oral history served in the perception forma- mediator of civilization, responsible for el- history). tion of students, by means of which they evating its neighbors in intellect and spirit. > 2012: Reform of school curriculum. His- would come to understand themselves The Hussite movement of the 15th century tory only obligatory after the 1st year of and the wider world. was likewise underscored in this construc- high school for programs with a “humani- As political regimes have changed, so tion of the concept of “Czechoslovak.” The ties” profile. Instead, a new school subject have narrations of national history. History majority of history textbooks referred to is introduced — a combination of History has been shaped, in various different ways, Czechs, Slovaks, and Moravians fighting and Society with recommended modules so as to make the political programs of with courage side by side in Jan Jiskra’s army, that include: “Europe And The World,” governing elites (whoever they may be at a creating the impression of an ideological, “War and Military Systems,” “Woman, given moment) appear natural, legitimate, spiritual, and physical unity between the Man, and Family,” and “The Fatherland and most desirable in light of historical de- nations. Hussites were depicted as the best Pantheon and Disputes.” The curriculum velopment. The history textbooks of Slovak representatives of the nation: “The ideals of is set by the Ministry of Education and schools in the 20th century are a perfect courage, fearlessness, and love for the fa- must be respected by all schools. case in point. therland which they protected from the evil > Number of history lessons: two hours per Czechoslovakia was established as enemies of the Czech language and nation.” week (more in classes with specialized a new state in 1918. History education Consequently, the Czechoslovak spirit was “humanities” profiles). was supposed to justify the existence of defined by high and unique moral princi- this newly-formed state by searching for ples: “Hussitism raised moral and brave CZECH REPUBLIC its tradition in the past, thereby creating spirit in the Czech nation. This spirit was a common collective identity and mode reincarnated in the Czechoslovak people > 1990s: Educational reforms supporting of internal relations for the so-called in the preceding century in their fights the liberalization of education are passed. Czechoslovak nation. These history books for freedom and independence and in the Preparation of teachers’ aids (textbooks, generally took three forms. There were World War in foreign legions.” Interwar etc.) is handed over to the “market.” After simply textbooks written by Slovak au- history textbooks also reflected the politi- 1990, six publishing houses edit over

51 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes

sixty history books, all presenting different cal relations of Czechoslovakia toward its ies, and the construction of collective iden- interpretations and methods of organizing neighbors. Germans and Hungarians re- tity was based on the admixture of class content. The only teaching aids that are ceived the most sustained attention of the and nationalist principles. A new paradigm universally used are the historical atlases textbooks. They were usually represented was applied in the construction of the im- published between 1995 and 2001. as oppressors of Slavs and usurpers, who age of Germans and Hungarians. On the > 2004: Introduction of New Educational occupied regions historically belonging to one hand, these nations were represented Act. Schools design their own curricula Czechs and Slovaks. This negative image as enemies of Slavs and oppressive foreign (teaching plans, syllabi, and modules) and was intensified by the description of Austro- rulers, which were an obstacle in the self- are free to structure and combine educa- Hungary as the “prison of non-German and emancipation of Slovaks and Czechs. On tional content into subjects as they see fit. non-Hungarian nations.” the other hand, class membership became > 2007: Adoption of the Framework Educa- On the eve of WWII, Czechoslovakia as important as nationality in history text- tion Program for Basic Education. In pri- was dissolved. The Czech lands and books narratives: mary education, history is part of the Peo- Moravian region became part of Germany, ple and Their World module, focusing on as the Protectorate. Slovakia became an in- Hussite revolutionary movement had assigning events to time, the processes of dependent state under German influence. In an anti-feudal and democratic char- history formation, and the most important Slovakia, a change occurred in the political acter and, therefore, it became of an moments in the history of the Czech Re- sphere: the previously dominant Lutheran international importance. Although public. At the secondary level, history edu- intelligentsia was replaced by Catholic this revolt was connected with the cation (conducted together with civics) is clergy. Reflecting these shifts, official his- strengthening of the Czech national part of the family of subjects entitled Peo- toriography took a new course. Textbooks pride, the Hussite movement thor- ple and Society — the objective of which used in Slovak schools during WWII inter- oughly applied the principle of inter- is to cultivate historical consciousness preted the establishment of a Slovak state as national solidarity. While the German and the continuity of historical memory, the optimal historical development of the patriciate was as an enemy suppressed, with particular focus placed on the 19th Slovak nation, finding the tradition of an the German poor became the ally of and 20th centuries, and the history of the independent nation-state in the medieval Hussites at home, as well as abroad. Czech Republic introduced in a wide Euro- state of Great Moravia, but now without pean context. The objectives of teaching mentioning the Czechs. Collective identity The transitional years from 1989–1993 history are not set independently, and was based on the concept of Christianity, brought similarly dramatic changes to subjects introduced by the curriculum especially Catholicism: “The Slovak nation, Slovak society. Most notably the dissolution should be elaborated by the schools ac- already at the time of its first performance of Czechoslovakia and the establishment of cording to their preferences. on the stage of European history, was in the Slovak Republic in 1993, which encour- > Number of history lessons: two to three service of Christian culture, which became aged yet another reassessment of the past. hours per week. (Varies between primary a safe pathway towards its future.” All other For historians, this involved distanc- and secondary schools). forms of religious identity, such as Islam, ing themselves from the ideological con- Judaism, Hussitism, and even Lutheranism, straints of the previous era, coupled with an SLOVAKIA were described as holdouts against the his- emergent need for answers: how might they torical development of the Slovak nation. redefine the “essence” of Slovak history, and > 1990: Structural changes in curriculum There was no longer a political need to rep- how could they properly overcome the lim- content of subjects based on the ideol- resent Czechs and Slovaks as one nation, itations exerted on the historical sciences ogy of the Communist Party of Czecho- and the description of Czechs in textbooks in the past. History teachers themselves slovakia, especially in History and Civic was influenced by frustration. The image of were largely unprepared to face the new Education. After gaining independence, Germans and Hungarians likewise changed. situation. Although primary schools were twenty-eight legal reforms in education They were no longer represented as exclu- gradually provided newly written teaching were introduced in the period between sively inhibiting forces. materials and history textbooks from the 1994 and 2008. History textbooks produced in beginning of the 1990s, it took a long time > 1997: Changes in the content of history Czechoslovakia during the communist era for historians to produce new textbooks for lessons – greater emphasis on National were joint productions of Czech and Slovak high schools, and teachers were required, in history (40%) over European history historians. There was always one textbook some cases until as late as the beginning of (30%), World history (20%) and Regional for each particular grade and one edition the 2000s, when an entirely new set of text- and Local history (10%). was published in Czech and another in books was finally published, to use the old > 2008: Education Act introduces a central Slovak. A central topic in such textbooks textbooks produced during communism. curricular policy. School educational pro- was occupied by the tradition of revolu- In the meantime, new master narratives grams must be in accordance with the tion, which was seen as the moving force in were sought out. Political elites demanded national education program developed by history. History was interpreted within the the reconstruction of the national past in the National Institute of Education and limits of Marxist paradigms of periodiza- line with the the rising nationalism and iso- approved by the Ministry of Education. tion and the struggle between classes, i.e. lationism that characterized the first half of At the primary level, the program is intro- the oppressed and the oppressors. History the 1990s. The influence of these groups duced as History & Geography. By con- was a drawn – out fight of serfs and workers was primarily asserted through their de- trast, the secondary level offers history, against reactionary feudal rulers and capital- cision to introduce a textbook for history geography, and civics together within the ists. Czechs and Slovaks were represented as education that was not generally accepted Man & Society module, although history is working class people and true revolutionar- by academic circles in Slovakia. The ma-

52 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

jority of historians saw the textbook as the business of producing loyal citizens with a likewise taught as a separate subject. The revival of historical myth-making and as a shared collective memory, and it continues aim of the history program is the forma- simplistic tool for the negative stereotyping to focus on grand narratives about the “he- tion of historical and national conscious- of others. The book subsequently became roic” past of the nation. At the same time, ness (“healthy nationalism”), alongside a divisive issue in Slovak society. Finally, there have been numerous projects and the development of values based on with pressure from the institutions of the initiatives that try to utilize history educa- humanity and democracy. For this reason, European Union, the textbook was with- tion to aid students in the development of political history occupies nearly 70% of drawn from public school education by the critical-thinking skills, educating them in the program. Ministry of Education in 1997. democratic values of mutual respect and > Number of history lessons: one to two During the past several decades, some estimation. I believe that this process will hours per week. (Varies between primary Western European countries have sought eventually be institutionalized within the and secondary schools). to transform history education from an state educational system. exercise in nation-building to a space for HUNGARY skill-development. While this approach is The author is an assistant professor at the Depart- highly recommended by European Union ment of History of Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in > 1993: The Public Education Act is institutions, it has gained little ground in Košice. Her work deals with problems of national- adopted, resulting in the decentralization Slovakia. History education is still in the ism, collective identity, and collective memory. of education. Schools prepare their own pedagogical program between 1996 and 1998, developing local curricula. Schools alter the programs of the most politically volatile subjects (literature and history) and selected new textbooks, thereby ending ideological restrictions on education. > 1995: Introduction of the National Core A History Lesson Curriculum which defines the common materials for teaching national culture for Good Pupils and sets general regulations for basic education. > 2000: Introduction of the Framework Cur- Tamás Gomperz ricula for all schools which provides inter- mediary regulation between the National Core Curriculum and local syllabi. Public schools must meet national regulations hen we taught you not to to free yourself from the paralyzing pain while preserving as much autonomy as love your country, and of self pity. To do so, you simply have to possible. History is first taught as part of we taught you to keep an draw different conclusions from history. a broader History and Civics module, and open mind, and to think Let’s start with the idea that because later, in grades nine to twelve, it is taught globally, we made a big of Trianon, Hungary has suffered a catas- as a standalone subject. Wmistake. We were actually teaching you trophe that no other nation has had to > Number of history lessons: approximately our own close-minded and embittered endure. This particular conviction fits per- two per week in primary and between nationalism. And even though it’s a dis- fectly with a national identity defined (in three and four per week in secondary. ease, we still were willing to pass it on. its past and present) by endless calamity This disease often results in the follow- and penance. Its also the sound of death UKRAINE ing symptoms: you find yourself distrust- rattle and weeping. Let’s be honest, that’s ing everyone around you, you are filled not motivating. And it’s not even true. > A fter 1991: Following independence, the with hate, and you try to cover up your Hungary’s losses cannot be com- educational system was one of the first inferiority complex with growling and pared to the vanished empires of the social spheres that very rapidly under- grumbling. You might even embarass British or Spanish. Although, losing a went radical transformation. These re- yourself and the entire country by run- foreign colony is certainly not the same forms necessarily included the structural ning around town with the urns of Arrow as the annexation of some of your pop- re-organization of the curricula. Cross Party1 politicians. ulation to a neighboring country. Nor > 1996: New law on education is passed, But let’s say that you, unlike such should we be hypocrites. An average which organizes the structure of educa- suffering souls, don’t care about what Hungarian citizen can’t name five cities tion. The Ministry of Education is respon- took place in your great-grandfather’s in Transylvania, cares nothing about the sible for the working out of the standard time. That wouldn’t be a problem, in and people living there, and, in all likelihood, curricula for schools on different levels. of itself. But at some point, you’ll have never travels there. Trianon only “hurts” > 1999: Introduction of The Law on General to encounter the fake beliefs and super- this citizen because the country has got- Secondary Education, which provides stitions that the Hungarian people have ten smaller. As painful as that may be, it changes in structure and content. The extracted and distilled from this history, is far from unique. basic curriculum consists of two main A fabrication that has only been used for For example, Serbians are probably elements: a state component, determined self-torment. You still have the chance going through a similarly traumatic ex- by the Ministry of Education and Science

53 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes

and obligatory for all secondary educa- perience at present, with the carving up Union’s insistence on enforcing vol- tional institutions (e.g. history program), of their multinational state. The first les- untarily accepted contracts a form of and an optional component, developed son is therefore not to pride yourself on colonization. by schools individually. Two separate sub- the unprecedented misfortunes of your Without its own army, the country, jects in secondary education: The History nation, for it might anger the Lord of in which Hungarians were only the larg- of Ukraine and World History. An obvious History. There are countless people who est minority, was held together by the “war of textbooks” exists between West- have never had their own state. Or worse band of the monarchy. And this probably ern and Eastern Ukraine, with either side yet, they had their own state, but lost held the country in place for a lot longer offering strikingly different interpretations their independence or were obliterated. than Hungarians could have on their of a range of terms and events, which That is the least of it, though. The own. Had the monarchy been able to mobilize different aspects of national more harmful delusion says that (and survive, maybe the endgame would have identity. (See the study of Karina Koros- whether it does so implicitly or explic- come later, but demographic factors and telina, 2009) itly, this is the starting point for all of the virulent nationalism ensured its eventual > Number of history lessons: two to three lamentations, vehemence, and political disintegration. per week. (Varies between primary and action) the tragedy of Trianon could have Why am I telling you this story? secondary schools). been avoided. That Greater-Hungary, Because Hungary would have had to the one you see on bumper stickers give up its independence, regardless. AUSTRIA and kitchen walls, could have lived and Greater-Hungary and an independent then this whole country, with all of the Hungary were/are mutually exclusive > The legal basis for education in Austria is Carpathian Basin, would be there for entities. A greater power was needed to the School Act of 1962, which has subse- the Hungarians. For close to a hundred hold it together. Now, you can draw an- quently been revised at various points. years, this lie has been poisoning the col- other conclusion: the intolerant revision- > 1995: Beginning of fundamental school lective well, but in reality the country was ist ideologies of “Hungary belongs to the reform: the autonomy of schools is se- beyond saving. Perhaps it wouldn’t have Hungarians” and “No, No, Never” are not cured by their ability to establish particu- fallen apart exactly ninety years ago, with very sophisticated, but taken together lar areas of emphasis. A gradual imple- the exact same border lines drawn, but they are actually lies. Even if these ide- mentation of new curricula on the level of the disintegration was inevitable. ologies are presented simultaneously and secondary schools also begins, although A nation may be held together by by the same people. the curricular autonomy provisions allow the consent of the majority or via an Why is all of this relevant? There are for individual schools to organize their army. Over half of the inhabitants of the two reasons. The inability of doctors and own programs within the general frame- Hungarian Kingdom of the last century medical scientists to save a 102-year-old work. At the primary level, only Local His- did not want a common country. Given woman may really hurt us, but it would tory (together with geography & biology) that these same inhabitants lived in inter- be different if we were talking about a is offered, whereas at the secondary level connected territories between the center child. The disintegration of Hungary may history is part of the History and Social of the country and its borders, it became hurt, especially the severe economic and Studies module. obvious that the people, along with their cultural hardships it caused, but we feel > 2000: Introduction of a new curriculum, land, were eventually going to leave. This different about the pain if we think it developed by an expert group (comprised only could have been prevented or post- could have been avoided, as opposed to of teachers, professors, school inspectors, poned by using military power, a power when we acknowledge it as the inevitable and representatives of the Ministry of that Hungary did not have. Not only did end to a long life. Education, Science, and Culture). This in- it not have this power in 1920, but it has Moreover, when something could cludes an introduction to History and Po- not had it for the past four hundred years. have been avoided, someone is usually litical Education. The Austrian school laws In this sense, this version of Hungary responsible. However, if it is inevitable, or encourage a reasonable balance between was not lost after World War I, but in the at least the result of a decision made by national, European and international 1500s, when the nation fell apart and was a million people, then reasonable people topics. Models of citizenship and human never subsequently unified. Only dur- do not look for scapegoats. That is why rights are taught in conjunction with his- ing Ottoman rule could one have put Károlyi, Tisza, Apponyi, the Jews, the tory, including most current events. a Greater-Hungary bumper sticker on foreigners, including those snail-eating > Number of history lessons: two to three a wagon out of nostalgia. By the time French, the disingenous Romanian diplo- per week. (Varies between primary and of the Austro-Hungarian compromise, mats, and finally Clemenceau’s daughter- secondary schools). after Transylvania and the coastal ter- in-law can not be blamed. The country’s ritories had been re-annexed, only half success is up to you, and not tied to what GERMANY of the population was Hungarian, and happened in Trianon. That is lesson num- the country was no longer independent. ber three. > 1993: Introduction of a special agree- Those who daydream of the restoration Having got this far, we have to con- ment (emended in 2006) by the Standing of old Hungary never imagine a country sider the hard part. How unfair was the Conference of the Ministers of Education that does not carry out its own foreign decision at Trianon? Imagine a country and Cultural Affairs of the Länder on the policy, control its own military and has where half of the people do not want to types of schools and courses of education a ruler who does not speak Hungarian. live with the rest. What is fair? If half presenting a general framework of core This point is worth emphasizing, since of the population forces the other half’s subjects and topics. History is included these same circles consider the European hand? Here is where we ought to intro-

54 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

duce the seldom-practiced, at least in our Hungary took part in launching a war in Social Sciences. It is taught in primary country, method of applying the same that ultimately brought about the death education as part of a wider interdiscipli- set of rules. If the Hungarians have the of twenty million people and levels of nary subject, and then taught separately right to an independent state that is not unprecedented suffering upon Europe. from the sixth grade onward. No national part of the Ottoman, Habsburg, or Soviet Unlike in roulette, where gambling on curriculum exists in Germany, as Länder Empires, then should not the same be true red or black has no moral repercussions, are free to choose their own. for the Slovaks, Croats, and Romanians? starting a war does. And it is just flat – > 2002: Beginning of the development of Do they have the right to their own states out wrong. Even if the Allies were not common national educational standards: independent of Hungary? Even if one is any better, the Germans and the Austro- basic principles, competences, and ex- a federalist and disagrees with the eth- Hungarians were the aggressors. pected levels of achievement are put in nic aspects, this question is still valid. It The winners did what they always do, place. Schools still provide individual cur- is valid because Hungary has never been weaken the opposition, so they chopped ricula which differ between regions — with the vanguard of federalism, even when it Germany and the monarchy to pieces, some following a chronological pattern, mattered. and they also presented their war allies while others utilize comparative and Given two countries, A and B, one with spoils. Now, tell me which of these problem-oriented perspectives. Different could say: let’s draw borders that would decisions would have been opposed by balances likewise exist between national result in the highest possible number of Hungary, had it been on the winning side? and international history. people from country A, as well as living The Second World War, which set- > Number of history lessons: one to two per in country A and the same for B. If that tled the borders for good, is even harder week. (Varies between primary and sec- is fair, then the division after Trianon is to account for, since Hungary was not ondary schools and between states) less unfair, overall, than the previous ar- only an aggressor, but it fought along- rangement. However, it is still very unfair, side (to the last bullet) those for whom SERBIA because based on population placement humanity’s defeat was an interest. These it would have been possible to draw bor- were all decisions. Decisions made by > After 1992: Reforms focused on changes ders better representing the aforemen- politicians that were initially widely sup- in curriculum and adopting a new his- tioned principle. ported by the public. One can mock the tory program dedicated to the history of Have a look at this map made by unprincipled tactics of Romania and its Serbia. Pál Teleki,2 not the enemy. On the one last – minute decision to drop out, but > 2001–2003: Reforms in education begin. hand, it shows why Hungary’s dissolu- just how much better is it to miss that Curricula are made more flexible, allowing tion was inevitable, and on the other final chance to get out of the war or to individual schools to make modifications: hand it also depicts a more just way of follow (on principle) a bunch of insane instead of fixed and mandatory content, laying out its borders. However, that has mass murderers to doom? Let that be the reform introduces a framework with nothing to do with the Greater-Hungary lesson number four: decisions have con- general guidelines. bumper stickers and dreams. That would sequences. If you keep making bad ones, > 2004–2005: Second wave of reforms. mean borders 40 km farther than today you are going to lose badly, without the The newly appointed Ministry of Educa- as well as Székely Land. Not sixty-three chance to minimize your losses. tion annulled the majority of earlier counties. Not Fiume and the beach, even Finally, you need to know that changes, returning to the central curricu- if some people would think it fair for Hungary was incredibly unpopular in lum system implemented by all schools Hungary to control a territory with no Europe before and during the two wars. in Serbia. actual Hungarians living in it. The Vienna Many people complain about the hostile > 2009: Introduction of the new Law of the Arbitration based on the aforementioned attitude of Western politicians and jour- Foundations of the Educational System. principles actually laid out a much fairer nalists toward Hungary. They never think In primary education, history lessons set of borders than the Treaty of Trianon. about why it is that the leaders of the time are taught from fifth grade onward and The only flaw was that Hungary had could not change this attitude. Of course, appear as a separate subject at the sec- Hitler to thank for this. The case for it is because everyone is always conspir- ondary level. Textbooks are based mostly Greater-Hungary was thereby connected ing against us. Our politicians were defi- on political history, and the curriculum to the loss of independence and a disgust- nitely never presumptuous, incompetent, follows chronological order. ing alliance. and obtuse, no way. We just build statues > Number of history lessons: two per week. It would be justifiable to ask why for them. the winners did not opt for a fairer trea- Jędrzej Burszta ty. But there is another lesson for us to Translated by Ábel Mészáros learn. If you play roulette and bet wrong, you lose. Even as part of the monarchy, The author is a Hungarian journalist. references 1 National Socialist Party of Hungary. When in power (1944–1945), it led Hungary to collaborate with Nazi Germany. Its members were later tried for war crimes. 2 Prime minister of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1920–1921 and of Hungary in 1939–1941. Professor and well-known expert in geography. He accepted Germany’s takeover of Czechoslovakia, remained an ally of Poland, and agreed to introduce anti-Semitic laws in Hungary in hopes of preserving the country’s sovereignty.

55 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes The Ghost of Judeopolonia

or the Non-Existent Eastern European Confederation

Zoltán Halasi

A literary excursion into the unfulfilled intellectual project of Judeopolonia, which nevertheless underpinned political and social history. A well-known Hungarian poet investigates traces of a literary work that portrayed the League of East European States – a buffer zone concept between Germany and Russia considered by some around the first World War to be the same as the mid-19th century concept of Jewish domination in Poland.

56 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

oland was stolen. It was establishing a multiethnic state, as Poland would be recognized as a multiethnic fed- stolen in a way that was was under the rule of the Jagiellonian dy- eration under German protection, its form almost unrecognizable. nasty. He would never renounce claims to of government would be a monarchy, its Poland vanished. It was Belorussian, Ukrainian, and Lithuanian capital would be Lublin, and its ruler a believed to be in its origi- lands. Dmowski, an aggressive anti-Sem- Hohenzollern duke. This formation would nal place, but it was not. It ite, believes in parliamentarism, while guarantee Germany's safety from the East, passed out of sight. Piłsudski’s , leader of the Socialists, sup- and 1.8 million German and 6 million Jew- ports military action. ish inhabitants would together perpetuate Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, German culture, balancing out the po- PPolish Strategies the newly appointed commander of the litical weight of the 8 million Polish, 5–6 It is August 1914. Poland has been divided Russian forces, publishes a manifesto for million Ukrainian, 4 million Belorussian, under the authority of three empires since the Polish people on 14 August. He prom- and the 3.5 million Latvian and Lithuanian 1795. The so-called “Polish-question” has ises them territorial unity and cultural, po- inhabitants. Yiddish, the mother-tongue of not been an issue in the international dip- litical, and linguistic autonomy. He needs the Eastern European Jews, is a dialect of lomatic arena for years. An independent willing Polish soldiers to fight under the the German language; the Russian Jews Poland is not in the interests of any of Eu- Tsarist flag, and the support of the civil- could be considered natural allies of Ger- rope’s empires. Nevertheless, war breaks ian population. However, the promise of many. Until such a structure is in place, the out, opening the possibility for change. autonomy, for which Dmowski has been most important task is to communicate Two differing strategies dominate fighting for many years, is never realized. the message to all of them to welcome the the politics of Poland. The first is based on After all, the war is not driven by the in- German forces as liberators by supplying the assumption that the greater number of tention of the Tsar to bestow rights on his nicely wrapped tools of propaganda. Russians will ensure their victory, even if it subjects, but because xenophobia has won results in an immense loss of human life. the day. In other words, the supporters of Jewish Utopias Poland’s most significant enemy is to the Russification succeeded over those favor- History has already drawn various state west, the Germans. And therefore, their ing liberalization. Dmowski will only real- formations on the map of Central Europe, primal fear is Germanization. This strat- ize a year and a half later that nothing can Central Eastern Europe or In-Between Eu- egy and outlook is further predicated on be expected from the Russians on “consti- rope. However, even more was dreamed the idea that the Russian Tzar will realize tutional” grounds. into reality by politicians and intellectu- that the Polish people constitute a natu- Pilsudski’s situation is equally diffi- als. The social fabric of Central Eastern ral shield against any German invasion. cult. His legendary First Brigade (Pierwsza Europe wove together all kinds of people Accordingly, the Polish people will fight Brigada) is defeated and scattered. His imaginable, from the Estonians to the for their autonomy side-by-side with the people on Russian lands (who have to Tartars of the Crimea (from the 1840s Russians. This “constitutional” thinking carry their saddles and find horses for 'until 1914), apart from the one people is promoted by the National Democratic themselves) escape from Kielce back onto that belonged only to the in-between, the Party and by its leader, Roman Dmowski. Galician territories, failing to win not just Jews. The Jews have never been included The premise of the second strategy a battle but also the support of the Polish inthe concept of “constituent people.” As is that the Tzarist Empire will destroy and civilian population. The Polish Legions’ a matter of fact, they could not have been assimilate the Polish people. The ongo- military independence is coming to an characterized as such: lacking a sovereign ing conflict between the Germans and end, temporarily. Piłsudski seeks to capi- territory (they were scattered worldwide), Russians provides the only possibility of talize politically on the defeat: the military lacking a language of the civilized world survival for the Polish people. If the war units are gradually subordinated to the (as a “Kultursprache”, Yiddish was not weakens both great powers, an eventual German-Austrian forces. recognized), and lacking an army. For the impasse might lead to a political vacuum Jews, Central and Eastern Europe offered in Poland. Until then, the Polish legions A Federation Plan either assimilation or departure; sink or organized in Galicia and in alliance with The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Berlin swim. In those countries where liberal- the Austro-Hungarian army will fight has to deal with direct military goals and ism in the 19th century granted individual on. If the Russian establishment starts various future political concepts. How- rights and consequently career opportu- to weaken, the Polish “Prometheus” will ever, these professional bureaucrats could nities – for example, Hungary, the Czech hopefully give rise to a liberated army have never come up with the idea of state Republic, Austria, and Prussia – Jewish as- against the Moscovites. This strategy was formation with which a lawyer from Co- similation was enhanced. Countries where proposed and promoted by the leader of logne surprises them with at the beginning individual rights were taken away from the the Polish Socialist Party, Józef Piłsudski. of August. In the event of victory, the law- Jews, such as Russia and Romania, were There have always been antagonis- yer suggests that the German government responsible for a dramatic increase in tic contradictions between the two main establish a League of East European States Jewish emigration. However the situation strategies. The future of Poland as envi- (Osteuropäischer Staatenbund), which was not so simple, since it was possible to sioned by the Germanophobic Dmowski would function as a buffer zone between assimilate entirely without abandoning is as an ethnically homogenous state, as Germany and Russia, running from Riga all traces of Jewishness, or partly retain- it was under the rule of the Piast dynasty to Odessa. Its territory would coincide ing some religious practices. This is the in the Middle Ages, with its main focus with the Jews’ Pale of Settlement, the so- model that is well-known amongst Jews: on the lands under Prussian rule. The called chertá osédlosti, and would have a being a good Jew at home (keeping the Russophobic Piłsudski is committed to population of 30 million. Furthermore, it Torah) and being a good citizen elsewhere

57 Intelligent mind Practice and stereotypes

(obeying state law). However, all of this is its collective influence during his visit to in favorable light to this same population. a matter of individual choice which does the Turkish Empire. Their aim is to obtain For tactical reasons, the Committee soon not affect the nature of the collective pres- Germany’s protection with a quick diplo- changes its name to the less militant- sure from which Jewish communities suf- matic move in order to receive a charter sounding: Komitee für den Osten [Com- fer. This collective pressure pushes in two from the Sultan, which would then per- mittee for the East]. directions. In one direction, emigration mit them to establish Jewish settlements Bodenheimer’s actions are not met is coupled with the desire to found a new in Palestine. They misunderstand high with unmitigated success. Leaders of the state. The other aims to end discrimina- politics. The young archduke supports the non-Zionist German Jewish association tion with social revolution. The first says second “land taking” of the chosen people try to ignore and bagatellize it, and thus that if there is a Jewish state, then Jews will in theory, however Turkey does not dare represent the Zionists (who indeed en- be able to protect themselves; the other stir up Palestine. The empire is large, as the joyed only minor public support) in the believes that in a classless society every Sultan says to Herzl, there is enough space eyes of the German authorities as un- man is equal. The first idea is Zionism, the elsewhere for the Russian Jews: let them worthy partners. Since the World Zionist second is socialism. Neither exists in its dissolve gradually. Organization wants to stay neutral in the pure form, and Jews manage to formulate Max Isidor Bodenheimer – this is the war, its leaders issue a resolution which both in unique ways. name of the lawyer from Cologne – elab- obliged Bodenheimer to label the com- However, self-aware Zionists and orates on the constitution of the World mittee’s activity humanitarian in nature, revolutionaries make up only a small per- Zionist Organization, and he is elected and further, not to hold its presidency and centage of the Jewish population, with the as a member of the Action Committee. avoid, where possible, Zionist involve- great majority following their rabbis, loyal Furthermore, as one of the first directors ment in the work. His conceptions of the to the community, respecting the Tsar of the Jewish National Fund, he finances Osteuropäischer Staatenbund are called and deeply religious. They are the victims housing projects, afforestation, and land naive and unthoughtful and are held at a of pogroms, the news in the international purchases in Palestine. One of his earliest distance. He is warned that while he as- media. They are the ones who will be saved memorandums has already drawn the at- pires to become the savior of the Russian by the Jewish aid programs of well-off tention of the German Ministry of Foreign Jews, he could easily do them great harm Western European philanthropists, which Affairs to the plight of Eastern European with his pro-German activities. otherwise drown in the mud of Tsarist ad- Jewish communities, the relationship be- Indeed, as the Eastern front shifts ministration. They are the targets of top- tween Yiddish and German languages, and between Silesia and Volyn, between down, angry, Russian anti-Semitism. They to the two peoples' common political in- Masuria and Lithuania, local people suf- are the internal enemy that could be killed terests: if Germany supports the establish- fer more and more. Grand Duke Nikolai or looted from time to time with the help ment of Palestinian settlements they can Nikolaevich wants the immediate paci- of the authorities, without being taken to capitalize on the Jewish settlers as Middle fication of the front and orders the de- account. The only hope for this majority is Eastern business partners and political portation of the potential enemy: Jewish the arrival of the Messiah. mediators. In 1902, they did not seriously and German men of military age are to consider his proposal. be sent to the hinterland. But the hinter- The Lawyer from Cologne land rejects them. There are no wagons The aforementioned lawyer from Cologne Committee for the East and trains with deportees hinder trans- first enters the public arena in 1891, when, In the middle of August 1914, Bodenhe- portation of troops to the front lines. at the age of twenty-six, he publishes a po- imer is called to Berlin. This is not sur- Some places are in total logistical chaos. litical pamphlet entitled “Wither the Rus- prising, since the proposal is no longer In response, Nikolai Nikolaevich decides sian Jews?”. He drafts plans for a Colonial about the faraway Palestine, but the war to take the Jews of distinguished families Company (Colonial Gesellschaft) which zone of strategic importance between hostage and send them to the hinterland. will provide projects on railroad con- Riga and Odessa. Bodenheimer has If any of the settlements prove disloyal, struction as well as industrial and agrar- learned from past experience that the the hostages will be executed at once. ian programs and succeeds in settling establishment of settlements in Palestine Either way, whole cities are later to be approximately half a million Russian Jews will not move forward in the short term, deported, resulting in approximately 1 in Syria-Palestine within one year, utilizing while the urgent issue that remains is to million homeless Jews. The Tsarist com- capital of 10 million pounds. Jewish mag- initiate a protection plan for the survival mand holds the Jewish people responsi- nates of the day did not see any business of Eastern European Jews. This is the pri- ble for the first major defeat in the war; it opportunities in a Beirut-Gaza-Jerusalem mary aim of his federation plan, assum- is speculated that Jewish households are railway line, nor in wineries on Karmel ing it is carried out after the outbreak of communicating by phone with German hill, or salt extraction from the Dead Sea, the war. He negotiates for weeks with headquarters, leaking information about and therefore the necessary capital was those responsible for Poland within the the Russian strategy. Tsarist propaganda missing from the start. Nevertheless, the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs in ignores the fact that the Germans use air lawyer from Cologne continued to care Berlin. In the meantime, he cooperates scouting, while the advancing Russian for the Russian Jews. A little bit later we with a few Zionists and well-known Jew- troops consistently fail to do the same, find him next to Theodore Herzl, as one ish intellectuals in establishing the com- as if the maneuvers of the enemy can not of the founding fathers of German Zion- mittee for the Liberation of the Russian influence the outcome of the war. In this ism. In 1898, he accompanies Herzl to Jews. The first tasks of the committee are particular world of misapprehension, the Middle-East: the four-person delega- to win the support of the Russian Jewish Jewish treachery is the cause of the cation manages to bring Wilhelm II under population and to present the Germans tastrophe at Tannenberg.

58 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Practice and stereotypes Intelligent mind

Headquarters This is where the story ends. On the Bodenheimer appears on its cover. In While the Russians continue deportations way back from Radom their windshield Szcześniak’s narrative, the Jews are in- along parts of the front line, accompa- is shot out by Cossacks hiding in the for- formers and spies for the Tsar, tightfisted nied by Cossack pogroms, the advancing est. Four weeks later, the German army hyenas and arrogant people who op- German forces get in touch with the lo- withdraws. Neither headquarters nor the press the Poles, as we already know from cal people of the conquered lands. They Ministry of Foreign Affairs again raises the Niemcewicz’s narrative. Bodenheimer’s have not come up with any specific plan idea of the Eastern European Federation. stillborn action became a model and concerning the region. With the help of In the first half of November 1914 it dis- frame for all kinds of Jewish political in- the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Boden- appears from the political agenda, forever. tentions, and the symbol of the perpetual heimer’s memorandum is able to get danger threatening Poland. through to the General Staff. In October Judeopolonia 1914, Russian troops threatening to attack Parallel to this story, the restoration of Conclusion Silesia and Berlin are pushed back, if only Poland’s independence is gradually be- Isidor Bodenheimer belonged to that for the time being. Ludendorff, Chief of coming an issue once more. The great late Romantic generation that believed Staff on the Eastern Front, invites Boden- powers are trying to outbid each other in great personalities, in being chosen, heimer to headquarters. He brings along with promises. In November 1916, Ger- and in the strength of words and culture Franz Oppenheimer, who is the head of many establishes the Regency Kingdom to solve the burning issues of his age the committee and a famous professor of of Poland with Warsaw as its capital. This by convincing and gaining the support sociology and political economy in Berlin, is a transitional formation, out of which, of opinion-making circles. The histori- as well as the agrarian expert of the Zi- as a result of a political vacuum, Poland cal fact that – contrary to the dominant onist movement. Since Ludendorff does could be reborn. political narrative of the region, the con- not inform them about the exact wherea- Forcing Poland into a federation as cept of the nation-state – he created a bouts of his headquarters, Bodenheimer an amputated entity, tearing if from its imperial structure, an in-between em- and Oppenheimer have an adventurous Western and Galician lands (it would have pire, shows not only his outdated, 19th journey. The trains from Katowice are no remained in Prussian or Habsburg hands) century views, but also demonstrates his longer safe. They have to get to Kraków and placing it under German-Jewish su- lack of knowledge of the region and its by Red Cross transport, and from there premacy – this could only amount to the people. Count Hutten-Czapski, his ne- they are carried further by a truck convoy degradation of a country. The idea of de- gotiation partner in Berlin, an expert on which jolts along the rough track through priving a country of its sovereignty could Poland, rightly said that Bodenheimer’s the Russian-Austrian border, passing only be conceived by a devil’s advocate. idea was doomed to fail. The count, loyal huge, Orthodox village church with gold- So, what is the truth about WWI to the Prussian court but a Polish patriot, en domes, huts, and buildings with gun- Poland? About stealing the country? This was aware of the fact that the Germans fire scars. In Kielce, a junior officer, who as was not carried out in reality, but it did would put more emphasis on supply- it turns out was Prince Joachim, the son of happen virtually. As one of the promi- ing their army with Polish draftees than Emperor Wilhelm II, lends them his car. nent figures of the Polish Age of Reform how many Russian Jews spoke German. Grenade and bomb craters accompany envisioned in 1817, the Moshkos dynasty As a real politician, Hutten-Czapski was them on their journey, along with horse would reign in Poland. Warsaw would lobbying for the establishment of the Re- corpses, dogs, ravens, and marching be called Moshkopolis, and the Polish gency Kingdom, thus paving the way for Russian prisoners of war. In Radom, the aristocracy would make ends meet as Polish autonomy. Bodenheimer backed main street is crowded with people wear- craftsmen. The capital would be muddy; the wrong horse. This war could have ing black kaftans, black hats, and looks Baroque palaces would smell like pubs; been started, and dominated for a while of horror on their faces. The reason for theatres would stage obscene pieces; the by Germany, but they could not have won the chaos soon becomes clear. Following new upper class, who was fat, smelly, and it. Especially not for the sake of the Jews. the withdrawal of Austrian-Hungarian dirty, would seize power with treachery, On the territory of the Bodenheimer- troops, three rabbis, accused by Poles of while using a language mixture French like state, modern nation-states were born. being traitors, were hung by the Russians and Yiddish. Jews do not live there anymore. However, in public. Since the satirical narrative of Julian the myth of their conspiracy lives on. This Ludendorff is pleased to welcome Ursus Niemcewicz, The Year 3333, or An mythical thinking says that even today them. He has a long discussion with Incredible Dream, was published in 1858, they manage to economically bankrupt Oppenheimer on the food reserves the Jewish assumption of power has been and destroy the peoples of Central Eastern of the warring parties, and he assures a recurrent phantasm in the imaginations Europe. They who were already destroyed Bodenheimer that the German troops of the Poles. The idea of Judeopolonia here. hold strong positions from which they was taken from Niemcewicz’s pam- will never withdraw, as the Austrian- phlet. Not so long ago, in 2001, there Translated by Anna Lujza Szász Hungarian troops did. In the evening, he was a book published in Radom which introduces the gentlemen to Field Marshal with its title already suggests what it The author is a Hungarian poet and essayist. He Hindenburg, who provides them with will be about: Judeopolonia. Żydowskie was awarded the Attila Jozsef prize for his poetry, written evidence of his support of their państwo w państwie polskim (Andrzej and the Hieronymus prize for his translations of plans and activities. The lawyer and the Leszek Szcześniak: Judeopolonia. Jewish poetry, prose, and drama. professor feel deeply honored to be ac- Nation within the Polish Nation). The companied by such heroes. map of state-formation suggested by

59 Visegrad abroad Prognosis and evaluation Poland’s Presidency in the Visegrad Group More than an Eastern Element Andrzej Iwanczuk/ RE PO R Andrzej T ER

Mateusz Gniazdowski

Following more than mong those who put for- a more informed analyses of the dynamics ward the “six feet under” of co-operation, which is advantageous to twenty years of co- argument, the most fre- both Poland and its partners. For Poland, operation, there are still quently cited flaw is the the appeal of the V4 is as a structure which supposed internal asym- amplifies its voice in contact with large EU those who claim that metry of the group: Po- states and also with Brussels. It is signifi- land is too large for any cant that V4 co-operation has always been the Visegrad Group true partnership. That embraced by Polish society. has outlived its value is to say that Poland’s size and geopoliti- In turn, Poland’s partners value not Acal situation has risen out of proportion only solidarity in the EU, but also Poland’s and should be laid with its smaller partners, which leads to willingness to use its veto on issues that to rest. These voices questions as to the “added value” of co-op- are in the interest of the entire region eration with smaller countries for Poland. (such as limiting CO2 emissions, which present the false image However, when it has presented itself as a would be a blow to the competitiveness regional leader, Poland has been met with of Central European economies). As an of smaller partners who incredulity or coolness from partners. effective partner in the V4, Poland is also are incompatible with There has also been the fear that Poland stronger in dealings with other EU states. does not actually need the V4, it is merely And maintaining good relations with the a much larger Poland, using it when it wishes to, in order to in- traditional “engine” of the EU is also at- crease the legitimacy of its own personal tractive for Central European partners. focused on its policy in standpoint or to strengthen its hand in In uncertain times, mutual trust takes the East. negotiations. on increased significance. Even when a In fact, the asymmetry of the V4 particular country follows a policy with countries is a challenge but also an oppor- political costs which can affect the entire tunity. The theory that Poland uses the V4 region, mutual public criticism is generally as its own instrument does not stand up to avoided.

60 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Prognosis and evaluation Visegrad abroad

V4 co-operation has certainly made holds the majority of shares in Czech The Eastern Partnership its mark on the EU. By synchronizing re- refineries, and the supply of Russian oil Upon entering the EU, the V4 countries gional interests with those of the EU as a via the Druzhba pipeline is becoming in- pointed to the need to intensify relations whole, it has begun to be seen as one of creasingly problematic. with its eastern neighbors. The traditional the EU’s pillars in bringing harmony to The V4 partners share Poland’s priority for Poland’s foreign policy is to co-operation on the Eastern flank. The opinion that it is necessary for EU states support the countries of Eastern Europe – practical element of co-operation in the to maintain their independence in shap- and in particular Ukraine – in the process EU has turned out to be more important ing their energy mix. The V4 has become of moving toward the structures of the than spectacular summits. One sign that the basis for a broader coalition which has West. This largely entails the promotion of V4 co-operation is in line with the logic been beneficial for Poland and the region the open character of the EU and NATO of the functioning of the EU is that the in the energy and climate package adopt- and the strengthening of the European V4 has taken on particular importance ed by the European Council in December Neighborhood Policy. This perspective is for Poland in areas which were priorities 2008. Co-operation of the “V4+”, the V4 generally shared by the V4 countries, and during Poland’s presidency of the Council group in conjunction with Bulgaria and therefore Ukraine has been a frequent of the EU: energy security, the EU’s east- Romania, has been successful in this area. participant in V4+ co-operation. The V4 ern neighborhood and the Western Co-operation has also been under- has supported Ukraine’s aspiration to join Balkans, and also the multi-annual finan- taken in the field of nuclear energy. The both the EU and NATO. For Poland, it is cial framework of the EU for 2014-2020. V4 views this as an essential, carbon-free likewise important to maintain a united Talk of defense co-operation can increas- energy source and is against its reduc- front across Central Europe on Belarus, ingly be heard, especially concerning for- tion or elimination within the EU. The making it more difficult for the Lukashen- tification of the cohesion of the V4 in its Polish nuclear project is still in its earli- ko regime to present our actions as being infrastructural and social elements. This est phases, but the V4 has great potential strictly in Poland’s interests. has ultimately become the main theme of and ambitions to have an influence in the The “flagship” of Polish diplomacy Poland’s presidency of the Visegrad Group European discussion of this issue. in the East is the Eastern Partnership (2012/2013). In turn, Poland’s partners in Central (EaP), which was announced jointly with Europe are very interested in how it will Sweden in May 2008. The proposal gained Energy Security and Climate fare with the extraction of shale gas. the full support of the Czech presidency Policy Success or failure on this point may de- of the Council of the EU and the EaP was The breakthrough in V4 co-operation termine the development of events in inaugurated during a special EU summit on energy security was brought about other European markets. By co-operating in Prague in May 2009. While it is true by the Russian-Ukrainian gas conflict at with its regional partners, Poland may ef- that politicians occasionally succumb to the beginning of 2009. Poland gained the fectively counteract moves toward the the temptation of presenting the Polish support of the V4 in its call for work to launch of EU regulations in this area or origins of the initiative, the EaP remains be brought forward on an EU regulation even a ban on fracking. This is an example a common “progeny” of the V4. The V4 is concerning the security of gas supplies. of an area in which the idea of subsidiarity fortunate in already being in possession This paved the way for the construction is in the best interest of Poland and of the of an instrument to bring the EaP coun- of a genuine crisis response system. V4 region. tries closer to the EU, as the International co-operation led to EU support for the Visegrad Fund launched the Visegrad 4 expansion of trans-border gas connec- Cohesion Policy Eastern Partnership program (V4EaP). tions and therefore to the creation of the EU cohesion policy and regional devel- The fund’s budget has been increased technical capacity to offer support in the opment are among the most important from 6 to 7 million euros toward this end. event of a shortfall, as well as the con- issues for Poland in co-operation in the Holland has added a further 1.5 million struction of an integrated and competi- format of V4+ (defined above). In addi- euros to the V4EaP program. tive European gas market. tion to closer co-operation with Bulgaria V4 co-operation in the EU’s eastern This goal has largely not been im- and Romania, Poland has also driven for- neighborhood has not as yet been reflect- plemented, but work has begun on the ward greater ties with Slovenia. The fu- ed by practical solutions such as co-oper- construction of interconnectors in the ture of the cohesion policy was Poland’s ation in the coordination of international North-South gas corridor. The Polish- most important challenge in the prepa- development assistance programs, despite Czech connector in Silesia was opened in ration of a new EU multiannual financial the fact that the V4 partners have been September 2011, the Slovak-Hungarian framework for 2014–2020. Poland has working at this for some time. In contrast connection is under construction, and emphasized that cohesion policy is a tried to its southern neighbors, Poland was slow planning work has begun on a gas pipe- and trusted means of managing develop- to construct a modern foreign aid system. line linking Poland to Slovakia. The Gas ment, in which net contributors to the EU The search for V4 synergy in projects in Target Model for the V4 and a road map budget have also significantly benefited the eastern neighborhood remains an for joint ventures are both objectives of from the V4 region. Despite the parallel unmet challenge. It requires the ability the Polish presidency, intended to trans- co-operation of the Czech Republic with to utilize the “niche” approach and the form the region into an integrated, secure, a like-minded group of net contributors, specializations of the smaller partners. It and competitive European gas market. in issues of great importance for Poland, would be sensible to aim for a V4 division Ensuring oil supplies remains a chal- such as the architecture of cohesion of labor, which would also help Poland lenge for Poland’s activity in the V4. This policy or the Connecting Europe Facility find a role for itself in the EU mechanism is essential since Poland’s PKN Orlen (CEF), the V4 states are natural allies. for coordinating development aid.

61 Visegrad abroad Prognosis and evaluation

and long-term co-operation. Poland also Central Europe’s interests in the EU and Enlargement Policy and the lays stress on encouraging a strong region- beyond. This has been demonstrated by Western Balkans al representation in exercises of the NATO the fact that the countries of Central Eu- Poland supports the European and trans- Response Force (“Steadfast Jazz 2013”). rope are bound together not only by com- Atlantic aspirations of the Western Bal- The traditional concern over Poland mon experience and transitory needs, but kans, but for a long time it allowed its gaining an excessively strong position in also by “shared, tangible, concrete inter- partners from the V4 to take the initiative. regional co-operation has in recent years ests in the EU” (R. Sikorski). The V4 has However, in recent years, the conviction begun to be replaced by the expectation taken on solid form and should develop has spread in Poland that greater involve- that Poland should be more active in se- although, as Polish Minister of Foreign ment from the V4 in Balkan issues will not curity and defense issues in the region. Affairs Radosław Sikorski, likewise has lead to the eastern element being squeezed Poland’s partners in the V4 would like to stated, “it causes some jealousy and oc- out from that co-operation but will in fact increase their political influence or at least casionally reluctance in those who are have a positive effect on the overall activi- feel involved in solving the crucial secu- used to being alone in coordinating their ties of the V4. rity issues of NATO and the EU. However, stance ahead of European meetings.” Al- One of the key aims of the Czech, this will not translate into an expanded though Poland is also developing co-op- Hungarian, and Polish presidencies of the defense capacity on their respective parts. eration in other directions, Sikorski has Council of the EU was to achieve progress Poland must develop military co-opera- admitted that our common interests bind in enlargement policy. A clear sign of this tion in the V4 in such a way as to stop the us most closely to the newer EU member progress will be Croatia’s accession to the rot from setting in the military capabili- states and that “the Visegrad Group plus EU in mid-2013, which will coincide with ties of Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech other countries is the structure which the end of Poland’s V4 presidency. Acting Republic. works best.” independently, Poland is rather limited in The growing significance the V4 has its ability to offer project support, since More Internal Cohesion for its EU partners may be demonstrated – unlike its V4 partners – it does not of- When laying out its agenda for its presi- by the fact that Germany’s combined trade fer development or transformational aid. dency of the V4, Poland decided to place (NB. Germany is the main partner for all However, it is possible to point to model particular stress on the fortification of the V4 countries) with the countries of the V4 solutions in the V4’s experience in co- V4’s internal cohesion. This concerns in- is higher than with France (which is its operation which are useful in the develop- frastructure – especially transportation largest trading partner individually) and ment of the regional co-operation of the infrastructure – linking the countries of also 2.5 times higher than with Russia. Balkan states, for example the Czech idea the region, and also the social, civil aspect Some internal competition within the V4 to support the creation of a regional fund of co-operation. In neither of these areas is natural, but there are areas in which it on the model of the Visegrad Fund. During has it been possible to make up for ground is worth seeking win-win solutions which its presidency of the V4, Poland an- lost due to decades of communist decay. strengthen the region as a whole. The V4 nounced its own idea for the coordination Poland found itself, at least geographically, has moved on from promoting the re- of efforts and expert activity in the field of a much more Western country after 1945, gion for tourists from the Far East to the sharing information with the Balkan states once again within the Piast borders. It is more ambitious goal of promoting Central on experiences connected to EU accession still facing the problem of how to match Europe as an open zone for foreign invest- negotiations. its southern border to the challenges of ment which represents the best gateway modernity. available into the EU. More than 64 mil- Co-operation in Security and The needs for dynamically devel- lion people live in the V4 countries. This Defense oping economic co-operation are not makes us not only an important part of the The V4 countries co-operate in both matched by the condition of infrastruc- EU’s common market but puts us in the NATO and EU security policy (usually tural and communication links. The Czech top 20 economies in the world in terms of along with the Baltic states). They share Republic is now the third largest market purchasing power. Better yet, the V4 is in concerns about the cohesion of NATO for Polish exports globally, with an interim 15th place globally in terms of purchasing with respect to issues such as crisis man- value of 14 billion euros for Polish-Czech power parity. agement beyond the NATO treaty and trade. Total annual trade for all three of V4 co-operation has yet to give all also the actual capacity for collective de- Poland’s V4 partners has already passed its members the impression that Central fense. In recent years, the views of the the 20 billion euro mark. In Poland’s Europe plays a key role in shaping the V4 countries on the development of the agenda for its V4 presidency, it placed European Union. It has, however, brought defense capabilities of the EU have con- great emphasis on the planning of spatial about a situation in which our countries verged with regard to work to reform the development, co-operation in removing are much bolder in aspiring to such a role. EU’s crisis management and co-operation discrepancies in cross-border coherence with Russia, maintaining complementa- and development, removing barriers, and rity in the capabilities and activity of the fortifying spatial coherence by use of in- Translated by Nicholas Furnival EU and NATO, and also the development struments for territorial co-operation. of civil-military capabilities. Work has The author is a Polish political scientist and a been brought forward on the formation of Prospects head of the Central European Department at the a Visegrad EU Battle group, which would In spite of its limitations, V4 co-operation Centre for Eastern Studies (OSW), which is a state be an investment in political cohesion and has turned out to be the most effective funded research institution based in Warsaw. an incentive to develop military capacities regional platform for the articulation of

62 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Prognosis and evaluation Visegrad abroad RE PO R Ostalski/ Łukasz photo T ER Should Central Europe Worry About Jana Kobzová Putin’s Return To The

t the very least, Putin’s Kremlin? return to the Kremlin is a worrying sign for his country’s political future and for those When then Prime Minister Vladimir who had hoped that Russia would take a Putin announced his intention to run more democratic turn. But fears that his return would throw V4- for the Russian presidency and thereby MoscowA relations back into a deep freeze seem to have been exaggerated. In any swap jobs with then President Medvedev case, the relationship will remain rocky, oscillating between co-operation and last September, it was a clear sign that mutual suspicion. This text argues that he intended to stay atop Russia for at having reduced their own vulnerabilities to Russian pressure, Central Europeans least another six years. After winning the should now focus on pooling resources more effectively with the EU, in order presidential elections earlier this year, to safeguard their security interests and help steer the remainder of Eastern Eu- Putin, the de facto political leader, has again rope toward democracy and prosperity. For Poland, this will mean the continued become Russia’s de jure head. What does deepening of its cooperation with Ger- this mean for the EU and the V4?

63 Visegrad abroad Prognosis and evaluation

many and the inclusion of the remaining turn therefore does not suggest any dra- transit plans and alternative routes and V4 states in some of these initiatives. For matic shifts in Moscow’s foreign policy. built (or are building) interconnectors the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slova- The traditional hallmarks of to help them cope with potential disrup- kia, the challenge will be to become more Russian foreign policy remain intact: its tions of the Russian gas supply.8 Should actively involved, transitioning from Po- self-perception as a great and sovereign Moscow decide to turn off its taps yet land’s passengers into Warsaw’s allies. power on par with the US, claims to a again, or should another spat between privileged position in its “neighborhood”, Ukrainian and Russian gas companies Russia’s Foreign Policy – Plus and general resentment of any Western erupt, Central Europeans will not be left ça change? criticism of its domestic affairs (“foreign in the cold as in 2009.9 Irritating as it was The V4 countries were probably among meddling”). As a presidential candidate, to the Kremlin, the decision to station the most delighted EU members to see Putin accused the US of orchestrating the components of the NATO anti-missile Putin’s protégé, Dmitry Medvedev, be- anti-government protests that caught the defense shield in Poland and to develop come the new Russian head of state. Kremlin by surprise.5 He also sketched contingency plans for the Baltic States During Putin’s first two presidential out another integration project for for- (something these countries have desired terms (2000–2008), Central Europe’s mer Soviet republics, the Eurasian Union, since their entry into the Alliance in relations with Russia were extremely re- to include: Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus, 2004) have somewhat alleviated the re- served. Eager to enter NATO and the EU and hopefully for Moscow, Ukraine. This gion’s security fears about Russia. as soon as possible, the Czech Republic, is meant to become the engine behind Finally, the EU itself has overcome Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia focused greater economic and political co-opera- some of its internal divisions over Russia, most of their energy on building and im- tion in post-Soviet space, countering the partly as a result of the V4’s change in at- proving relations with the West, rather EU’s own plans for the region.6 Putin’s titude. In particular, Poland has worked than mending ties with Moscow. While general opposition to tougher UN action hard to put its relationship with Russia on detesting the idea of Central Europe’s re- on Syria and Russia’s abstention from the a better footing, partially relinquishing its integration into the West, Russia had few UN Security Council vote on Libya both reputation as the EU’s arch russophobe. means of halting the process. An absence suggest that Moscow will continue to op- Putin’s return to the Kremlin is unlikely of trust and numerous bilateral spats be- pose what it sees as the “flawed” Western to dramatically upset this improvement: tween various V4 countries and Russia – concept of interventionism – based on the Poles have been consistent in engag- ranging from disputes over gas prices to the idea that states can forfeit their sov- ing both President Medvedev and Prime accusations that Central European capi- ereignty by failing to protect their popu- Minister Putin.10 In parallel, Warsaw has tals were plotting a “color revolution” in lations from mass atrocities. also tried to deepen co-operation with Russia – scarred the already complicated Berlin on a number of issues, including relationship. 1 Mending Ties Russia. Recognizing that it probably went Despite the fact that most of the As a Czech diplomat said after the lat- too far in its romance with Moscow un- policy-makers from the region saw est Russian elections, “Putin is here to der Chancellor Schröder, Germany has the two as part of same team, Central stay and his main goal is to maintain the grown more skeptical of Moscow’s trajec- Europeans used the arrival of Medvedev system he built, there is little we can do tory. Both Berlin and Warsaw have also as an opportunity to partially mend ties about it.”7 Similar conclusions could be come to understand that for the EU to be with Russia and create more opportuni- heard in Warsaw and Bratislava. While stronger vis-à-vis Russia, Germany and ties for co-operation with Moscow. resigned to Russia’s rocky trajectory, the Poland have to work together. When the reshuffling between Putin V4 states have also become more con- The other three V4 states followed and Medvedev took place earlier this year, fident with regard to Moscow, and are similar, if less prominent, paths. Just like many asked what implications it would cautious not to let their concerns upset Poland, they remain skeptical of Moscow’s have for Russia’s neighbors and the world. their and the EU’s political and economic intentions, but they have decided to pri- In the first place, these events are unlikely co-operation with Russia. A number of oritize pragmatism and related political to affect Moscow’s foreign policy course. reasons for this approach may be cited. and economic benefits over historical dis- That said, Putin and Medvedev did seem Although the V4 states would still like to trust. This volte-face has already brought to place emphasis on different areas and see democracy and free markets take root some important results. All four states issues. For example, Medvedev was in- in Russia and elsewhere in their eastern have concluded bilateral “partnerships clined to criticize his country’s depend- neighborhood, they no longer think that for modernization” with Russia, and trade ence on oil and gas exports. His views this will happen quickly or as a result of ties are once again blossoming following were also reflected in policies such as the foreign intervention. The region has also the drop in 2008/2009 due to the financial “reset” of relations with the United States started to address its vulnerability to Rus- crisis. Moreover, with Russia’s member- and in the “charm offensive” toward the sia’s pressure in the sphere of energy se- ship in the World Trade Organization, Europeans, which helped Russia seal curity and defense. Although Russian gas Central European businesses are seeking twenty-five “partnerships for moderni- covers more than 50% of their respec- to expand partnerships and regional trade. zation” with EU states and the EU itself.3 tive gas needs (in the case of Slovakia At the same time, Putin’s approval – if not and Hungary (for more information see Is There a Visegrad to Deal always his initiative – was needed on key Visegrad Insight Vol. 1 Economy section with Russia? issues such as the 2008 war with Georgia with analysis and opinion on this matter), The Visegrad constellation has not proven and the Russian position on Libya and it is more than 95 and 80 percent respec- to be the best framework for the region’s Syria.4 For such reasons, his “official” re- tively), they have developed contingency co-operation with Russia. All four coun-

64 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Prognosis and evaluation Visegrad abroad

tries continue to engage with Moscow on grown on a number of issues, including their vulnerability to Moscow. Budapest a bilateral basis, rather than in the frame- agriculture policy, the euro crisis, and the has been less keen to assist democratiza- work of the V4. In addition, Poland and EU’s foreign relations.12 Having weath- tion in Russia, unlike Prague (until re- Germany have commenced regular bilat- ered the global economic crisis better cently) or Warsaw, which time and again eral consultations in various frameworks: than most other EU members, and with spoke out in favor of Russia’s embattled the two capitals have also launched trilat- a market of nearly 40 million consumers opposition.15 While sharing concerns eral meetings with their Russian partners. (bigger than the other three V4 coun- about the lack of rule of law or human Although the V4’s rotating presidencies tries combined), Poland’s trade potential rights violations in Russia, Slovakia has periodically propose common initiatives for Russia dwarfs that of the other three often preferred not to raise these issues on Russia – mostly in the spheres of cul- states. Security issues are also promi- publicly. As a grouping, the V4 has no tural or student exchanges – few of these nent: the planned stationing of compo- formal mechanisms to coordinate posi- ideas have materialized. nents of a US missile-defense shield on tions on these and other issues. Poland This deficit of activity exists for Polish soil and Warsaw’s recent proposal and the Czech Republic have also been a number of reasons. Firstly, although to deploy its own missile and air defense working on more systematically reduc- Russia is an important partner for all system in addition to that of NATO have ing their dependence on Russian energy V4 countries, they have pooled their po- turned into some of the most difficult is- deliveries, whilst Hungary seems to have litical and financial resources more effec- sues in Russia’s agenda with the West.13 gone in a different direction.16 Slovakia, tively on foreign policy priorities closer Warsaw seems to be taking its defense which relies almost entirely on Russia for to home.11 Integration of the Western more seriously than the rest of the V4: its gas supply, is placing its hopes on new Balkans into the EU and stabilization and Poland has kept its defense spending at interconnectors with its EU neighbors. democratization in Eastern Europe have 1.95 percent of GDP, as mandated by law, The expansion of trade opportunities a more direct impact on the V4 econo- while Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech also took place on a strictly bilateral ba- my, stability and security, as opposed Republic have reduced their defense sis, leaving out both the V4 and EU for- to events in a “relatively stable” Russia. budgets by 29%, 22% and 16% respec- mats.17 Moscow’s traditional inclination Although many would rightly argue that tively since the economic crisis began to pursue bilateral rather than regional the V4’s successful cooperation in their in 2008.14 In other words, for political, or multilateral relations is an additional immediate neighborhood should serve as economic, and security reasons, Warsaw incentive for Central Europeans not to inspiration for a joint approach to Russia, is far more important for Russia than seek greater coordination when it comes this has not been the case. In the words of the remaining three Central European to Russia. one Slovak diplomat, “when it comes to capitals. All these factors make the impor- what the V4 can do and does together in What is more, while the V4 shares tance of Polish-Russian relations greater relation to Russia, as well as Poland’s role an assessment of Russia’s trajectory, they than that of the remaining V4 members. in this process, this is significantly differ- do not have identical views on how to deal Moscow may look right past the rest ent compared to what the V4 does in the with Moscow. For some time, an infor- of the V4, but it can ill-afford to ignore Eastern Partnership [EaP] region”. mal split between Poland and the Czech Poland. In a similar vein, as important Actively trying to rid itself of the Republic vs. Slovakia and Hungary has as Hungary, the Czech Republic and “new member state” label, and having remained when it comes to their readi- Slovakia’s interests are in Russia, they decided to be a player rather than a play- ness to publicly criticize Russia’s human are far from the strategic necessity of ground, Poland’s voice inside the EU has rights record or take measures to reduce Berlin or Warsaw. Poland has shown

65 Visegrad abroad Prognosis and evaluation

much more commitment and deployed assurances that the shield will never be and German officials as well as their EaP more resources when it comes to Russia used against Russia, which neither the counterparts is a good initiative and it than any other V4 member. Its coop- US or NATO is able to provide. This should be continued. It is through these eration with Germany has also resulted will affect NATO-Russia ties and the meetings and cooperation that an EU- in concrete initiatives. Although Polish rapprochement between Moscow and wide consensus can be forged and the V4 diplomats would never say so publicly, Poland (due to host some of the shield’s proposals can gain more political trac- the other three Visegrad members are components). What is more, Polish of- tion at the EU level. Political cooperation often passengers rather than allies when ficials have stated that Poland needs its can also be facilitated through numer- it comes to Russia. own anti-aircraft and missile-defense ous bilateral consultations among the V4 systems to be protected against short- members – thus far, there are only a few Putin-Proofing the EU’s and medium-range missiles in addition such frameworks. Less than a year ago, Eastern Policy to the NATO shield. This step signals Slovakia and Poland launched a regular Even if Putin’s foreign-policy beliefs re- Warsaw’s readiness to invest in region- dialogue which included developments in main the same, he is returning to lead a al security without waiting for the US the EaP region. Prague and Warsaw have different Russia. His country has expe- or other NATO members to foot the been talking about the EaP for a longer rienced the biggest slowdown in GDP bill. Moreover, it means that although time. When it comes to EaP-related bi- growth among the G20 members and Poland remains interested in co-oper- lateral consultations among Central has spent almost one-thirdof its foreign- ation and dialogue with Russia, it will Europeans, the Hungarians are mostly currency reserves to stop the ruble’s free not do so at the cost of its own security. missing. These consultations should fall (the reserves have now largely been Therefore, compromises are unlikely continue and be broadened to include replenished but still do not amount to to be achieved anytime soon: disagree- Budapest. pre-crisis levels).18 Putin has also been ments over missile defense between Finally, the V4 should continue to weakened politically, having lost his im- NATO and Warsaw as well as Warsaw offer assistance to and prioritize the EaP age as his country’s uncontested leader. and Moscow are set to continue and region in their development programs. More people are discontented and expect possibly intensify. Although the remain- This is currently done both on a bilateral the government to significantly improve ing V4 countries are not planning their and multilateral basis, including through governance, secure economic growth, own missile shields, they should support the International Visegrad Fund (IVF). and reduce corruption. The regime has Polish national efforts and contribute re- Assistance to the region requires more responded with a mixture of populist sources to the NATO system, while sup- co-ordination. The V4 should consider measures to win back support, and has porting the alliance’s efforts to engage diversifying aid away from those NGOs discouraged critics through the exempla- Moscow in a meaningful dialogue about and political parties that have failed to ry detention of several opposition figures, the shield. make a difference. Instead, they need to along with adopting legislation aimed at Secondly, Putin’s push to establish reach out to new pro-democracy and making the life of foreign-funded Russian the Eurasian Union will also have a direct pro-European constituencies such as NGOs more difficult. impact on the priorities of the V4. That business groups, grass-roots initiatives, The jury is still out on whether does not mean that the V4 should give and associations representing public in- these steps will lead to greater citizen up striving for the transformation of their terests in less politicized areas such as activism or stifle it, as the regime hopes. eastern neighbors. To the contrary, it is in social and environmental issues or in For now, Putin faces more domestic chal- the interests of each of the four states for education. Pooling some of the aid re- lenges than at the beginning of his previ- Eastern Europe to be integrated within sources into the IVF and extending its ous term. This will also affect his foreign the EU politically and economically. The scope to include the EaP region was an policy. On the one hand, the president V4 should keep up demands for reform excellent start. is likely to continue Russia’s outreach to in Eastern Europe and be willing to use To increase IVF impact, its funding foreign partners – most prominently the pressure where necessary. In this regard, rules need to be adjusted to reflect the Europeans – in an effort to attract more Warsaw set the wrong example as head situation in the region as well as the re- investment and boost the economy. On of the European football champion- orientation toward projects which aim the other hand, he will not hesitate to ships by talking the other V4 states out at longer-term solutions, as opposed to verbally attack the West to score political of boycotting Ukraine’s President Viktor quick fixes. This requires the extension points with nationalist-minded voters, Yanukovych for fear that this would of the implementation period to up to as he did during the election campaign. “push Ukraine closer to Russia.” Those thirty-six months as well as an increase The “new” president is also set to estab- EU members calling for more political in the maximum support for the project lish the Eurasian Union by 2015, hav- pressure on Kiev were right to want to from the current level of 70% to 90% of ing already invested substantial political demonstrate to Yanukovych that Ukraine overall costs (as is the case with many and financial resources into promoting will not be admitted to the EU if it turns EU-funded projects). Furthermore, the post-Soviet integration. These trends run autocratic. Poland’s steps played into Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia against some of Central Europe’s own Yanukovych’s attempts to balance the EU should join Poland by fully backing the policy goals. and Russia.20 work of the new European Endowment Putin’s presidency is unlikely to The V4’s efforts to draw the EU’s for Democracy (EED), not only politi- abate the tensions over the development attention to Eastern Europe through nu- cally but financially. The IVF’s support to of the NATO missile-defense shield as merous V4+ ministerial meetings and the EaP should complement rather than Moscow continues to demand binding summits with the participation of EU compete with the EED.

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The proposed steps are not likely policies, Central Europeans – along with The author is a policy fellow and coordinator to stop Russia and its old/new president other EU members such as Germany – of the Wider Europe program at the European from seeking to reassert Moscow’s influ- can limit the fallout of Putin’s return on Council on Foreign Relations, a London-based ence in Eastern Europe or demanding its their own interests. This may look less think tank. She is grateful for insights and ob- say in Europe’s security. As argued above, ambitious, but it would certainly be an servations from a number of Central European Central Europe’s relations with Russia achievement. diplomats and experts and would like to thank will remain difficult. But with the right © Europeum Policy Brief October 2012 Dan Kennedy for his assistance with research. references 1 for a list of bilateral disputes between EU member states and Russia Western Balkans. Within the V4 framework, the four countries have also during Vladimir Putin’s first two presidential terms, see for example Mark held several high-level meetings, including summits, with their counter- Leonard and Nicu Popescu, “A Power Audit of EU-Russia Relations, Eu- parts from the Eastern Partnership region as well as Germany’s foreign ropean Council on Foreign Relations,” 7 November 2007, available at minister Guido Westerwelle, the EU’s High Representative Catherine http://ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR-02_A_POWER_AUDIT_OF_EU-RUSSIA_ Ashton, and the EU Commissioner for Enlargement and Neighborhood, RELATIONS.pdf. Stefan Füle. 2 On workings of the tandem, see Andrew Monaghan, “The Russian Ver- 12 “Dancing with the big boys”, The Economist, 25 November 2010, avail- tical: The Tandem, Power and the Elections, Chatham House,” May able at http://www.economist.com/node/17578876. 2011, available at http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/ 13 The proposal tabled by the Polish president this summer differs from the files/19412_0511ppmonaghan.pdf. American missile-defense system scheduled for deployment by 2018 in 3 The main aim of the partnership for modernization agreements is to fos- the range of missiles that are to be deployed: the US system is expected ter business-to-business cooperation between Russians and Europeans, to be targeting missiles from longer distances, whereas the Polish mis- attract foreign investment to Russia, and encourage exchange of know- siles would be capable of shooting down short and medium-range bal- how in business practices and technologies, as well as the rule of law. listic missiles. 4 In the recently released documentary of unclear origin which discusses the 14 Tomas Valasek, “Prospects for Deeper Visegrad Defense Collaboration”, Russo-Georgian war, several retired and active hyphen service top Rus- Central Europe Digest, The Center for European Policy Analysis, 1 August sian generals accused Medvedev of indecisiveness and cowardice while 2012, available at: http://cepa.org/ced/view.aspx?record_id=352. praising Putin, who according to them decided to invade Georgia even 15 Speaking to an audience of businessmen and industry representa- before Medvedev’s presidential inauguration. See Pavel Felgenhauer, tives, the Czech prime minister pointed out that “fashionable politi- “Putin Confirms the Invasion of Georgia Was Pre-planned”, Eurasia Daily cal signs” such as support for the Russian art collective Pussy Riot or Monitor, 9:152, 9 August 2012, available at http://www.jamestown. the Dalai Lama harm Czech exports and should be avoided. See “PM org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnewstt_news]=39746&tx_ttnewsback- Necas: Support to Pussy Riot, Dalai Lama harms Czech export”, Prague Pid]=587. Daily Monitor, 11 September 2012, available at http://praguemonitor. 5 Putin’s attacks on the United States have prompted many to declare com/2012/09/11/pm-ne%C4%8D-support-pussy-riot-dalai-lama- the US–Russia reset dead. While there were no doubt better times in harms-czech-export. US–Russia relations than now, Putin’s accusations were not the reason 16 Budapest supported the Russian-backed South Stream gas pipeline pro- for the end of the reset. The rapprochement between the US and Russia ject alongside its direct competitor, the EU-sponsored Nabucco pipeline has been instrumental in getting Russia’s co-operation on issues such as that would bypass Russia. Iran and Afghanistan, but it has run its course, as neither Washington nor 17 All four countries signed their bilateral partnerships for modernization Moscow could find other areas on which they agreed. This was the case with Moscow, just as other twenty one other EU members did. The sign- even before Putin announced his candidacy. ing of these agreements by almost all EU countries and the EU itself has 6 Vladimir Putin “Novyi integratsionnyi proekt dlya Evrazii: budushchee, effectively put the EU’s previous transformational agenda for Russia, the kotoroe rozhdaetsya segodnya”, Izvestia, 3 October 2011, available at so-called four spaces (NAME) on the back burner. http://www.izvestia.ru/news/502761. 18 International Reserves of the Russian Federation, Bank of Rus- 7 Unless otherwise stated, the quotes come from the author’s interviews. sia, 1 August 2012, available at http://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd_base/ 8 The probe launched by the European Commission into Gazprom’s prac- mrrf/main.asp?C_mes=12&C_year=2011&To_mes=12&To_ tices in Central and Eastern Europe might further reduce Russia’s energy year=2012&mode=&x=10&y=6. leverage over the region. 19 During the recent visit of Moldovan Prime Minister Vlad Filat to Mos- 9 In Central Europe, the gas crisis affected Slovakia and Hungary more se- cow, Moldova was offered a discount on Russian gas if Chisinau verely, although Poland and the Czech Republic also felt the impact of turned its back on the commitment to liberalize its energy market, the disruptions. See the analysis of the European Commission in “The see “Russia tells ex-Soviet Moldova to turn back on EU energy deal”, January 2009 Gas Supply Disruption to the EU: An Assessment,” 16 July Reuters, 12 September 2012, available at http://uk.reuters.com/ar- 2009, available at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/strategies/2009/doc/ ticle/2012/09/12/russia-moldova-gas-idUKL5E8KCBAX20120912. sec_2009_0977.pdf. Armenia, which has been trying to distance itself from Moscow and em- 10 This does not mean that relations between Warsaw and Moscow cannot bark on a more independent course by seeking a trade deal and visa lib- deteriorate for other reasons: the opposition Law and Justice Party (led by eralization with the EU, is facing a rise in prices for Russia-supplied gas Jarosław Kaczynski) retains a very skeptical, if not outright russophobic from the current level of $180 per 1,000 cubic meters to $280 in October worldview. Should it join the government, Poland’s current outreach to and $320 by 2013. Russia would be far more limited. 20 See Maciej Onoszko, “Poland says boycotting Ukraine would push it towards 11 The jointly-funded International Visegrad Fund now sponsors co-opera- Russia”, Reuters, 2 May 2012, available at http://www.reuters.com/arti- tive projects between actors from the V4 and the Eastern Partnership and cle/2012/05/02/us-ukraine-poland-euro-idUSBRE8411D020120502.

67 Communities The Art of Remembrance The Art of Remembrance Artistic Strategies to Remember the Roma Holocaust

68 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 The Art of Remembrance Communities

Insightful commentary on the public memory of the genocide of the Roma in the Holocaust.

g The Rohrbach Living Memorial, Kirchplatz, Berlin, Germany 2005

Anna Lujza Szász

invite you to come to Rohrbach ply in the title of the Living Memorial? and take part in the street per- How could an artist of the post-Holocaust formance, The Rohrbach Living generation “remember” events which she Memorial, which is dedicated has not survived? Is it legitimate or au- to the hundreds of thousands of thentic for an artist of Croatian origin to Roma, victims of Nazi persecu- suggest an artistic design to remember the tion genocide. This invitation Roma Holocaust? What are the reasons for is open to men, women, and remembrance? Why shall we remember a children of non-Roma and Roma origin.” past event which is almost forgotten and IThese are the opening lines of the pub- therefore displeases or embarrasses no lic invitation of the Croatian artist Sanja one? What does “active witnessing” mean, Ivekovič, which was distributed to the and what do I have to do with this project, residents of Rohrbach, in the northern as a local of Rohrbach who spends each part of Austria, during the Festival of the day peacefully with the other residents be Regions in 2005. It then goes on to say that they of Roma or non-Roma origin? These due to the lack of a national memorial to questions had to be assimilated into the the Roma victims of the Holocaust, this memorial process by the artist(s) in each artistic performance will “demonstrate artistic design or reflected upon by the that we are not willing to forget the crime, visitor/viewer. so that it may not be repeated in the fu- Before turning back to Ivekovič’s ture. By participating in this action we will invitation and answering the aforemen- also show that we are able to challenge not tioned questions, I will introduce two only the ‘invisibility’ of the Roma people in other art projects. All the projects under the troubled past, but also the widespread consideration raise very similar questions, public prejudice and official discrimina- acknowledging the power of art as an ef- tion which they are facing at present.” In fective tool to communicate across bor- the end, the artist explains the hidden aes- ders and communities and understanding thetics of her idea, suggesting that instead the need to act in solidarity with discrimi- of unshouldering the burden of memory nated communities, in this case the Roma. on a permanent memorial we shall be- The primary aim of this text is to exam- come “active witnesses,” while its fragility ine the various ways in which communal is a metaphor that stands for the long pro- solidarity is created through memorial art cess of “the recognition of the Roma and works. their culture within today’s Europe.” The projects focus on the forgotten How could a memorial not be per- elements of the Roma Holocaust, calling manent and fixed, or rather, what is the attention to the arbitrariness of political reason behind making a memorial that decisions on what will be remembered,

photo John MacDougall/A F P/ E AST NE WS dissolves in time? What does “living” im- challenging conventional aesthetics and

69 Communities The Art of Remembrance

ethico-political concerns. There is an explicit or implicit link between the Holocaust and present-day racism in each work, emphasizing how thin Situation the border between the two actually is, while also suggesting the neces- of Roma sity of learning about and remembering the Holocaust in order to prevent racism. The artists work autonomously, free of the “free market of ideas” and outside of the traditional institutional system of the art-world. These artists can not be labelled passive observers of the society from the Ivory Tower of Art, they are “instantaneous witnesses”, active participants in events by channeling their experiences into art and believing that artistic agency can make a difference in the lives and work of communities and institutions. What further characterizes the artists is their belief that their Children who attend preschool, artistic responses to events may inform the broader environment about aged 4 to compulsory age of attendance injustices and may call for action, strengthening and promoting solidarity (Roma/non-Roma) (%) among people. Finally, but most importantly, all these artists emphasize solidarity as a possible foundation upon which communities can be constructed, regardless of age, sex, nationality, or ethnicity.

Pearls before Swine I will start with a project that tackles the forgotten site that is the for- Household members who completed mer internment and concentration camp of Roma in Lety, run by Czechs general or vocational upper-secondary during the Second World War. Alfred Ullrich, a German artist of Roma education, aged 20–24 origin, launched the project entitled “Pearls before Swine” on the site in (Roma/non-Roma) (%) 2000. A pig farm has been located on the site since the 1970s, and therefore the project calls for the implementation of appropriate procedures to relocate or demolish the farm and provide official recognition of the former camp site by the government and local authorities. At the site, Ul- lrich tore a pearl necklace belonging to his deceased sister and threw the pearls in front of the swine through the farm’s gate. The performance was Employed household members, documented in photographs which have subsequently been exhibited in aged 20–64 (Roma/non-Roma) (%) various places in order to loudly denounce the injustice and disrespectful treatment of the former camp site, a graveyard to thousands and a place of remembrance for those who survived or lost loved ones. Ullrich's project is greatly motivated by the fact that his entire family was deported to various Eastern European concentration camps in 1939 (his mother lost her parents, her first son, and twelve out of fifteen Average number of persons per room, siblings) and the existence of the pig farm on the former concentration excluding kitchen, toilet, etc. camp site deprives him of the opportunity to properly commemorate his (Roma/non-Roma) (%) dead relatives. Ullrich’s project is motivated by a very simple cause: re- move the farm and create a place for the remembrance of the mostly Roma victims of Lety. But how shall we interpret this aesthetic gesture of tearing a necklace into pieces? Since pearls were and are still used in burials, the pearl necklace perhaps represents the cycle of life. As the artist tears his dead sister’s necklace and throws it to the swine, he re- Persons living in household fers to her unusual, unnatural death and exclusion from a proper burial at risk of poverty ceremony, with the pearls carelessly buried in the mud under the feet of (Roma/non-Roma) (%) the swine. Not only her death is commemorated but the deaths of all the victims who were “thrown before” the brutality of the National Socialist regime. It bears mentioning that throughout history pearls have been ap- preciated as valuable items of nature, and symbolized wealth, status and beauty; pearl necklaces were meant to be symbols of order and harmony. Tearing the thread shows discontinuity, a disorder in the artist’s life due to which it has lost its foundation and integrity. For Ullrich, the source of disintegration stems, at least in the first place, from the fact that his project is destined for failure. For that reason, Ullrich draws attention to the importance of the relationship between territory and remembrance. In this work of art, he claims that remembering needs to be practiced somewhere, hence active and concerted effort is necessary, allowing people to inhabit the space and to relate to that site and its memories. He is claiming that the relocation of the pig farm and the inauguration of a memorial to the victims of the Lety concentration camp would recognize

70 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 The Art of Remembrance Communities poland population (2011 census) 38,000,000 roma minority (2001) 12,700

43/62 26/86 25/55 2.5/1.5 83/52 Czech Rep. population (2011 census) 10,600,000 roma minority (local NGOs claim) 150,000–175,000

32/74 30/82 43/70 2.2/1.3 83/85 Slovakia population (2011 census) 5,400,000 roma minority (Romani Criss report, 2007) 230,000

29/59 18/87 29/62 2.6/1.1 91/47 Hungary population (2011 census) 10,000,000 roma minority 000 (Magyar Agora poll, 2005) 600,000–800,000

82/89 23/63 36/48 2.3/1.2 82/48

71 Communities The Art of Remembrance B. Blasin f The Rohrbach Living Memorial (AT, 2005), Performance, Rohrbach, Kirchplatz, July 2nd, 2005

their sufferings and contribute to the cul- memory of the Sinti and Roma victims memorial to the Murdered Jews of tural continuity of the community from into European collective memory,” and Europe, in 2005. However, disputes generation to generation. “it is essential to commemorate the Sinti ensued over naming amongst Roma and Roma victims of the Holocaust and organizations in 2000: Sinti Alliance Civil Unity for the Sinti and place them in history in order to acknowl- challenged the lobby work of the Roma Murdered under the edge the continuing attacks on the Roma Documentation and Cultural Center of National Socialist Regime throughout Europe today.” the German Sinti and Roma and insist- A project of the European Roma Cultural In fact, not so long after Germany’s ed on using the term “Zigeuner,” which Foundation (ERCF)1 was dedicated to a reunification, an international com- was resented by Rose and company. very similar issue, the territorialization petition was held in order to solve the Therefore, construction of the site only of memory, however it was different in German nation’s “memorial problem,” began in 2008 and stopped soon after, its scale. Starting at the end of 2011, the to provide a memorial to the murdered principally due to unexpected conflicts project focused on the (then) unfinished Jews of Europe. In the same year, due to between Dani Karavan, the designer, Memorial to the Sinti and Roma Mur- pressure from the Documentation and and the Berlin authorities. dered under the National Socialist Re- Cultural Center of the German Sinti and This was the state of affairs when gime in Berlin, urging its completion by Roma, a powerful cultural organization the ERCF initiated its project at the end creating an international network of sup- and Holocaust archive in Heidelberg led of 2011, an unfinished construction site porters and by organizing a demonstra- by Romani Rose, a politician and activ- at one of the corners of the Tiergarten, tion next to the site at Tiergarten, Berlin. ist of Roma origin, the Berlin Senate, the and hesitation on both the designer’s The success of generating a network in a federal government, and the then federal and the authority’s sides to cooper- few weeks was mainly due to Germany’s president made the decision to erect a ate and start working again. Under the distinguished position in memory, more monument to the Roma and Sinti vic- framework of the 7th Berlin Biennale precisely, its symbolic and central role in tims of the National Socialist Regime. of Contemporary Art, the ERCF advo- remembering the Holocaust. As the pro- According to the original plan, the con- cated for the completion of the memo- ject’s description stated: “It is the main struction of the Memorial would have rial by disseminating a so-called “Call objective of the Initiative to carve the been completed in the same year as the for Unity,” collecting the signatures of

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supporters on a web-based platform and the need to direct public attention to the suggests that visual memory helps forge then creating an international network fact that in Austria no state-supported an affective and effective relationship to of Roma and non-Roma organizations memorial was erected to the memory the past. Similarly to Shimon Attie’s Sites and individuals to put pressure on the of Roma victims of the Holocaust (in Unseen (started in 1991) work, in which stakeholders to finish the building of the 1984, in Lackenbach, a memorial ini- the artist projects photographs of a now memorial. The pressure was twofold: (1) tiated by the Cultural Association of invisible Jewish past onto sites they used using channels of direct political lobby- Austrian Roma was erected by the state to inhabit (the work started in Berlin and ing in order to present the folder of sig- of Burgenland). Her art certainly ques- then initiated similar installations at the natures, and (2) calling the network to tions the traditional understanding of Dresden and Hamburg train stations), organize a demonstration on 2 June 2012 the monument as an everlasting, material Ivekovič, makes the photograph part of at Tiergarten. The project aimed to cre- manifestation of public memory with ei- the collective visual memory of the wider ate solidarity across communities and ther a “heroic, self-aggrandizing iconog- public, of the passers-by. IThe hope is develop the scope of civic responsibility raphy celebrating national ideals”, as the that, once the image becomes visible it, toward the recognition of each other’s American art critic James E. Young has will be internalized by those who see it, pasts. It was implied that knowing more noted, or the aim to heal, console, or pro- allowing its “after-image” to continue to about the other is a means to equality and vide a solution. Instead of following me- generate memory, even if the installa- tolerance among communities. morial conventions and materiality, the tion is no longer there. Not only do the artist shifts the emphasis to participation participants become an inherent part of Rohrbach Living Memorial and demands that each participant estab- the image but the image itself becomes Finally, let’s return to where we lish a relation with the past event. As one meaningful for the non-participants. started, to the art project of Ivekovič. It of the participants recalled: “When I sat All three projects appeared to be is similar to the ERCF project in that it there I remembered the Second World successful, at least as measured by the is based on participation and envisions a War. I was eight at the time and I re- number of participants, publicity, and memorial not as something fixed, static, member it very well, as if it all happened or by their presence in the circulation of and material but as “living.” Following the yesterday.” Another participant said that, contemporary (international) art events. public invitation, those who replied “yes” “It was very easy for me to imagine how However, since they gained publicity and were willing to participate received it would feel to not even be noticed. What mostly in and through art events, it is a badge with a black triangle, a sign that surprised me most was that I studied the highly doubtful that the reference of the was used by the Nazis to differentiate passers-by so attentively.” work (its main objective) will succeed in Roma, and were asked to sit or stand un- Ivekovič initiates, contextualizes, breaking out of the context of the art- der the arcades from 8:00 to 12:00 and and directs the event with a few instruc- world comma allowing it to become a think about the murdered Roma. The tions in the invitation, including the time potential political reality. Nonetheless, origin of the project was an archive pho- and place or the distribution of badges, the Memorial to the Sinti and Roma tograph of, as the caption says, “A group and then leaves the participants on their Murdered under the National Socialist of Gypsy prisoners, awaiting instructions own with the hope that each participant Regime in Berlin was inaugurated on from their German captors, sit in an open finds significance in the memory of the October 24, 2012. area near the fence in the Belzec concen- murdered and discriminated Roma in tration camp.” Ivekovič invited local resi- Europe. What is the source of hope for The author is a sociologist and doctoral can- dents of Rohrbach to re-enact the scene Ivekovič? How could an art performance didate in the Interdisciplinary Social Sciences under the Arkaden am Stadtplatz. In this evolve into a memorial and turn the site Program at the Eötvös Lóránd University in Bu- case, ‘re-enactment’ did not mean exact of history into a site of memory? First, dapest. Currently, she is a research fellow at the copying (and affirmation) of a past event. let’s imagine the process of re-staging the Vienna Wiesenthal Institute for Holocaust Stud- This artistic practice serves to raise ques- photograph, the re-staging of the past ies, as well as one of the curators of the Euro- tions relevant to the present day with the event “as it was.” It evokes the Holocaust pean Roma Cultural Foundation (ERCF). help of a well-known past event. In other not as an event represented but as an words, it investigates the possibilities of event “experienced directly.” The instruc- (re)acquiring knowledge of the Roma tions of Ivekovič, the limitation on the Holocaust by re-staging the photograph participants’ free movement, or the ex- with, which we are all familiar but from perience of being displayed to the gaze of which we have probably disconnected the non-participating residents, all leads to a specific information it conveys. re-enactment of the emotional principles Ivekovič’s project is not site-specif- that define the Holocaust. In this sense, ic; Rohrbach was chosen as one of the the participants are not “left alone” by the participating settlements of the Festival artist to find a way to anchor memory (as of the Regions. The deportations of it happens in many cases) but are “sub- Austrian Roma were primarily concen- mitted” to a performance which provides trated on Burgenland. Instead of deal- an “explicit reference” to the Holocaust. references ing with local stories, the artist’s aim is Second, we shall not forget that the origin 1 Hereby I have to acknowledge that I am one to make people aware of the Roma and of Ivekovič’s project is a photograph, and of the curators of the foundation and the pro- Sinti Holocaust in general. However, her in her invitation she writes “I invite you ject manager of the ERCF’s project in Berlin. work is more than just about formulating to join us and become that image.” This (www.romacult.org)

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74 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Soviet barracks Reportage

Dead Ends of the Socialist Arms Race Abandoned Soviet Barracks in CENTRAL Europe

text: János Deme photos: Wojtek Sienkiewicz f Brzeg (until 1945 Brieg) – Skarbimierz housing estate. Former German airport with the longest runway in the Polish territory until 1945. Today, a smaller runway is used by light aircraft. On the right side, Cadbury Wedel chocolate factory.

75 Reportage Soviet barracks

e gathered with der to reach the capital of the Soviet Un- friends in a re- ion and start bombing the Kremlin. We mote settlement operated on 8 bits and repeated our ac- in the Great tion thirty times a day, at least. It was not Hungarian Plain an easy job but utterly realistic. We were in 1988 to take used to aerial warfare: in close proximity ownership of our to our town, at the edge of the Hortobágy latest purchase, steppes in Kunmadaras, was the largest a Commodore 64 computer. It was high- Soviet air base in Eastern Europe. Thanks Wtech. We connected the smuggled Western to our location, we grew up with the daily German hard-drive to a Soviet television experience of fighter jets training above and managed to install a homemade copy our heads. As children, we probably shud- of the American game Raid Over Moscow. dered more often at the sonic boom of the Then we simply had to take off with our jets than at the sound of thunder. Some- fighter jets, fly over Soviet airspace in -or times there were more in the sky at the

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same time, and some of them flew closer siderable amount of “war booty” might be to the gardens than the storks. put to local use. However, in reality only a Our favorite computer game lost few of these projects were realized. Some its relevance a year later, when Moscow former barracks have been converted into was attacked by other forces. Our school- housing projects, such as the Kluczewo leaving ceremony coincided with the and Chojna barracks in Poland and the reburial of the martyred prime minister Hungarian sites in Debrecen and Tököl. Imre Nagy, an occasion when a young A few former Soviet air bases have been man named Viktor Orbán (currently the put to civilian use, including Kołobrzeg- Prime Minister of Hungary) was the first Bagicz in Poland and Kiskunlacháza in to publicly demand the withdrawal of Hungary. Moreover, there are examples of Soviet troops. Shortly thereafter, the po- air-bases which have been kept for mili- litical campaign of the first free elections tary purposes, as in the cases of Nadarzyce started, during which one of the newly in Poland and Sliac in Slovakia. Alterations formed opposition forces deployed its with the intention of creating cultural or anti-Soviet secret weapon. Their poster sporting facilities have been rare. showed the back of the neck of a fat Soviet The majority of the former Soviet general and bore the victorious inscrip- military barracks were never put to any tion: “Tovarisi Konyec”. They won the use. Due to financial difficulties and the elections with it, and it was clear to us that reductions in national defense, budgets there would be no future for our Soviets the states in question had little ability in the Great Plain. They came to our town to invest in the sites. In addition, nega- in long bicycle convoys to the Sunday tive public attitudes toward the former market to sell everything that was move- Soviet barracks made it harder to reach a able in the barracks. We then watched on political compromise about their future. the evening news as the “Soviet troops The abandoned real-estate went to ruin stationed temporarily in our country” in twenty years. In the meantime, locals rolled out of Hungary. In response to the and business entrepreneurs with a well election-poster, there was a poster on established network unscrewed and car- each tank with the image of a boy soldier ried away every useable or sellable item smiling and with the caption: “All the best, they could find. At present, the ruins are Hungarians!” Silence became a less unu- used of by paintball players or casts shoot- sual experience in our town. ing video clips and feature films, while the Altogether, approximately 400,000 airstrips remain popular amongst car and Soviet soldiers and their relatives left the motor racers. territory of the Visegrad countries in the beginning of the 1990s. They left behind more than a thousand empty barracks and Mysteries of the an untold number of military goods, based on data calculated by the local knowledge Ruins of self-appointed experts who deal with the histories of former Soviet military Ghost towns, this is what those areas bases. As they explained, there were some which were abandoned are now called. monumental ideas regarding how the con- One can find many such places around f Brzeg (until 1945 Brieg) – Skarbimierz housing estate. Former soviet hangar for MiG-21 jet fighters.

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78 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Soviet barracks Reportage

the world. Ghost towns are the former industrial centers, research stations, military barracks, punishment camps, psychiatric facilities, or areas hit by industrial catastrophes. These are the dead-end streets of modernity which slowly become their own sites of memory, or their own memory parks, where we can face the failures of the recent past. In Eastern Eu- rope, mostly the empty and dying former Soviet military barracks have become widely known as ghost towns in the sense that they are places which we do not consider part of our pasts or history. While they were functional they represented the military extension of Soviet power and they operated as military zones strictly removed from the public eye, with locals only able to enter with special permission. This special treatment fueled local imaginations in terms of what could be hidden behind the concrete walls and wired fences, in contrast to the ideal picture suggested by official propaganda. Circu- lating rumors condensed all local fears and beliefs. There were legends about a secret atom bunker, drilling bombs that missed targets, air catastrophes, alcohol consumption inside the barracks, unmer- ciful discipline, and Soviet soldiers and civilians lost without a trace. These legends are still alive and are bound to be sensationalized by various TV shows dealing with the mysteries of the past. Among the adventurous tourists who enjoy such sites, the following destinations are considered most the interesting: Klomino and Pstraze in Poland, Milovice and Boží Dar in the Czech Republic, as well as Kunmadaras and Szentkirályszabadja in Hungary. This is according to the names listed by Szabolcs Kizmus, who leads barrack-expeditions in his free time for amateur researchers. According to him, the Internet is primarily responsible for making these places famous by discussing and showing them in popular thematic blogs, photo albums, and community sites which are visited or followed by thousands. The gloomy photos, videos with melancholic music, and personal accounts of such experiences are uploaded to these forums and then appear as authentic documents of “wicked” adventures. f Brzeg (until 1945 Brieg) – Skarbimierz housing estate. One of three hangars used by Opole Flying Club. Armored rail doors are 1-meter thick.

79 Reportage Soviet barracks

Republic, Ales Hottmar has already On the Trail of published a book in English in which he explores Czechoslovak relations with Former Soldiers Soviet troops, while Radoslaw Kacperski, a Polish engineer whose unfulfilled love Those who once had a personal relation- was flying, is working on a similar volume. ship with the Soviet officers and their rel- To my questions raised in English, he pre- atives do not believe the scuttlebutt and fers to answer in Russian and talks about have a good laugh when their old friends his belief that there are less and less of his come up in discussion. And this is also countrymen who would like to collectively true the other way round – as economist condemn the former Soviets. We have to Károly Vándor ardently explains. He re- understand that the foundation of inter- ceived a great deal of help and good will, national relations is not only national in- while he was asking locals and Soviet sol- terest but also friendships among citizens, diers about their lives before the pullout says Kacperski, in reference to his Russian of troops. He has conducted more than friends who once served in his country. 2,500 interviews in the past two decades He confirms that the former Soviet sol- and organized a popular exhibition in diers were fond of their host countries no Berkefürdő, close to Kunmadaras, which matter where they were stationed across featured a selection of precious objects he the region. Nevertheless, the Soviet Union managed to collect during his research. established different political and military In addition, he published two books that relations with each member state of the were praised by both professionals and Warsaw Pact. It is enough to recall the in- laymen. Former Soviet officers regard terventions in the Hungarian Revolution him as the historian of the Southern of 1956 or in the Prague Spring of 1968, Army. However, Vándor is not a histo- or the distinction made in Moscow after rian by training. He was twelve years old the Second World War between Warsaw when the troops left the country, and he and Prague as “liberated” and Vienna and never really accepted it. He searched for Budapest as “occupied.” Amongst them- everything and everyone that was once selves, Soviet soldiers summed up their related to the Soviet barracks. According experiences in the following way: “One to Vándor, the most significant break- is on duty on foot in the GDR, seated in through in his research was the arrival Poland, and laid back in Hungary.” of the Internet, which allowed a massive Researchers following the trail of number of former Soviet soldiers, pilots former soldiers aim to study military and engineers to get back in touch online techniques, along with the organizational and contribute to various forums. It also and military strategies of Soviet military allowed him to get direct answers to the units and their plans for warfare. As a questions that had so long occupied his matter of fact, Vándor managed to deci- thoughts. pher the code of a military maneuver con- Vándor has alter egos in nearly ducted in Hungary in 1965. He succeeded every Eastern European country, who, where professional historians had not. like him, obsessively research the lives of He emphasized, and asked me to write the former Soviet barracks. In the Czech that self-appointed researchers like him f Oława (until 1945 Ohlau) – former Prussian barracks after 1945 used by the Soviet Army. Fragment of propaganda mural.

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never receive any help from professional and who is being spoken about? If these colleagues who do their job in archives, are Vándor's words, that should be indi- without ever contacting former Soviet cated For their own part, they miss “the soldiers. most beautiful years” of their youth which they spent in those barracks – so tells me the self-appointed historian. The personal Finding memories collected by these men popu- late the empty buildings and breathe life Each Other, into events preserved in photos taken secretly behind the walls of the barracks. Somewhere Else They clarify the function of each building, they show us who lived and worked there The abrupt switch in voice here is very as well as how they lived and whether they confusing. First it's "us" and "our," after the liked their stays there. I heard an unusual colon "they" and "them." Who is speaking, story about a girl who fell in love with a

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c Oława (until 1945 Ohlau) – fragment of private could enhance the transparency of these target, together with the Soviet soldiers in military collection, owner is anonymous. In the photo once parallel worlds. In light of the above, our neighborhood who were occasionally a portrait of Dmitry Timofeyevich Yazov, the last our Soviet ghost towns should not seem training with a simulated nuclear bomb. marshal of the Soviet Union before its collapse. Such portraits used to hang in every chamber of the Soviet alienating, at least not to us, since their By that time, everybody already knew that barracks in Oława. former inhabitants – who are now more the atom bomb would never be deployed,” frequently coming to visit the worlds they he says reassuringly; “This whole thing left behind – are rather shocked by what turned out to be a giant and incredibly ex- they find. On the occasions of their cer- pensive game for everyone which no one emonial returns, they find the flats where could quit, however in the meanwhile one they once lived with their families in ru- could still fly a lot.” ins. The floors are covered with debris; the paint has come off the walls. There are no Translated by Anna Lujza Szász windows or doors. In the virtual spaces of Internet fo- The author is a Hungarian sociologist and free- Russian soldier. After they received per- rums, idyllic and eternal barracks, which lance journalist, mostly writing about the cultural mission and got married she moved from will never be left, take shape. In these aspects of social change. a neighboring village into one of the So- barracks, military technique is used for viet barracks. Then I got to know the story non-military purposes and no one is at- of that memorable night when the Soviet tacked. There are no wired fences, stands, soldiers asked for permission to leave or gates. Without any military rank, such the barracks in order to watch an erotic contributors can communicate as equal Western movie entitled Emmanuelle, partners about the past, present, and what which was screened in one of the villages. has changed. The narratives, writings and collections of Finally, Vándor told me that “as a self-appointed researchers and the few ex- child, when I was busy playing Raid Over hibitions organized around these themes Moscow at home, I was already a NATO

83 Urban Remembering the City

f Košice, Slovakia

RememberingA Guide Through the City the Past of Košice

84 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Remembering the City Urban György Szaszák jr György

Cities actually do travel – The main aim of the book is to pro- revealing their complexity and how these they have changed their vide visitors to Košice with a guide by larger questions concern the life of every- means of which they can become famil- day people. Košice is more than a suitable geopolitical location iar with the diffused story of the city. If place for this experiment. The town’s local in Central Europe. An we walk through this center of rebirth patriotism and history can add a specific, on the eastern borderlands of the EU, Central European color to the fabric of re- introduction to one we encounter a city with strong German, spective national histories. of many fascinating Slavic, Slovak, Hungarian, and Jewish cul- It is necessary to bear in mind that ture – each wrapped up with the others. the story of Oppidum Cassovia always projects of the Terra Over the centuries, peoples of various re- had a Central European dimension. Košice Recognita Foundation – ligions, different identities, and with dif- stands out as an example of understanding fering mother tongues have been found Slovak and Hungarian points of view, but a joint Slovak-Hungarian in Košice. But not only the inhabitants it is worth mentioning that most inhabit- effort to write a book have changed. The very name of the set- ants spoke German for centuries. The city tlement has varied with the language in was likewise an important center for Jews, about the social history which it was being discussed: for Slovaks, and nations like Poland also had strong of the city of Košice. Košice is the capital of Eastern Slovakia; historical connections with their own for Hungarians, Kassa is one of the cent- Koszyce. Due to these expanded dimen- ers of historical Upper Hungary; and for sions, it is hoped that the diverse palette the German settlers, their city was called of Central Europe will appear to readers, a Kaschau for many centuries. Only the diversity that we might call the “traditional “genius loci” remained relatively stable, multiculturalism” of the city. while the town’s inhabitants, language, In point of fact, the project as Central religion, identity, and tradition shifted. European in character. The organiza- István Kollai This diversity is hidden in the buildings, tion which published the book, the Terra which can tell us the story of Košice- Recognita Foundation, located in Hungary, Kassa-Kaschau. In short, this guide is for already has serious experience in creat- conference on history those who would like to “get lost” in the ing these kinds of guides about Bratislava didactics was organ- past and present of Košice, but do not and Budapest. Two of the editors, Slávka ized in Hungary some want to be lost in the city. Otčenášová from the University of Pavol years ago; during the Readers of the book (and its associat- Jozef Šafárik in Košice and Veronika course of events several ed website, www.multiculturalkosice2013. Gayer from the Institute for Minority bilateral initiatives were com) will see that the city has many histo- Studies of the Hungarian Academy of introduced. In this case, ries. Asking which events, tendencies, and Sciences, represent the younger genera- “bilateral initiatives” in- phenomena constitute the most important tion of the professorial sphere, and their dicates shared desires to write common elements in the life of Košice always will work was to form a single guide from Ahistorical textbooks. Israeli–Palestinian, refer, at least in some way, to the perspec- chapters written by Slovak and Hungarian Polish–German, and various other groups tive from which the question was asked. authors. Their work was backed by the of historians presented their conjoined And in all honesty, the official national heads of a common committee of Slovak work, discussing what they were able to narratives of Slovaks and Hungarians are and Hungarian historians. This work was achieve in past decades, the actual status really quite far apart. There are hardly any preceded by several important network- of their projects (when they expect to “fin- topics which were approached the same ing-events, including the “Searching for ish” their work, for example), and explain- way in school. A series of open questions the Common Language on a Common ing why such common textbooks do not and many complex, exhausting historical Past” conference organized by the Slovak yet exist. debates have burdened Slovak-Hungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The most -ac From this point of view, it is already relations. Without attention to the differ- tive Central European grant organizations a great achievement to have actually ing facts or forms of logic that shape each have supported the project financially: Remembering the City produced a book co-authored by young side, any juxtaposition of the great nation- the International Visegrad Fund and the A Guide Through Slovak and Hungarian historians. The al narratives is bound to be unproductive. European Network of Remembrance and book in question, a historical guide to “Understanding” does not have to mean Solidarity. Generous support has been giv- Košice, could not have been completed recognition and acceptance of the other en by the Hungarian Ministry of Foreign the Past of Košice without the joint cooperation of the pub- side; it simply means doing the work of Affairs, a show of Hungary's commitment lic and civic spheres, which provided the becoming familiar with the logic and de- to building Hungarian–Slovak relations. requisite funding to make strong coopera- tails of the other's narrative. Košice is currently the cultural capital tion between the Hungarian and Slovak But at the level of buildings, among of Europe, together with Marseilles, and editors and authors possible. The editors, the people, these large problems may the book will be promoted at associated Veronika Gayer, Slávka Otčenášová and take on more comprehensible dimen- events. Csaba Zahorán, faced a double challenge: sions. Local history can be seen as a level sustaining a common vision among the at which national history can be decon- The author is the director of the Hungarian Insti- various contributors and producing a structed: local history can fill the “big tute in Bratislava. book with a coherent shape. events” of national history with real life,

85 Books First step toward hope

First step toward

hope Libor Stavjanik

Jan Balabán passed away unexpectedly on 23 April 2010. He was one of the most distinguished and respected Czech authors of the past two decades. His short stories and novels are written in a language of succinct designations and lively, sometimes didactic, insistent diction. They are all somewhat autobiographical, emphasize authentic experiences and avoid cheap literary effects and self- absorbed fabulations. They are immersed in a search for inner stability, dignified life in “emotional truth,” and informal faith in God.

86 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 First step toward hope Books

Petr Hruška

alabán’s texts are composed of scenes be achieved by making real effort and facing disturbing ques- taken from the lives of people who are tions about the authentic manifestation of our human nature. usually caught in a moment of crisis and Balabán’s texts are mostly populated by sots and vagrants, di- are fumbling for a way out of loneliness vorced partners gawking at the ceiling or awkwardly hovering or drowning in unexpected gusts of las- in the doorway, insomniac parents quizzically observing their situde. His scenes are mostly cast against children, and loners desperately trying to believe in God. But the backdrop of the industrial metropolis these very same characters cannot be dismissed as superfluous of Ostrava in the 1990s, although some elements in a parade of desolation. They all contain a point use the backdrop of other Moravian cities or even more re- of catharsis, a soft-grained punch line, usually in which they Bmote settings (such as the prose work God’s Rope, which is pull themselves together, and dare to take small, immediate set in an American milieu). At any rate, Ostrava dominates action by which human dignity is restored, at least for the Balabán’s writings. He moved there with his parents shortly given moment. At other times, the way out of desperation is after he was born, and that is where he spent the entirety of his provided by the character experiencing a moment of love and life. He understood the character of this special city, exhausted tenderness or becoming aware of the fact that such a moment by a hard life and monumental industry, and he was therefore exists. The characters are somewhat demanding – they are ex- well aware of its dramatic nature and hard-boiled charm. hausted and depressed, they are often short of understanding Balabán’s stories are mostly composed of powerful and and faith, and yet, they are not willing to resign themselves to expressive sets of signs, which are further interpreted and the alienated world and stubbornly insist on the painful emo- experienced in the text. Action does not dominate his work. tional authenticity which suddenly gives meaning to the bleak Instead, he writes in an episodic form that draws on the or- space-time spreading out around them. Sometimes overtly, dinary elements of human existence, things like memories, but more often implicitly, these features indicate the author’s interrupted dreams, and the petty happenings that take place fundamental quest for the real value of human existence and in household kitchens and bedrooms, or possibly in pubs or the metaphysical horizon to which he refers himself. factories. We also find scenes of movement, which unfold in Jan Balabán studied Czech and English literature and cars, buses, and trains on their way to some vaguely specified was often inspired by his favorite authors, including Raymond goal. This is especially true in the short stories published in the Carver, William Faulkner, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, collections “Middle Ages” (1995), “Holiday” (1998), “It May Be Ivan Bunin, and John Donne. The latter English poet once that We Go” (2004), and “We Are Here” (2006). wrote: “never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for Balabán’s exceptionally striking short stories and nov- thee.” Jan Balabán liked this line and used to quote it on differ- els, thinking of The Black Ram (2000), ent occasions: in professional debates, friendly talks, and pub (2003), and Ask Dad (2010), manifest a thirst for concise ex- disputes. Obviously, it became one of the expressions of his pression, devoid of any superficial descriptions of action and Weltanschauung, in that it came to characterize his work and based on exact observations of detail. These are interpreted life. He was particularly attracted by the coherence, intercon- as original, poetic images, which gradually develop meaning. nection, and reciprocity of human fates, all of which emanates Images of human life's oppressiveness are most common. His from this sentence and is enhanced by the knowledge of how main and secondary characters all seem to have wasted their endangered and fragile our existence is. Balabán's anxiety is lives. Left to the misery of their solitude, they are exhausted ultimately always redeemed by a positive presence, especially by their unsuccessful attempts to reach an understanding and interest in another person’s story. He realized, in fact, that deprived of any faith in the positive security and deeper mean- participation in the fate of others is ultimately very powerful, ing of existence. At the same time, their grievous condition since it is the only thing that can make us better. is always accompanied by the author’s understanding of the painfulness of their fates, as well as by the feeling that this Translated by Marek Sečkař burden, if experienced honestly, is, after all, the first step toward hope and authentic human warmth. However, the glossy, The author is a Czech poet and literary critic. His latest book Darmata superficial elegance of our external reality is treated with irony, was published in 2012. especially when based on the cheap consumerist contentment of our familial, professional, and “spiritual” lives. This kind of satisfaction ensues from glossy stereotypes, and it can only

87 Books Eye to Eye

Jan Balabán

put the telephone down and thought of a painting ity! Come back home! I can’t stand it at home. We love you. I by Květa Válová. It shows two large canine eyes im- hate you, etc. prisoned behind the pickets of a fence or mesh of a The words of the police fall under the same heading of cage. The picture is perfection. Two sets of eyes – the futility: He’s an adult. We can’t force him to do anything. If he dog’s and the viewer’s – separated by a barrier. Any- doesn’t break the law, we simply can’t step in. But he’s harming one gazing into those eyes will likewise find himself himself! That’s his right. But he’s lying and stealing! It’s your on the other side of the fence or in the cage. United word against his. in helplessness. We’re often drawn into this kind of Stronger than bullet-proof glass, the laws protect our situation, and it’s not just dogs on the other side of the fence. freedom to do anything. They say you have to wait until he IThe embarrassed gaze of divorced fathers looking into the eyes hits bottom, hurts himself, or commits a crime ... Just wait. of children who are going back home; the glances of visitors But what’s to be done till then? What’s to be done until, in this leaving a hospital room; the longing looks cast after a depart- particular drama, crisis becomes catastrophe, to be followed, ing bus, the bleak look at a door slammed by someone walking perhaps, by catharsis, or by nothing at all, as in most modern out on us. We are compassionate and capable of empathy. We plays? can be taken aback by the weight of the world, as long as we Until then, there’s no time and no life, even if something view it from one side as merely onlookers. The painter, Válová, passes and something survives. There are only two helpless however, serves it to us en face. Eye to eye. There is no room sets of eyes. Two people and two worlds of contradictory rea- for empty words of compassion. sons and hopes, all united by pain. I put down the telephone. A friend has just told me that A week after Good Friday, I realize that all of us are go- his “adult” child has overdosed and is in intensive care, fighting through this, or will go through this. But for now, we don’t ing for his life. I was ashamed of having uttered so many easy need to see eye to eye. phrases: “It’ll be okay... you’ll see, it’ll turn out fine... I’m thinking of you.” The Golden North There’s a pane of shatter-proof glass in there. The glass “I’ll drink a bottle of vodka and strangle myself with the can certainly be broken, but not by eyes. Pale skin, tubes and clothes-line, because it’s not a life any more.” This is what one instruments on one side; suspended breath and suppressed unhappy Romany father telephoned to his white friends when tears on the other. These are merely background scenes from the spiral of debt drove him to the brink of despair. And if he “Chicago Hope.” The only thing that’s real is one set of eyes actually carried it out, he wouldn’t have been the first to do so, burning into another. Who are we? What is happening to us? nor would he be the last. Unlike many others in his neighbor- And what will become of us? hood, this is a man who had a job and supported his family. But The pointless arguments and accusations have died out: I then the borrowing started. It was impossible to resist. First can live any way I want! But you’re destroying yourself! It’s my some electronics, a plasma screen, a dishwasher, brand-name life! But I’m responsible for you! To hell with your responsibil- duds, and so on. Signatures under contracts he couldn’t un-

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derstand. Anyone who could understand them would respond justice is located in the limitation of free enterprise. Eskimo with a single word: usury. It used to be a punishable offense. chieftains and the head trappers, who certainly knew noth- Then come the debt collectors, repossession, loans to pay off ing of socialism, were sure that their own survival was im- the loans, and then loans to pay off the loans that were used periled by the very existence of certain kinds of enterprise. to pay off loans. Wages and benefits garnisheed, pared back to This stands in stark contrast with our democratic affluence, the bare minimum. Everything swallowed up by double-digit in which we leave our naïve, childish, or simply more gullible interest rates. The principal never gets paid down, the family fellow citizens (and not only the Roma, not by a long shot) falls apart, and everyone, if they can, gets out ... This is not a in the clutches of extortionists who should not be allowed to life. “And who forced you to do it?” asks the usurer – excuse operate legally, let alone advertise on television. The Golden me, I mean the financial entrepreneur? And people will say: North indeed! “Look – even further proof of the irresponsibility of those who enjoy life now and try to pay later.” The White Horseman As Jan “Eskimo” Welzl described it to us early in the last “Get out, you drunken pig!” a woman’s voice shrieked. It was century, they also had these special entrepreneurs who would only half-past seven (in the morning) and Mr. Záruba, a local go from village to village in the Golden North, offering liquor drunkard, flew out the pub door, given the heave-ho by men that the Inuit found irresistible and were willing to give abso- only slightly less drunk. He remained seated in the snow on lutely everything they had to obtain. Many drank themselves the sidewalk. At home, he’d spent the whole night drinking to death. After the whiskey drummers had passed through, wine with the apocalyptic name of The White Horseman, two whole villages that had thus been robbed (or bought out) sim- liters for the equivalent of two dollars. He got a bad case of the ply died. When seized by the hand of justice, local custom shakes in the early morning, and, wanting company, he fled to in those outlying areas dictated that the whiskey drummer the bar where he had spent most of the past five years. be soaked in gasoline and burned to death while everyone He’d forgotten that he was already banned. Not because watched. Eskimo Welzl claims to have often done so himself. he was such an alcoholic, but because he showed up drunk in- Such were the draconian punishments meted out to those who stead of getting drunk in the bar. He only created a ruckus and abused the trust of people who enjoyed life now and wept later. spent no money. His welfare check, which had already stopped And no one asked who forced them to drink. After all, they coming, was no longer enough to get him drunk in a pub. “Let bought the drink voluntarily. him drink that plonk (bum wine) of his at home, but keep him It would seem that the primitive peoples of the Arctic out of here,” said the bartender and owner of the pub, where were clearer about these fundamental matters than we are. In everyone had already settled back into their places with beer, our society, the elimination of the whiskey drummers might shots, and video lottery terminals. “I can’t stand those drunks,” find a parallel in shutting down the casinos or the 24-hour she confides to me when I look up from my morning papers. pawn shops, or denying operating licenses to usurious loan “I mean, seriously, I haven’t touched a drop myself for the last companies. In the simplest terms possible, the imposition of ten years: no beer, wine, or alcohol,” she says, speaking like a

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good Ostravite, for whom real alcohol is only hard liquor. “I’m undertaking. The aircraft in question must have experienced a teetotaler, and I feel good.” some kind of mechanical failure, otherwise it would have landed “And what about the slots?” I say, nodding toward the at an American airbase in Italy and never have shown itself to eight blinking boxes where gambling addicts hang out day the civilian world. And now here it was, sitting there with the and night. “Get outta here!” this elegant and energetic wom- Airbuses and a Czech Airlines OK 25. an retorts, “Only a crazy person would stick his money into A terrifying American aircraft! My buddy, an aviation his- those things, what can I tell you? You’re an intelligent sort, torian, has nothing good to say about them. Unlike the Liberator right?” Which forces me to ask, “Why do you have them in and other wonderful machines of long ago, he says, this one is the first place? Is it good business?” “I’m not forcing anyone, nothing more than a bomb-carrier and, protected from above so let them play. They’re poor buggers, after all.” “But you don’t by invincible fighters, it functions more as a “superannuated force anyone to drink, either.” “Sir, if people drank as much threat.” Nothing new in aviation. coffee as they do booze, I’d open a coffee shop and wouldn’t I don’t know what the Americans have these days – the have to deal with people like that...” she said, pointing out the sky-borne manta-ray of a stealth bomber, or something worse? window where Mr. Záruba was tottering along on the sidewalk And what about the Russians? Do they have something bigger on uncertain legs, searching in vain for a meaningful direction and more powerful than the Antonov 124? What is the signifi- in which to head. cance of such things in politics and life? I’m glad I’ve finally seen I refold the newspaper, in which some of our politicians such a monster. I’m glad I shuddered at its power and nonsensi- are talking about the apocalyptic signs of the times in just as cal design. The rational brain of an aeronautical engineer could level-headed terms as the teetotalling owner of the grog shop, never have given birth to this – and it didn’t. and I go outside. “So, where are we off to, Mr. Záruba?” I ask I lived thirty years of my life under a regime run by people him. “To hell,” replies the white horseman, who is unlikely to who did not have my interests or those of my family, relatives mount a horse any time today. I recall the label on the bottle and brothers, or even of its own comrades at heart. I have no with its artlessly rendered knight pasted onto a large plastic desire to think of them in the terms of their own philosophy. [plastove] jug that I see for sale every day on the counter of I experienced a government of evil people, communists, who our local store. Mr. Záruba and his colleagues call it a “double” kept their fellow men and women alive in a relatively acceptable of wine. In any case it’s manufactured by a teetotaler and it’s form of slavery, merely for their own advantage and out of fear also good business. What would happen to business if there of even more powerful communists, none of whom were work- was no demand for all these disgusting products? That would ing in the interests of the people. In its own way, the system was be the end! as disgusting as the design of the B-52 bomber. In a reasonable world, no one would build such a flying machine. But we don’t -- December 31, 2010 live in a reasonable world. Our president, Gustáv Husák, was sent to jail for nine years by his comrades, and then he became their leader. Husák B-52 decorated his worthy comrades with the Order of Klement Anyone who has seen a wolf or fox in the forest and thought Gottwald, the man under whose rule he had originally been about it, if only for a moment, must have understood that a sentenced to death. He himself may even have received the beast of prey is so robust and sleek, among other reasons, be- same medal. Those long kisses with Brezhnev must have been cause it has to kill, tear apart, and devour another living crea- genuinely humiliating for this bitter, haughty lawyer who was ture at least once every three days. That is the beauty of a wolf. no lover of people. And at the same time, his term in office was My dog is alive thanks to the fact that I fill his bowl with pellets likewise a humiliation visited upon the ignorant masses, whom made from the bodies of creatures that human predators have he had always despised, during which, as an artful surgeon, he killed, ground up, and mixed together with disgusting animal managed “to transplant the heart of Europe into the Soviet ass- leftovers, and God knows what else. It’s then presented to the hole,” as an old joke had it. public as something good and proper, merely to increase re- The old comrades of the revolutionary avante-garde, turns in a time of lean profits. Brezhnev, Husák, Honecker, Kádár, Jaruzelski, Zhivkov, Castro Let’s look at a real danger, one that speaks to us only and company, could not march against their enemies or secure when we see a real predator. The last time this happened to me any victories for the working people of the world because they was a few years ago at the airport in Rome. A small crowd had all shuddered at the thought that at some point the eight-en- gathered on one side of the transit hall, and so I went to take gined B-52, loaded with nuclear apocalypse, might be heard a look. Everyone was pointing in the same direction, and the overhead. Unable to stand up to that show of force, they could feeling in the air was something between excitement and fear, only tell lies and suffer lingering kisses on red carpets rolled out a kind of European emotion that happens when cowardice and at their respective airports. This aircraft of global intimidation courage are fighting it out. Sitting on the tarmac between vari- spared my childhood and youth of a world war, and so did the ous white and silver civilian aircraft was a machine for killing war machines and instruments of destruction on both sides of people, a B-52 bomber that was covered in khaki camouflage the world that came later, all as inhumanly unimaginable as the with a black underside. A machine for night bombing. It stood B-52. These were the angels of death that stood watch over our out from the other passenger planes like an eagle amongst future. And this is why our age is evil. ducks. I could barely believe my eyes. It actually had eight en- When I wake up at night and don’t feel like sleeping or gines and a belly that could absorb wagonloads of terrifying waking – I realize that things in this corner of the world will explosives. This machine can kill a city. At the time, they were only be well when everyone of my own generation has died, giv- flying to Iraq. To this very day, I’m not sure if that was a just en that society is run by individuals from 50–70 years old, and I

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know, with considerable shame, their intractable habits and my Fuck your God own – then I suggest to my tired wife that those B-52 engines My son showed me the kind of things young people enjoy ought to be roaring above us again. Despite being religiously watching on YouTube. Someone recorded a neighbor scream- lukewarm, she wrings her hands and says, “Dear God, may that ing at his wife, and then he posted it on the Web. However, never happen.” And so hope lives. Hope will outlive us both! the shower of foul-mouthed insults, which young surfers find amusing and horrifies those of us who have been through – November 1, 2009 the occasional domestic argument ourselves, does have an added dimension: the man in question is ethnically Slovak, while his wife is Roma – a Gypsy. The torrent of insults and Losers [socka] threats leaves the impression that this fellow is living with her The first autumn fog rolls in over the highway. Four lanes of heavy only because he can use her to compensate for his wounded machines roar by, interspersed with fragile private cars. The only self-confidence. In a drunken rage, he flings the food she has way to cross the road is on a green light. So we walk each way cooked for him at her, and turns upside down the flat that she across the black-and-white lines, worrying about whether these had tidied, telling her that not even a dog would eat it, and thirty-ton monsters will manage to brake in time. There are gar- that “the place is a goddamn shamble, just like a gypsy slum.” dens on the other side of the road with zinnias, chrysanthemums, But he’s not just compensating for his petty manhood and the asters, dahlias, and other autumn flowers radiant in the grey air. nagging suspicion that he’s the one who is feeble-minded; he’s A bus stop. We have a couple of minutes before it will take us compensating for the pride of his family, nation, and race. His away. A fellow with his arm in a cast. His elbow. Probably going loud complaints about the inferiority of his wife’s people are to the clinic. Black as coal, another clutches a ticket in his hands, laced with threats like: “I fuck your god, I fuck your soul, I fuck as if to say: “I’m an honest man. I pay my way.” In a garden beside your whore of a mother,” and so on. How this calumny against the bus stop there are pears, as full and heavy as the breasts of God turns out in reality, which for some societies is an assault ripe women. on the very essence of their sense of community, we know But something disturbs our morning longings. There’s a well from Balkan and African ethnic wars: the ritual raping restless young man in a dark suit that almost fits him, with an of women and girls, the slaughter of babies, the desecration almost well-knotted tie, almost expensive glasses sitting on his of the dead... nose, and in his hands is a bag with an almost decent laptop in- If his wife is such a “piece of work,” why does the fellow side. Okay. But like the smell wafting from a barn door, he exudes simply not leave her? Who would he have to shout at if he the faith that everything will soon be completely all right, the way did? Whom would he despise? He would remain alone in his it should be. It’s just that now he finds it highly distasteful to be own misery. All aggressive racists are in a similar situation: standing at the bus stop with such people. After all, he doesn’t Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, etc. What would they do with- belong in a place like this any more. out the Roma? They claim to hate the Roma minority because I’m rude and ask him: “Haven’t you got a car?” He looks they steal, don’t work, and create disorder wherever they are. away. Disdainfully and shamefully at the same time. “Who are But the ethnic majority also thieves and creates disorder. The you with? KPMG? PricewaterhouseCoopers, Deloitte and ... Oh wife of this foul-mouthed man may not be the best cook or no, you probably carry a briefcase for some dumb moneybags housekeeper, but thousands of non-Roma women are just like and hope that one day you’ll be like them.” I look at him as I would her, and why should anyone have to cook and clean for a foul- at some kind of laboratory sample and think of the many such mouthed man? The fact is that society tolerates a certain kind ambitious, motivated, unseeing and unhearing young men I have of crime and misery, and may even praise it, but it hates other seen from my interpreter’s booth. And the many ambitious, mo- kinds, from the depths of its own inferiority complexes, and tivated, and feeble-minded presentations of theirs that have gone wants to set the exterminators on its perpetrators. A success- into my ears, through my brain, and out of my mouth. And this ful swindler in politics or business tends to arouse envy or uptight young man gazes off to one side, confident in his own admiration, whereas rich Romany driving a Mercedes arouses success. I’m rude, so I continue to probe: “Are you waiting for anger and hatred. It’s not a matter of social cleansing or even the bus?” He turns his head even further away, as far as his upper extermination. The fattest rats do everything out in the open spine will allow. And it allows for quite a bit of movement. He’s and often enjoy the support of politicians and the media. pliant. I want to ask him if he’s aware that ambitious, motivated, What’s at stake here is the need to find an object of visceral unseeing, and unhearing fools with laptops full of nonfunctional hatred sufficiently different, wretched, and helpless that even financial models are now committing the greatest evil in the the most wretched of the majority can derive satisfaction from world? He senses this and cringes. It’s not that he’s afraid of a bashing them. Among other things, people are, or can easily punch in the mouth so much as meeting his boss or his clients become, a very dangerous pack, especially when they are out with a fat lip. He’s perspiring like that barn door. He could be my to fuck gods and souls. son. A handsome young man. He’s waiting for it to be over. And it will be over. – July 16, 2009 An almost decent car pulls up to the bus stop. An above- average black Fiat. Arise! His boss or a colleague has come to Translated by Paul Wilson pick him up. The ambitious lad hops in so quickly it’s a wonder Originally published in a Czech weekly "Respekt". he doesn’t hurt himself, just so he won’t have to spend another second with those losers at the bus stop.

– October 4, 2009

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h Illustration by Silvia Pogoda (1979) born in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia. 2010 BA (Photography), Silesian University in Opava, Czech Republic. Currently working on master diploma of art at the University of Fine Arts in Vienna, Austria. Lives and works in Vienna and Warsaw.

92 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 lost in translation Books LOST IN TRANSLATION Mitteleuropa, 1990

Jane DeLynn, an American writer, is primarily an author of novels investigating sexuality and human relationships. In her own words: “I became a writer because I thought the things I had were so weird no one else in the world could share them, or if they did they must feel as lonely and miserable as me. I would have greatly welcomed such novels myself, so I began to write them.” In the past, she also worked as a journalist and correspondent in various conflict zones, including Saudi Arabia and Kuwait during the First Gulf War in 1991. She has travelled widely, exploring various local lesbian cultures, in search of experiences and material for her prose. She visited Central Europe after the fall of the Iron Curtain. What follows is the reconstructed travel diary of her visit to Central Europe in the early 1990s.

Jane DeLYNN

t was January 1990. My girlfriend’s mother had just died. be of no help in navigating current Vienna, we’d have to rely on She lived in France, and for some reason the memorial “gaydar.” At the hotel we received an immediate shock, as the hotel was to be a month later. I would have flown off to the Car- clerk looked at us in disgust when we requested a king or queen- ibbean and zombie-ed in water and sun, but my partner, sized bed, insisting all he had was a room with double beds and a Marie-Christine, thought that visiting Austria, Hungary, bathroom down the hall. Was homosexuality illegal? We peeked and Czechoslovakia in the dead of winter was just the in what seemed like sympatique bars as we walked around the city, thing to cheer her up. but our quest was fruitless – in both senses of the word. The Wall had just fallen. Everyone seemed ecstatic What to do? The opera of course, where any male unaccom- but me. Most revolutions ended up making things worse. The panied by a wife was likely to be gay and almost certainly recog- Irulers and political prisoners might change, but little else. And nizable by a persona usually confined to gay bars: loud laughter, why should I – a Jew – be expected to rejoice in the reunifica- voices that trilled up and down octaves, excessive hand move- tion of Germany? As far as I was concerned, it should have been ments, and the reference to each other as “Mary.” Lesbians were kept divided for the length of the planned Thousand-Year Reich. fewer in number and less noticeable in their behavior, but still, any Solidarity? Poland? Worse. And now that the US had lost its female couple... Jungian dark shadow, who could fill that role but ourselves? Despite years of practice and a presumed facility, I still had First stop: Vienna. Marie-Christine believed in psychoa- trouble walking over to someone I didn’t know and introducing nalysis, so we had to visit Freud’s birthplace. It was not an op- myself. “Je m’appelle Jeanne.” “ Me llamo Juanita.” “My name is timal time for Americans to be there: Austrian President Kurt Jane.” The response “So what?” had once driven me out of a bar in Waldheim, whose Nazi past was for some reason ignored while he humiliation, and I dreaded its repetition. was Secretary General of the UN, had been banned from entering But travel frees us from our usual ways of being, if only the US. All around us in cafes people drank their Kaffe mit Schlag because it gives us leeway locals don’t have. We can ask stupid while we signaled in vain for a waiter. Unless it was not nationality questions in horrible grammar and worse accents. No blame for at all, but that somehow, despite my blue eyes and Asian-looking violating customs we don’t know. And if we make fools of our- hooded eyes, they could still smell the Jew within. selves, at least we have the consolation of knowing we’ll never run Perhaps a gay guide would have helped, but we had not into those people again. thought to buy one, so our thoughts about Austrian homosexual- So I thought, but I had never been to the Vienna opera, a ity were an amalgam of Freud, Krafft-Ebing, Mädchen in Uniform, Rococo palace compared to Lincoln Center, with people in for- campy Nazi officers in World War Two movies, and the sense that mal dress as if it were the 19th century. Americans had long since a society that gave birth to the gold-covered paintings of Klimt stopped dressing up for the theater or opera, and we were in our must have more than its share of perversion. This, however, would travel clothing. At least my pants were black, albeit wool, but

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Marie-Christine had obstinately left her mourning duds in France, While waiting for our train, we heard two men speaking a and was wearing purple corduroys and a green sweater dotted language unlike any we had ever heard. They were... could it be?... with tiny yellow ducks that had surely been purchased in a flea Albanians! Rare animals we had seen in zoos, but nothing as ex- market, her favorite place to shop. No place could have been worse otic as an Albanian – whom we had been told were locked not for someone with unerringly bad taste and a belief that money just behind an Iron but a Steel – even Titanium – Curtain. Hard spent on clothing was money wasted. To top it off, she insisted on currency was valuable – they told us they had been routinely al- wearing her parka during intermission instead of leaving it behind. lowed to travel to Italy to work. Could The New York Times be as I immediately wanted to slink back to my seat, but Marie- unreliable as Pravda? Christine was unaware or indifferent to the inappropriateness of Budapest only increased our confusion concerning com- our appearance. “I think those women are looking at us,” she said. munism. Pastry shops with mouth-watering treats. Teens in logo I turned around to see a group of women staring at us with great tee-shirts; baseball caps that read “NY Yankees.” Pirated CDs and interest, presumably talking about us too, for their conversation videos sold out of boxes like on Canal Street in NYC. Sunglasses was interspersed with further stares. I wouldn’t have been embarrassed to wear. Heterosexual couples Could they possibly be interested in us? In their long formal pawed each other in public. The private apartment we were stay- dresses and gold and diamond jewelry, they could not have pro- ing in had the usual appliances one might find in America, albeit vided a greater contrast. But perhaps they were some contempo- older and less stylish. But the TV was no electronic version of the rary repressed version of the elegant and wealthy cross-dressing Lada, but was made by Phillips, the Dutch electronics company. dykes who had lived in England and France in the earlier part of How could Hungarians afford a First World TV? Where was com- the century and had filled my heart with longing and false expec- munist misery and deprivation, or were we in some version of tations for what seemed a glamorous and less repressive time: The Truman Show – a gigantic movie set which Jim Carrey had Violet Trefusis, Vita Sackville-West, Natalie Barney, and Romaine mistaken for the real world? Brooks. A gay guide would have been no help in Hungary. Although Sexual attraction could not have been further from my mind. the sight of naked women in health clubs never aroused me in But an entree to lesbian Austrian life would be fascinating. the slightest, the elegant baths in the Hotel Gellért seemed a pos- “Let’s walk over to them,” Marie-Christine suggested. sibility. And indeed, there was something vaguely arousing about “No!” how bodies would appear and disappear in the haze of the giant She ignored me, so I followed her. But as we got closer and steam room where we waited for our massages, augmented by the could better see the women’s expressions, it became clear their sounds of the masseuse’s hand slapping skin. But all this disap- look was neither one of curiosity or desire nor curiosity, but con- peared in the dressing room. Back to the opera. tempt. Even hatred. The opera house, a slightly younger sister or perhaps cousin Such distaste seemed excessive, even for our apparel. Were to the one in Vienna, brought up memories a thousand movies we so obviously American, or I so Jewish? had shown us of couples dancing to “The Blue Danube Waltz” Despite our tight budget and the exorbitant price of bar toward the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. But the clothing drinks, those looks drove us to the bar. “I finally understand was far less formal than in the Viennese opera, plus instead of the Freud,” I said. “He invented the unconscious as a way of excus- grim Viennese there were cheerful Hungarians. ing such horrendous behavior. Have you ever met such unfriendly Assuming homosexuality was illegal in communist coun- people in your entire life?” tries (though it wasn’t) and would therefore be hidden (it was), “Excuse me, but did I hear you correctly?” said a voice in a we were alert for the slightest of signs. I sensed a kinship with two barely perceptible German accent. We turned to see a handsome women, whose eyes seemed to evince the sad expression of people if somewhat foppish man in the midst of a group of other hand- whose inner selves had to be hidden. I knew such expressions well. some, if somewhat foppish, men. I was glad to be talked to, even Several times we had exchanged nods and smiles. I was getting up if only to be chastised. Perhaps they could tell us where a gay bar my courage to walk over to them when the bell signaled the end of was, even bring us there themselves. intermission. So we looked for them after the opera, and caught “You are sadly mistaken. Nobody can be warmer than them as they were putting on their coats above the grand staircase. Austrians, once our initial aversion to strangers is overcome. Your We went over to them. Their expressions were friendly, but looks are skeptical. But I will prove this.” He took an engraved in- talking was difficult. We of course did not know Hungarian, and vitation out of his pocket and handed it to us. “You must come to Russian had been their second language, so they had only a slight a reception my wife and I are hosting next Wednesday. You shall knowledge of English. After introducing ourselves, we stood there see then if people are unfriendly. And why do you say we don’t like smiling at each other. Americans? We Austrians have not forgotten how you liberated us Then I pointed to the bar. “Bar.” from Hitler during the War....” They shook their heads, the bar was closed. I shook my head, Next stop: Hungary. Despite the expense of overseas and mimed taking a drink. They nodded, and motioned us to fol- phone calls in those days, I called my parents to let them know I low them. They brought us to a water fountain. was going behind the Iron Curtain. My father, who had marched I shook my head. “Bar.” I pointed to my partner, then me, with Patton across Europe, was not impressed, but I knew my then put the first and middle fingers of each together and held mother would be full of worries. I did not always think before them up to show we were together. “Women.” I acted. What if we got caught in some demonstration? Got ar- They conferred. “Restaurant.” rested? Shot? Better wait for a year or two until things had set- “Women.” I again pointed at Marie-Christine and myself. tled down. “Restaurant. For women. Of course.” Her anxiety only augmented the pleasant titillation that the Outside they found us a taxi. But instead of joining us they prospect of (extremely unlikely) danger induces. shut the door. I opened it and motioned them to join us. “Come.

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I pay.” I took out my wallet. The shorter one pointed at her watch “You said homosexuality wasn’t illegal.” and shook her head. Her friend was talking to the taxi driver. “Technically, that is true. But.... Czechoslovakia is very differ- “Very nice. You will like.” She shut the door. A bit nervously, ent from the United States. Such things are considered personal we waved goodbye. here.” “Don’t worry,” said the taxi driver in better English. “I know “Someone you know...” very well.” The ride was amazingly long, but we told ourselves this He thought for awhile. “Yes, there may be one person. But was hardly surprising; places for gays were sure to be hidden. we have never discussed such things.” After what seemed about half an hour the taxi driver stopped We met his friend the next day. He was friendly but nervous. in front of the kind of old-fashioned restaurant. We hesitated get- He took us to the place he always went to. We walked a number ting out of the car. Could this be the right place? Would we be of blocks in the cold, and then he stopped in front of a door with able to find a taxi to take us home? “Very nice. You will like it,” the no name or sign that it was a bar. You could hear no noise. When driver kept assuring us. we knocked we heard the door unlocked. They recognized him And we did, very much. Two dollars for a gigantic plate of and let us in. At first few people were there, but it soon got more fried goose liver. Ice cream and some variation of apple strudel for crowded. There were both men and women, but many more men dessert. Gypsy violinists playing songs you’ve heard in a thousand than women. It was much more restrained than such a bar would movies. have been in the US: a few subtle looks between the men, women What it was not, however, was a gay restaurant or bar. occasionally putting an arm around each other. Next stop: Czechoslovakia. A freezing train, a sink without I thought being American would have aroused some inter- water, men shoveling coal into an open furnace. The Iron Curtain est, but it didn’t, except for the bartender. Our friend had plans still existed, though it was getting rusty. Our taxi drove us down for the evening, and after introducing us to a few male friends an eerily empty Wenceslas Square to our hotel, no sign of the hun- who spoke English, he left. We talked with them awhile, but their dreds of thousands of joyous revelers we had seen on our TVs just English wasn’t very good and after discussing what Americans had a few months before. seen of Czechoslovakia and the Revolution the conversation soon But how long could one be joyous with such food? No veg- petered out. Still, the men were friendlier than the women. This etables except potatoes, cabbage, onions; perhaps, if you were very did not surprise me. It was true of bars in the United States as well. lucky, a carrot. The North Sea must have been out of fish. For Perhaps it would have been different had we gotten drunk. breakfast at the Europa – an elegant hotel – a variety of bologna But we were in a subdued mood, dull and gray as the sky. Our glass and a plate of uncooked bacon whose disgusting white strips of of wine had depressed us rather than otherwise, and we soon left. uncooked fat were being consumed – appropriately, to my mind – All in all, it was a night not very different from many I had spent by a young German couple. No fruit except a lone orange splayed in New York. open so its segments resembled a flower; an apple divided into Coda: 1998. My mother and I were in St. Petersburg during thin slices whose outsides were turning brown. her “farewell tour” of Europe. It was the white nights, and after my Or perhaps it was the nascent stirrings of capitalism. No mother fell asleep I would go down to the river and watch people matter how large the tip, the taxi driver always seemed disgrun- walking their cats, a sight that never failed to amuse me. tled. The laundress wanted forty, okay thirty dollars, for washing 1998 was the year of crisis for the Russian ruble, and the our clothes. It took a $10 tip to get our room. street where we were staying, across from St. Isaac’s Cathedral, We had drinks with a Czechoslovakian curator I had met was almost completely empty. Nonetheless, every night when I while he was teaching in America. With eyes closed and a beatific returned from my walk and got out of the elevator I would see look on his face he took deep sniffs of the Scotch we’d bought two or three attractive women with low-dresses and too much him. He was living on a pension, and hadn’t had any since return- make-up lounging on chairs, looking bored and staring into space. ing from the States. The tiny sips he took to drag out the pleasure Prostitutes, I realized. They were not my type; I preferred made me feel ashamed of the way I gulped things down. He re- reticence and subtlety. But the hot days and midnight sun made fused another, saying the second was always less pleasurable, and me feel like a cat in heat, and I wondered if they would accept me would dilute the intensity of the memory. as a customer. Why not? They could use the money, and there was “But things will be better now,” I said, “with the Revolution.” no fear of my beating them up. Perhaps they were lesbians, like “Yes and no. The people in charge have changed, but the oth- most American prostitutes are said to be. They did not respond ers are the same. If you are young, perhaps, but for people like me, to “the gaze”, but perhaps they thought it one of disapproval rather on a pension, it will be bad. Prices will rise. I like America, but I do than desire. not like your capitalism. One time I am in a store looking for pop- On the other hand, they might be disgusted, even angry. corn. Many brands. There are fourteen different ones each with a Perhaps there was some line I was not supposed to cross. They drawing of a man on it.” could take my money and not fulfill their part of the bargain. “Orville Redenbacher.” They could report me to hotel management, or blackmail me with “Yes. I look at the ingredients to see what I like best. But they threats of going to the police. They could rob me, strip me naked, are all the same, even the one that says ‘butter flavor.’ There is no tie me up, and leave me on the bed. butter in it.” In life one always needs luck, whether hiring a prostitute or We sat quietly a few minutes to honor his pessimism, and crossing the street. So I flipped a coin. then I asked if he knew of a bar for women. He seemed confused. “I am not homosexual. You know I The author is an American writer. She has published the novels In thrall 1982, have wife, even if we do not live together.” Don Juan in The Village 1990 and Leash 2002. She lives alternately in New “But you’re in the arts. You must know such places.” York City and on Long Island. “If there are any, they would be very hidden.”

95 ARTS - LOOKING BACK Who defines Central European Art? Marek Krzyżanek, Medium Agency. Courtesy of Zachęta N of Zachęta Medium Agency. Courtesy Krzyżanek, Marek ational Gallery of Art, Warsaw, Poland of Art, ational Gallery

Piotr Kosiewski

monographic exhibition of Alina Szapoc- znikow was opened at The other New York’s Museum of Modern Art in Oc- tober of 2012. “The Polish artist has been Europe given credit by an institution which sets up hierarchies and Asanctions values,” as Dorota Jarecka reflected on the event in Gazeta Wyborc- za, the Polish daily. And she continued: “Along with Szapocznikow, more prominent areas have been reached by the art of so-called Eastern Europe – a region which has long since ceased to exist.” What is Central European art and how Szapocznikow’s show at MOMA was ac- claimed as a huge success and many more is it defined? It may come as a surprise comments followed. The most interesting of such remarks came from Magdalena to learn that art institutions only reflect Ujma. Quoting numerous opinions of debate on this subject, a debate taking the event on her blog “An Art Critic on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown,” she place elsewhere. asked: “Could someone remind me of the definition of postcolonial discourse?” Before directly addressing this question, let us return to Dorota Jarecka’a remark on the art of obsolete Eastern Europe. She went on to write: “But from New York’s perspective it does still exist – the distance between Prague and Warsaw, Moscow or Kiev is not very visible from there.” Gazeta Wyborcza’s critic

96 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Who defines Central European Art? ARTS - LOOKING BACK

uses the term “Eastern Europe” as a cul- struct the narratives of it, if it turns out modernism, such as Mária Bartuszová, tural and cognitive concept to describe that we cannot escape geography (or his- the Gorgona group, Jiří Kovanda, and our part of Europe. Another term, per- tory). How will the art created in this part Alina Szapocznikow, were put together haps even less frequent today, is that of of the former Eastern Bloc be perceived, with the art productions of the past two “Central Europe.” including the art produced after 1989? decades by Paweł Althamer, Deimantas The reluctance to define art in these Narkevičius, Anri Sala, and Kateŕina Šeda terms is related to the devaluation of the (but also Yael Bartana and Tacita Dean). concept of “cultural center” and of art his- The exhibition curators, Christine Macel tory written according to geographic di- and Joanna Mytkowska, proposed several visions. It has also been provoked by the II thematic lines, such as anti-art or public- breakdown of a polarized worldview, with “During the last decade there appeared a private spheres, along which to construct a strict East-West division, as well as by number of influential anthologies focused the entire narrative of the exhibition. postcolonial research which has helped on gender, feminism and art/visual cul- “Gender-check” featured works from to create a general attitude of moderation ture whose aim, among other things, was almost the entire territory of the former and of distrust toward strict group identity to show multifaceted and multicultural Eastern Bloc, whereas “Les Promesses du definitions. And yet, the terms “Central aspects of contemporary feminist and passé” was confined to the regions be- Europe” and “Eastern Europe” are related gender theories and discourses. None tween Berlin and Kiev, although it also to the problems of our own self-under- of these books that were published in displayed works by Thea Djordjadze from standing in this part of Europe. English in the Anglo-Saxon world has any Georgia and Dimitri Prigov from Russia. 2 On this point, we should note the significant reference to Eastern Europe.” Both exhibitions posed the question of remark of the French political scientist – Martina Pachmanová in a text from the the presence of the region’s art in Western Jacques Rupnik: catalogue accompanying the exhibition art history. And they suggested that we “Gender Check – Femininity and Mascu- give up looking at this art through previ- linity in the Art of Eastern Europe.” ous paradigms, eliminating the East-West dichotomy. Marcel and Mytkowska’s dec- II Offering a comprehensive review of laration was perhaps most bold: “Eastern “The questions of the two decades, art from the regions of post-communist Europe does not exist.” 1989–2009,” in which the identity of Europe, the exhibition featured works of Both exhibitions can thus be con- this region “has switched from Western over two hundred artists from twenty- sidered further steps toward removing peripheries of the East to Eastern pe- four countries. Paintings, sculptures, the isolation surrounding art from the ripheries of the West. […] When we were drawings, photographs, video works, region, which was in fact hardly present told: you are people’s democracies of and installations were all put together in the West before 1989. It was hardly Eastern Europe, the answer was: no, we to create a multi-threaded story about accidental – as Piotr Piotrowski pointed are Central Europe, our identity is differ- the art produced from the 1960s to the out in his In the shadow of Yalta – in ent from the rest of the Eastern Bloc. But 2010s. Prepared for Vienna’s Museum response to the opening of the great after 1989 we began to reject this identity Moderner Kunst (MUMOK), the exhi- “Présences polonaises” exhibition at also. This was because the term ‘Central bition was on display from November Centre Pompidou in 1983, the recent- Europe’ could distinguish the countries 2009 to February 2010 before moving to ly deceased, outstanding Polish critic of this region from the West, while they Warsaw’s Zachęta (March–June 2010). It Mieczysław Porębski published a text en- 1 considered themselves to be a part of it.” served as tangible evidence of growing titled Absences polonaises. The last two interest in the art production, contempo- decades have been an effort to overcome Rupnik was speaking about coun- rary and historical, of the former Eastern this absence, which is a difficult process, tries situated between Germany and the Bloc. It featured works produced before since, as Piotrowski pointed out, former USSR. Indeed, the idea of “Central 1989, both official and underground, Europe”‘ is “a distinctively modern one”, by artists such as Marina Abramović, “the external and the internal perceptions which “has no deep roots in Europe’s Tomislav Gotovac, Ion Grigorescu, Tibor of a culture differ to a significant degree. past”, as Tony Judt wrote in his Grand Hajas, Sanja Iveković, and Natalia LL. Its Those perceptions rely on different lan- Illusion. This would be Central Europe author, Bojana Pejić, was attempting to guages, have access to different knowl- defined as a kind of cultural and politi- examine the ways in which gender and edge and, above all, have different historic cal community, an idea which has long perceptions of social roles were pictured frames of reference. We describe the his- been forgotten, despite the existence of in the region’s art, as well as how these tory of local art differently in ‘the peripher- the Visegrad Group (a concept which has issues were reflected both in the ideol- ies’ [i.e. in our part of Europe – p.k.] from only recently reemerged). ogy and practice of a socialist country. how it is described in the ‘center’ [i.e. in Even if we get rid of all these con- “Les Promesses du passé 1950-2010. the West traditionally understood – p. k.]. cepts, we are still left with the problem of Une histoire discontinue de l’art dans From the perspective of the ‘peripheries’, how to speak about art produced in the l’ex-Europe de l’Est” was launched in we see the ‘center’ in a different light. region in the second half of the 20th cen- April of 2010 at the Centre Pompidou in Above all, we see different centers or, tury and how to remake the West’s per- Paris. The exhibition also presented the more precisely, we are aware of tensions ception of the area. It is a question about art from this corner of Europe, drawing among those centers, something that is what kind of presence the region’s artistic on both the eras of real socialism and the not apparent from the perspective of the 3 activity will have, as well as who will con- present. Historical works by classics of center and its singular point of view”.

97 Arts – Looking back Who defines Central European Art?

Attempts to fill this gap or ab- b e t t e r.” 6 But at the same time, Piotrowski Libella in 1986, while back home it offi- sence have not been rare in the past reminds us that, “There is no such thing cially appeared in print only after the fall two decades, beginning with the re- as a neutral language. Today, English is of communism). nowned exhibition “Europa, Europa. Das the universal or global idiom, one we all Finally, the question of the “Western Jahrhundert der Avantgarde in Mittel- use in our everyday life. The same holds idiom” is associated with the problem und Osteuropa” put together by Ryszard true for art. The universal language of of the actual relationships that exist- Stanisławski and Christoph Brockhaus in artistic culture is today the language of ed between artists from both parts of 1994 for the Kunst und Austellungshalle Western art.”7 It is therefore necessary, Europe in spite of the Iron Curtain. A in Bonn, which – in spite of the vast and he insists, not only to remake the art ge- good example would be the presence valuable material on display – ended up ography that has been in use but also to of the Fluxus movement in Central and reinforcing the partition of art to Eastern transform the center-periphery paradigm Eastern Europe in the 1960s and 1970s. and Western (all the more so since the itself. We thus need to distinguish what Owing to the acquaintance between the post-Yaltan division had been equally is “other” or “different” from the Western movement’s leader George Maciunas applied to works created before 1945). paradigm, rather than considering the and Józef Patkowski, the director of the The exhibitions that followed, such as art produced in different circumstances Polish Radio Experimental Studio at that “Der Riss im Raum” [“A split in space”], as subordinate. time, compositions by artists associated displayed at the Martin-Gropius-Bau in Other researchers have also em- with Fluxus – such as John Cage and La Berlin the same year (and then in Warsaw phasized the irrelevance of the “Western Monte Young – were also performed in and Prague in 1995), were an attempt to idiom.” Commenting on “Gender check,” the course of the Musical Workshops, break away from the perspective imposed Izabela Kowalczyk wrote: along with the works of Henryk Mikołaj by “Europa, Europa.” Górecki or Bogusław Schaffer. In addition Since the exhibition in Bonn, the “The main issue I encountered was the to this, several Fluxus concerts involving problem of what principally defines the incompatibility between Western feminist visual artists were organized: in Vilnius region’s art has been reemerging, wheth- theories and the interpretation of works and Prague in 1966 and Budapest in 1969. er it is geography, politics, or processes created in the Eastern Bloc. Transferring Later, in 1977, Jarosław Kozłowski organ- within art itself, as well as the question of these theories to the context of East-Cen- ized a Fluxus concert in Poznań. Thus, whether the area can be treated as artis- tral Europe simplifies the situation and the problem of postcolonial discourse 8 tically homogenous. Bojana Pejić wrote: perhaps even omits certain key issues.” that Magdalena Ujma raised is hardly ambiguous, since the artists themselves “Eastern Europe” is (and always has been) At the same time: “If [Western theo- deliberately got involved in Western pregnant with historical and cultural di- ries are – S. S.] ‘used’ in order to interpret artistic circulation, or even considered versities, […] it is populated with people particular works, these works are usu- themselves as naturally belonging to it. having different national, ethnic and really modeled on Western tendencies.”9 ligious origins and cannot be reduced to Bojana Pejić, on the other hand, pointed 4 one common name.” [...] Negative criti- out the paradox in which art historians cism directed toward museum exhibits of “succeed nevertheless in rewriting ‘our’ contemporary art claim that such exhibi- [Central or Eastern European – P. K.] IV tion policies “isolate” Eastern European art histories with a method of ‘strategic A reconsideration of the perception of art productions from the rest of the world universalism’. ”10 This is possible, because from our part of Europe may also involve – and of course, the mechanisms of the these histories deal with artistic phenom- the problem of institutions. The Fluxus art market – since they actually produce a ena reflecting modernist concepts of the East exhibition, which was – as the or- 5 “ghettoization” of this art. autonomy of art. And this must not nec- ganizers themselves phrased it – the first essarily mean ignoring historical or geo- “inventory” of Fluxus presence in Cen- graphic context. tral and Eastern Europe, was prepared in It was hardly accidental that most of 1977 by Petra Stegmann at Künstlerhaus these displays concentrated on independ- Bethanien in Berlin, and then shown III ent art, leaving out productions that had in Vilnius, Kraków, and Budapest. “Les There is a related problem that is worth been promoted by the state. A significant Promesses du passé” was the outcome of discussing. As Piotr Piotrowski argues, exception was the “Gender check” exhi- a multi-year project realized by the Cen- most critics and art historians from our bition, which included examples of the tre Pompidou. Similarly, “Gender check” part of Europe used to think that the official art production from the former was prepared by Bojana Pejić with a team most important task ahead of us is to in- USSR and GDR. In the case of Poland, of experts from twenty-four countries. tegrate the artistic production of the re- the sphere of “socialist art,” encompass- What is more, this last project was initi- gion into the universal art cannon. They ing various types of “realism” produced ated and financed by ERSTE Foundation, do not want to be – as he wrote in his under state surveillance, was already which explained its participation on the In the shadow of Yalta – part of the “oth- marginal in the official historiography grounds that “public museums are rarely er” Europe, they want to be in Europe, of the Polish People’s Republic era (tak- able to prepare their exhibitions on the as such. They want to use the ‘Western ing up socialist realism in research was basis of such extensive research work.” idiom’ and the universal language that even considered to be a kind revision- In some cases, this involves very sys- has been developed in the West, as this ism and so Wojciech Włodarski’s book tematic action. The Viennese MUMOK pre- will allow us to “understand each other on the subject was published in Paris by sented art from Central and Eastern Europe

98 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Who defines Central European Art? Arts – Looking back

already in 1987 in its “Expressiv” exhibi- Europe or to get to know the past and The art from the former post-Soviet tion. The 1990s witnessed “Reductivism” present accomplishments of our neigh- states is not the only area being discovered (1992), devoted to abstract art in Poland, bors. Existing institutions already seem by the West. There are also others strug- Czechoslovakia and Hungary from 1950 to be realizing this. The first exhibition gling with the question of how far the until 1980 and “Aspekte/Positionen” in organized by the Museum of Modern Western view is dominated by a “center” 1999, dealing with the relationship between Art in Warsaw was “As soon as I open perspective and to what extent it remains art and politics in the post-war period until my eyes, I see a film,” devoted to art ex- sensitive to our distinctness and other- the fall of the Iron Curtain. MOMA, on the periments of former Yugoslavia in the ness, as well as capable of getting beyond other hand, has recently started a project 1960s and 1970s (1998, curated by Ana hierarchies and systems of subordina- entitled Contemporary and Modern Art Janevski), and indebted to the exhibition tion. In November 2012, in London’s Tate Perspectives (C-MAP) in a Global Age: “Ion Grigorescu – In the body of the Modern, the exhibition “A Bigger Splash: A Program for Research at the Museum victim 1969–2008,” hosted by the same Painting after Performance” opened, of Modern Art, which aims to direct the museum, this important Romanian art- it is devoted to art produced since the interest of museums to those geographic ist could have entered the international 1960s until today. An intriguing assem- areas which have for the most part been art scene (2009, curated by Kathrin bly of works has been proposed, bring- neglected by the art history written from a Rhomberg). This same museum also ing art from France, England, and the Western perspective. Three research teams co-produced the exhibition of Alina United States, together with the work of are working on the project, looking into Szapocznikow at MOMA, together with Geta Brătescu, Sanja Iveković, and Ewa the art of Japan, South America and East- WIELS Centre d’art contemporain in Partum, and also artists from Brazil (Hélio Central Europe. Brussels. Oiticica) and Korea (Ku-lim Kim, Kang-so Curators and researchers from However, strong institutions can- Lee). This single example suffices to show Central and Eastern Europe have been not be established without state support how complicated the map of artistic pro- invited to participate in these numerous and the state becoming aware of the fact duction has become in recent decades, al- projects and exhibitions, where they play that contemporary culture is an impor- lowing room for regions that have so far an important role. And yet, as a matter of tant element of identity building and of been overlooked, as well as phenomena course, our self-descriptions and narra- the self-narratives that are told to others. hitherto marginalized (such as female or tives of our own experience are yet again This problem is common to all countries gay art). And obvious though it may seem, being constructed from the “Western” in our part of Europe. Unless this chang- we had always better check who is telling point of view, and it is from this point of es, we will not be able to take advantage us a story and how (as well as who remains view that we are getting to know the art of the interest that new art from our re- silent and why). of our neighbors. On top of that, sub- gion – by Deimantas Narkevičius, Roman stantial collections of the art produced Ondák, Anri Sala, Wilhem Sasnal, Nedko The author is a Polish art historian and art critic. in this part of Europe during the past Solakov, and Monika Sosnowska – has He collaborates with the weekly Tygodnik Powsze- half-century are mostly to be found in aroused in recent years, nor be capable chny and the monthly magazine Arteon. Vienna (created by ERSTE Foundation of telling convincing narratives about our and financed by ERSTE Group, a power- experience after 1945. ful Austrian financial institution which also owns banks in Central Europe), Paris (Centre Pompidou) and Barcelona (MACBA – Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona). At the same time, there exists no museum in our part of Europe that would possess a representative collection of historical art from the region, with the exception of Moderna Galerija references in Ljubljana, which has gathered an in- 1 Pytania 20-lecia 1989–2009, Piotr Kosiewski (ed.), Fundacja im. Stefana Batorego, Warszawa teresting collection of works from the 2010, p. 70. territories of former Yugoslavia. This 2 Martina Pachmanová. "In? Out? In Between? Some Notes on the Invisibility of a Nascent Eastern also holds true for museums that possess European Feminist and Gender Discourse in Contemporary Art Theory," in Museum Moderner Kunst interesting collections of Western art: Ludwig Wien, ed. Bojana Pejic. Ludwig Múzeum – Kortárs Művészeti 3 Piotr Piotrowski, In the Shadow of Yalta – Art and the Avant-garde in Eastern Europe, 1945–1989 Múzeum in Budapest or Muzeum Sztuki (London: Reaktion Books, 2009), transl. Anna Brzyski, p. 15 in Lodz. The art produced after 1989 4 Bojana Pejić, Proletarians of All Countries, Who Washes Your Socks? Equality, Dominance and seems to be more accessible, but, once Difference in Eastern European Art, in: Pejić (ed.), Gender Check, p. 19 again, a convincing collection of works 5 Ibid., p. 20 from this part of Europe is nowhere to 6 Piotrowski, In the Shadow of Yalta, p. 15 be found. 7 Ibid., p. 15 Illusions aside, unless strong insti- 8 Interviews with Researchers: Izabela Kowalczyk, in: Pejić (ed.), Gender Check, p. 363 tutions are established, it will never be 9 Ibid., p. 363 possible to present our own, separate 10 Bojana Pejić, Proletarians…, in: Pejić (ed.), Gender Check, p. 20 narrative about the art of this part of

99 Arts – Looking back Who defines Central European Art?

As former communist states, Poland and Hungary used to be quite familiar with what went on in each other’s theaters. This cultural exchange was brought to a temporary halt in 1989 and only gradually reemerged in subsequent years. Since 2004, EU funds and international festivals have provided new venues for networking, and young Hungarian directors have increasingly been invited to work in Polish theaters. Meanwhile, the art world in Hungary remains haunted by the specter of communist totalitarianism which is today disguised in the rhetoric of nationalistic cultural policy.

100 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Who defines Central European Art? Arts – Looking back

Theatrical Encounters between Poland and Hungary

Judit Barta

bout a dozen extremely elderly people enter a classroom and start walking to the music of

Krzysztof Lisiak Krzysztof a monarchy-era march. They all carry a manne- quin of their younger selves. They are dead. Each actor is staring ahead, repeating the f Ivona, Princess of Burgundia, directed by Attila Asame movement mechanically. The entire Keresztes, Silesian Theatre, Katowice, Poland 2010 first half of the 20th century was staged in the play, presented with humor and a love of life. Even in 2013, the dramaturge Teri Feldmár, who belongs to the hitchhiker generation of the 60s and 70s, vividly re- calls this performance of the Dead Class by Tadeusz Kantor, which she originally saw back in 1975. For her and a thousand other young Hungarian intellectuals and fans of the theater, it was considered quite chic to hop on the train or hitch- hike to festivals in Kraków, go listen to jazz in Warsaw, watch a play in Wrocław,

101 Arts – Looking back Who defines Central European Art?

or wander through the contemporary art lished in 2004. At the same time, op- galleries of Gdańsk. Famous experimen- positional fringe companies – many of Where to tal directors such as Jerzy Grotowski, the them banned by the state – started to inventor of the so-called “Poor Theatre,” pop up. They performed in front of loyal watch a play? who inspired Peter Brook, among others, and closed audiences in youth clubs and mesmerized young Hungarians. “If one private flats, sparking discussions em- Main theatres wished to see an avant-garde and excit- boldened by visions of genuine leftism, ing theatre, one had to go to Poland,” re- idolizing Che Guevara, and condemning in the region members Teri Feldmár. Despite greater the Vietnam war. Later taking the name poverty in Poland, the more lenient state of Studio K, Orfeo was a well-known al- POLAND machinery allowed for greater spiritual ternative theater. Another was the com- movement. Authorities didn’t really dis- pany of Péter Halász. Three men squat State financed theatres turb the life of theatrical companies in on the floor around a small table. They Hungary, but they somehow managed to drink tea from a samovar. A girl is sit- > Warsaw: National Theatre, Nowy Teatr narrow the frame of imagination. ting on a stool with a script in her hand. (New Theatre), TR Warszawa, Teatr She reads through lines from Chekhov’s Powszechny (Powszechny Theatre) The Communist Bloc and Three Sisters in a highly emotional tone > Wrocław: Teatr Polski (Polish Theatre), Te- Theatrical Proximity that is filled with pain and longing. The atr Współczesny (Contemporary Theatre) A wave of Polish and Hungarian students three men repeat after her, in listless and > Wałbrzych: Teatr Dramatyczny (Drama spent time studying in each other’s uni- apathetic unison, “Let’s go to Moscow.” Theatre) versities during the 1960s and '70s. This That was the farewell performance given > Gardzienice: Centre for Theatre Practices provided sufficient opportunity for them by Halász Péter’s company before they “Gardzienice” to observe the trends dominating their re- emigrated to the USA. > Supraśl: Teatr Wierszalin (Wierszalin spective artistic landscapes. At that time, Theatre) one of the best-known Polish playwrights Regime Change as Temporary in Hungary was Sławomir Mrożek, who Mutual Amnesia Private theatre companies owned by offered an acute representation of the ab- There were high expectations in Hungary actors surd realities of the Eastern bloc. Witold as to how the structure of the theaters Gombrowicz and Stanisław Ignacy Witk- would be transformed by the collapse of > Warsaw: Polonia Theatre and Och Theatre iewicz (Witkacy) made for popular read- communism. However, an effective and owned by Krystyna Janda ing. An anthology of Polish drama was forward-looking cultural policy failed > Warsaw: Teatr Szóste Pietro" (Sixth Floor published in Hungary in 1969, entitled to take shape – apart from the fact that Theatre) owned by Michał Żebrowski Tango, and was followed by individual the repertory theaters are owned by mu- > Warsaw: Music Theatre Sabat owned by volumes of Witkiewicz, Wyspiański, nicipalities and not the state. The only Małgorzata Potocka Gombrowicz, and two books on Mrożek. exception is the National Theatre, which > Warsaw: IMKA Theatre owned by Tomasz Despite active state censorship on both remains in state hands. According to Pa- Karolak sides, theatre served as a welcome chan- tricia Pászt1, the abolition of censorship nel for political ventilation. Winks to the in Poland “generated a transformation of Hungary audience, allusions, and double entendres the language of the stage and a short-term filled the performances and forged the crisis in literary language.” She claims > Budapest: National Theatre, Radnóti audience into a collective. Despite these that this crisis emerged in the vacuum of Színház (Radnóti Theatre), Független common features, acting and theatre dif- pluralism, with the dissolving of thematic Színház (Independent Theater), Katona fered in the two countries. In Poland, the unity, alongside an increasingly fractured József Színhaz, Vig Színház, Mu Színház theatre was a deathly serious business theatrical community and audience. Per- (Mu Theatre), Kava Színház (Kava Thea- expressing national sentiment against sisting for at least five years, the crisis in tre), Thalia Színház (Thalia Theatre), Trafo the occupiers, with directors fulfilling a question largely subsided in two waves of House, XX messianic role. Polish acting had tradi- creativity in 1995 and 2003. These waves > Miskolc: National Theatre tionally been highly expressive, almost were dependent on the emergence of > Székesfehérvár: Storm-Vörösmarty Theatre metaphysical, visually captivating and heterogeneous values. And “instead of a > Szombathely: Weöres Alexander Theatre laden with metaphors. By contrast, Hun- space for collective reactions, [the theat- garian theater was more realistic, and fo- er] became a place of entertainment for Czech Republic cused on dialogue, hence less expressive, individual artistic needs.” The theatre had in comparison to Polish acting. to say farewell to its public role. > Prague: Národní divadlo (National Thea- Only a few years after the regime tre), Divadlo v Dlouhé, Divadlo na Vinohra- “In Hungary in the late '60s and ear- change, the staging of a modern drama dech, Dejvické divadlo ly '70s a young, daring and more open- about the 1956 revolution in Katona > Ostrava: Divadlo Petra Bezruce, Aréna minded generation of directors emerged József Theater provided a symbolic break > Hradec Králové: Klicperovo divadlo from the one and only Academy of with any unity the previous system had > Brno: Divadlo Husa na provázku, Národní Drama and Film,” as András Török wrote provided. The audience sat frozen and divadlo, Reduta Theatre in the foreword to Shabby Paradise, transfixed in their seats as the illusion > Ústí nad Labem: Cinoherní studio Contemporary Hungarian Theatre, pub- through which they had all lived became

102 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Who defines Central European Art? Arts – Looking back

palpable. The play in question, entitled Spiró (2000), Sándor Márai (2002), and Slovakia Kazamaták and written by András Papp János Háy (2003) were published. As and János Térey, concerned a bloody Pást suggested, when compared with the > Bratislava: Slovak National Theatre, As- episode of the 1956 revolution on the Polish tradition, these Hungarian writ- torka Korzo '90 Theatre, Puppet Theatre Square of Republic (Köztársaság tér). ers seemed to be highly natural, socio- Bratislava, Aréna Theatre, SkRAT Theatre, The story depicts the lynching of party graphical and realist. On the Hungarian GUnaGU Theatre, Theatre Non.Garde, functionaries stuck in the headquarters side, Prophet Ilja, a drama written by P.A.T., S.T.O.K.A. of the Working People’s Party. Those in- Tadeusz Słobodzianek, was translated, > Banská Bystrica: Bábkové divadlo na side include loyal communists, careerists, and a book entitled Polish Drama Today Rázcestí (Puppet Theatre at the Cross- employees, a mix of honest and dishonest was also published. Katona József Theater roads) people, while outside in the square there staged Słobodzianek’s important drama, > Bátovce: Pôtoň Theatre are revolutionaries, workers, former Our Class, which resonated as powerfully > Košice: Theatre Na peróne, State Theatre aristocrats and arrow cross members – a in Hungary as in Poland. Košice similarly heterogeneous company. The > Nitra: Andrej Bagar Theatre members of the audience who were liv- New Opening > Martin: Slovenské komorné divadlo (Slo- ing testimonies to the events were at loss “Kornél Mundruczó opened the perfectly vak Chamber Theatre) as to how to react and didn’t even dare to closed doors of Polish theatre” (Wprost > Trnava: Ján Palárik Theatre look around in the theater. Nobody knew 2012). This line was written after the per- > Žilina: Stanica Žilina-Záriecie (Station to which side their neighbors belonged. formance of the Bat or Nietoperz – My Žilina-Záriecie Theatre) After a few years of mutual amnesia, Little Cemetery, adapted from the Strauss Hungarian writers emerged within the operetta and directed by Kornél Mun- pages of Dialog [Dialogue], an impor- druczó in TR Warszawa in Warsaw as the tant Polish magazine dedicated to con- first part of his Death-trilogy. It was in its “romantic” attitude to acting and its temporary drama. Translations of Árpád Vienna that Grzegorz Jarzyna, the main strong openness, and can-do attitude, Göncz (1991), Pál Békés (1994), Miklós dramaturge of TR Warszawa, first saw the which are rarities in the Hungarian the- Hubai, Zoltan Egressy (2000), György performance Ice directed by Mundruczó, atrical world. It is a customary method and then invited him to direct a play at for him to leave the company by itself for their theater. Organizing the event took a while asking them to work out a scene more than two years. Meanwhile, Mun- without any instructions from him. The druczó directed in Hamburg, Hanover, first time he introduced this method the and Obenhausen. In Poland, he decided actors were perplexed, but later on they Contemporary to deal with the problem of an ageing demanded to be left alone. society, and with people who became He was not the only young director theatre “useless” burdens to society. Through to return home electrified by the Polish consideration of these themes he arrived theatre world and its receptive audience. directors: at the issue of euthanasia, which was not Three years ago, Attila Keresztes from only a sort of a taboo in Polish society, Szatmárnémeti directed Gombrowicz’s Europe Theatre which still considered itself highly reli- Yvonne, Princess of Bourgogne in Teatr gious, but a rather anti-theatrical theme. Śląski im. Stanisława Wyspiańskiego Prize recipients As he indicated in an interview for Szín- in Katowice, and it became one of the ház (Színház, Dec. 28, 2012), a Hungar- most highly regarded pieces of the sea- from V4 ian theatre magazine, these were the son. This was followed by his direction of challenges he sought to approach. Can Hamlet two years later. Máté Szabó also countries we die together on stage in a way that is directed Yvonne, this time in the frame- not signaled by ketchup? The genre of the work of a Gombrowicz festival at Radom POLAND operetta was chosen because it had this Teatr, again with success. Less successfully, “let-me-have-fun-for-the-last-time feel- Eszter Novák’s efforts at the Teatr Studio > Krystian Lupa (Europe Theatre Prize) ing.” And moreover, “it at once says yes to in Warsaw were received with rather poor > Krzysztof Warlikowski ("New Theatrical life and craves death.” For a believer, the reviews: “Everybody is suffering, everybody Realities" Prize) work poses the following question: How is grey, sad and dirty. The dialogues are mo- should we die when God is dead? “The notonous and slow.” Hungary absurd is mixed with the grotesque, intel- The Trafo Theatre, a contemporary ligence with joy. The director manages to arts center in Budapest, has extended an in- > Árpád Schilling avoid pathos when he talks about life and vitation to TR Warszawa’s Bat, and the play ("New Theatrical Realities" Prize) death, and he captivates the audience, lit- is scheduled for the upcoming season. erally ‘feeding’ them small colorful pills Slovakia that must be eaten when the tension be- Experimental Companies comes unbearable,” in the words of the Stimulating Co-Production > Viliam Docolomansky Polish weekly Przekrój. The Back to Babylon International Studio, ("New Theatrical Realities" Prize) What struck Mundruczó about operating within the Kompánia Theatre in Poland, for lack of a better word, was Budapest, is an atelier that houses interna-

103 Arts – Looking back Who defines Central European Art?

Directors and thespians in the spotlight: national theatre awards in 2012 POLAND

> Annual prize of Konrad Swiniarski for best director: Piotr Cieplak (2011/2012) > Annual prize of Aleksander Zelwerowicz for best actor and best actress: Małgorzata Hajewska-Krzysztofik, Mariusz Bonasze- wski, and Krzysztof Dracz (2011/2012) > Prize of "Boska Komedia" ("Divine Com- edy") International Theatre Festival in Cra- cow for best director: Krzysztof Warlikowski (2011/2012) Hungary

> Színházi Kritikusok Céhében (Prize of Theatre Critics' Guild): best performacne: ensemble of "Our Class", directed by Gá- bor Máté, best director: Zsótér Alexander (2011/2012) > Aase-díja (Aase Award): Andai Györgyi, Papp János, Tóth Eleonóra, Maszlay István (2012) > Ivánka Csaba Award: Tóth Éva tional, experimental companies and artists fringe and independent companies work- undertaking related research. Their projects ing at the edge between the professional Czech Republic include a program series on Central Europe, and amateur theater are often even more conducted with the participation of Slova- sensitive and responsive to the political > Alfréd Radok Award (Cena Alfréda Ra- kian, Czech, Hungarian, and Polish artists. and social milieu in which they exist, and doka): best director: Paul Claudel, best Their first performance in 2008 was entitled therefore they play a key role in renewing actress: Helena Dvořáková, best actor: the Walls of Hate: Memory and Identity existing genres and the work of repertory Martin Pechlát (2011) Complex – an event series that dealt with theaters. In Hungary, these independent > Thalia Awards (Ceny Thálie): Tereza extremism in a social, individual, historic, projects – many of them founded in the Dočkalová, Josef Jelínek, Vlastimil and mythological perspective. The actors, 90s – have been mired in financial uncer- Harapes, René Tuček, Luděk Munzar, He- musicians and designers who took part tainty for many years. Some of them are in lena Dvořáková (2011) tried to question the utopian premise of a such a dire state that they are often forced to common Central European identity. They work without salaries for months. Adding to Slovakia staged a performance two years later, which their hardships, the annual operation fund was the product of a joint workshop by the of the entire independent theatre field was > D OSKY: best director: Diego de Brea, best Polish Teatr Jednego Wiersza [One Poem withheld for a whole year by the Ministry of actor: Miroslav Noga, best actress: Szidi Theatre] and the Kompánia Theatre. The Human Resources in 2012. In Poland, some Tobias (2010/2011) play was based on the short stories of Bruno within theater circles lament that the pre- Schulz. Both projects received a grant from ceding nationalistic and ultra-conservative the International Visegrad Fund. Law and Justice Party seemingly did more Kornél Mundruczó, a prestigious to promote culture than the ruling, pro- theatre and film director, noted that many European Civic Platform. (The Guardian, great films seem to lose their magic appeal Aug. 1, 2012. “European arts cuts: Polish when watched many years later. By contrast, drama turns to tragedy as cuts bite”). That

104 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Who defines Central European Art? Arts – Looking back Kuba Dąbrowski pl H CZ Sk

Average price for a theatre ticket (adult, no discount) in EUR compared with: 18 11 14 12

Multiplex cinema ticket (Saturday, adult) 7.5 5.25 7.2 6.5

Hour of bowling (Saturday afternoon) 20 20 12 18.6 Price of a book (novel in paperback) 10 12 14 16.9

Ticket to modern art museum (adult) 3 2,7 10 6

Glass of red wine (0.25 L) in a downtown restaurant 3 2 3 2.5

Sources: theatres’, cinemas’, museums’, bowling centers’ respective websites. Paperback novel price based on Stieg Larsson’s The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. Wine glass prices estimated with help of restaurant guides for Warsaw, Budapest, Prague and Bratislava. THEATRE

Recent artistic > Jan Dravnel is a young Czech actor, active in the TR Wrszawa ensemble since 2005, cooperation recently seen in the Polish master Krystian Lupa's "City of Dreams" (2012) in V4 > Márta Ladjánszki is a Hungarian choreogra- pher praised for "JOSHA" dance performance FILM during the Malta Festival in Poznań (2012) > Hungarian director Zoltán Balázs's "Leonce > Drama: Peter Zelenka's "The Karamazov and Lena" was presented during the Dialog Brothers" (2008): a Czech theatre group stag- Festival in Wrocław (2012) es Dostoyevski's masterpiece in Nowa Huta, > Hungarian Kornél Mundruczó received rave the industrial part of Cracow, to a soundtrack reviews for "The Bat", based on Johann f The Bat, directed by Kornél Mundruczó, by Jan A.P. Kaczmarek Strauss's operette, at the TR Warszawa TR Warszawa, Warsaw, Poland 2012 > Dark comedy: Mark Najbrt's "Polski film" (2012) ("Polish Movie") (2012): a comedy about > "Our Class" by Polish playwright Tadeusz Czech filmmakers striving to make a movie Słobodzianek, directed by Gábor Máté won should give hope to the Hungarian theater with Polish co-producers the Hungarian Színházi Kritikusok Céhében world, because the current ruling party, > Drama: Juraj Nvota's "eŠteBák" ("The In- (Prize of Theatre Critics' Guild) (2012) if nothing else, is ultra-conservative in its former"): Slovak-Polish-Czech co-production > Boris Kudlička is a Slovakian opera set taste. Perhaps, in spite of all the odds, the starring Maciej Stuhr designer regularly cooperating with Mariusz independents will thrive at last. > Zdeněk Jiráský's "Poupata" ("Flower Buds") Treliński at the National Opera in Warsaw. (2011): the decline of a family in a small In 2006 he was awarded the Polish Order We would like to thank the Polish Institute in Buda- industrial town in the Czech Republic, with Gloria Artis by the Minister of Culture and Na- pest for help in preparing this article. the remarkable performance of Małgorzata tional Heritage for his artistic achievements. Pikus, an actress of the Polish Scene at the At the 2010 Expo in Shanghai, Boris Kudlička The author is a Hungarian freelance writer and Český Těšín Theatre. The film was awarded won (along with the WWAA) a silver medal for translator, and a PhD candidate in Film, Media and The Czech Lion (Český lev) for Best Film, Best designing the Polish pavilion. Contemporary Culture at ELTE University, Faculty of Director, Best Cinematography, and Best Ac- > Ondrej Spišák is Slovakian director who is fre- Humanities. tor in Leading Role in 2011. quently collaborating with the Laboratory of > "Essential Killing" (2010) by Jerzy Skoli- Drama established by Tadeusz Słobodzianek mowski was coproduced, among others, by > Jakub Krofta, artistic director of DRAK Thea- Poland and Hungary. tre in Hradec Králové, directed "Madame", based on a novel by Antoni Libera, at the references Teatr na Woli in Warsaw (2012) 1 Patricia Pászt is a translator of Polish dramas and an active proponent of modern and contem- > Michał Spišák directed "Solitaire.sk" at the porary Polish drama in Hungary. Her doctoral dissertation, which is cited above, concerns Polish Old Theatre in Nitra (2012) drama from 1990–2005.

105 Opportunities and announcements New V4 grant opportunities

The International Visegrad Fund is quickly becoming one of the major contributors of cultural, academic and civil society projects in the region. Karla Wursterová – the newly appointed director of the International Visegrad Fund – speaks about its development.

interview conducted by Jiří Sýkora and Natalia Kierczak

What changes do you plan on making the 21st century. The fund represents an thereby support transformation processes. as new director? added value to the region on the interna- By increasing the potential outside of our The fund is a personal challenge. I see an tional political scene, especially in prior- borders we also help create potential with- opportunity for better cooperation in the ity regions like the Western Balkans and in. For example, we have found strategies V4 region in all areas covered by the fund Eastern Partnership countries. to encourage Polish, Slovakian, Czech, – cultural exchange, scientific coopera- and Hungarian NGOs to work together tion, research, and education. The fund A fifth of the fund’s budget was devoted on a number of projects, and we often brings people closer together because to supporting projects outside the V4 last carry unique know-how with respect to it helps eliminate stereotypical ways of year. Why should Visegrad countries par- our eastern and southern neighbors. This thinking. This is clearly visible in even the ticipate in such ventures? way we contribute towards greater recog- smallest projects we support. As the only The fact that 20% of funds – this propor- nition of the V4 on an international level. permanent institution of the Visegrad co- tion will be even larger in 2012 – supports Thanks to this we are able to attract the operation, the fund is a unique asset in projects outside the V4 region is a conse- attention of important sponsors, such as expanding the brand consciousness of the quence of the long-term priorities of the the EU, the US, Japan, etc. This outward V4 around the world. Visegrad Group. The fund has become an orientation is an attempt to cooperate on We have an opportunity to develop important tool of V4 foreign policy. We a wider, regional level, but in a long-term sponsorship agreements in the V4 region are trying to help build potential in neigh- perspective it can have many positive ef- and beyond. Thanks to this we will have boring countries and regions, especially fects on the V4 region itself. Strengthening better ability to tackle the challenges of those which are not a part of the EU and positive values is important to us.

106 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 New V4 grant opportunities Opportunities and announcements

The yearly budget of the fund, currently sponsors give us offers of cooperation, are trying to make use of EU funds as about EUR 7 million, is financed through like the Dutch government, for example, efficiently as possible. It is imperative identical contributions from every state which supported us with a grant of EUR to harmonize priorities, many of which within the V4. What is the role of other 1.5 million for the Eastern Partnership are shared and belong to the long-term sponsors? program. Every offer is considered, in- perspective of the EU. In this category, We are observing an increase of interest cluding some more modest ones, and we transatlantic relations, expansion of the in all our programs – not only grants, are trying to find projects which are ben- EU, and regional cooperation all come to but also mobility programs, scholar- eficial both to us and the funding partner. mind. ships, and artistic residencies. There are We do not want to limit our support to many reasons for our efforts to find new non-governmental organizations in the Karla Wursterová is the executive director of the sources of funding. First among these Western Balkans and Eastern Partner- International Visegrad Fund. Her three-year term are today’s global economic problems, ship countries. We are also looking for began in August 2012. Before working for the to which we need to react by diversify- alternative solutions, such as supporting fund, she was the director of the Department of ing our sources of income. Secondly, our scientific exchanges between the V4 and Development and Humanitarian Aid of the Slo- aim is to increase the effectiveness of the other countries, such as the US. vak Foreign Ministry. sponsor cooperation to which I referred Our main partner should be the to earlier. We are very happy that many European Union, and that is why we

v4 grants and sholarships

Small Standard Strategic Scholar- Artistic grants grants grants ships residencies*

students applying for Applicants natural/legal persons natural/legal persons natural/legal persons scholarships for Master's artists (V4 citizens) or PhD studies

natural/legal persons natural/legal persons higher education institu- from at least two V4 from at least two V4 natural/legal persons tions from V4, the western host institutions from V4 Partners countries (other than the countries (other than the from all V4 countries Balkans and Eastern Part- countries country of the applicant) country of the applicant) nership countries**

Duration up to 6 months up to 12 months up to 36 months 1 or 2 semesters 3 months

€2,300 student/ up to €2,500/institution; semester; €1,500 /higher Budget up to €6,000 over €6,001 individual budgets up to €2,500/artist; education institution/ € 5,500/group of artists semester

March 1st, July Application March 15th, information updated on 1st, September 1st, March 31st January 31st September 15th the website deadline December 1st

aditional www.visegradfund.org/ www.visegradfund.org/ www.visegradfund.org/grants information scholarships residencies

** The fund finances three programs of artistic residencies: Performing Arts, Visual&Sound Arts, and Literary Residencies. ** Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Georgia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia, Ukraine

107 Essay Democratizing the art of remembrance A Different Country

Back in 1987 Marcin Król, a prominent Polish philosopher and historian, wrote about the subject of democratization of public memory and the new challenges that this process brings. This essay offers surprisingly up-to-date reflections on tensions that democracy has brought to history studies in Central Europe.

Marcin Król

would not recommend this ar- opportunities. I live. I make compromises. and where public issues are discussed daily, ticle to anyone who feels that not When I attend a mass for the nation, I may much as in my own home. I feel better be- much is changing, or that nothing weep. But if I feel threatened by an excess cause I feel freer. I no longer have to worry substantive has taken place in Pol- of national togetherness, you won’t see me about lifting other people’s spirits. Instead, ish society. If you do not sense that for dust. I can get on with my job, which is writing. you are living in another country, Equally I feel better because, for the And I can assume that ordinary people a wholly different country, it might first time in years, I can cherish the hope might end up reading what I’ve written. be best if you stop reading now. that the work I do, the work we produce, And what of myself? How do I feel will find its way – not into the heart of *** Iin this different country? Both worse and some kind of rural idyll (I have never had Am I overstating the effects of the transi- better, I’d say. Worse, because I am not yet any hopes on that score) – but into ordinary, tion we have witnessed? There are two er- accustomed to being alone. There is no mis- unprepossessing Polish homes where, in- rors it would be particularly easy to make. sion and no ideology to guide me. There are creasingly, the crystal vases once displayed no conversations late into the night to give on the dresser are being replaced by books, me a heightened sense of intellectual and spiritual communality. Every morning I sit down at my typewriter, or else go to the library to work, just like everyone else. I am no leader: I do not issue instructions. No one is waiting impatiently for what we – as writers – produce, in the way people once anticipated the next installment of Henryk Sienkiewicz’s With Fire and Sword. I feel troubled because I am constantly meeting people with whom I have little in common intellectually or culturally, but who know quite as much about the world as I do. They are often considerably better off than I am, and they go to church – just like me. I am an equal among equals with equally limited

108 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Democratizing THE art of remembrance Essay

The first, which isn’t serious and may even people by their appearance or ways of ex- pened on the other. Gradually, as the years be helpful, is based on perceiving more than pressing themselves. I know that to a large passed, the emphasis shifted toward a de- is actually there. So if I say that, from 1980, extent the factors contributing to this state bate of position and interpretation. a process began which led to a universal, of affairs have been essentially negative: the The following three decades were though still elementary, growth of civic en- social revolution of the 1940s and 1950s, steeped in controversy over issues such as gagement in Poland, then the mistake is not division, fragmentation, loss of social di- the Warsaw Uprising, the events between overly dangerous. Indeed, if one considers versity, and universal poverty. I am far from 1943 and 1947, and developments at the any statement a potentially self-fulfilling being an advocate for total equality, and I do heart of the Communist Party during the prophecy, then an observation such as this not honestly believe that it can ever be fully Nazi Occupation. There was tension over could ultimately encourage the same, highly achieved on a grand scale. Yet, in Poland, it the political struggle that continued until desirable development. The second error is was the elimination of inequalities in social 1948, accompanied by concomitant dis- more serious and blameworthy, given that status that gave the development of civic en- putes between the administration of the it belittles the facts. Those who fall into this gagement a kick start. country and émigré communities, the trap either fail to see the existing signs of Additional factors also came into play, Marxists and non-Marxists (who included change, or cannot perceive the forces that but as time went on the situation was af- socialists as well as Catholics). There were threaten democratic transformation. They fected, above all, by an increasingly strong other disputes relating to Stalinism, the will spin yarns depicting an idyllic world community of people with no sense of con- Thaw, revisionism, and the first timid and alongside, or even despite, the sombre, grey trol over their own lives. Today, when I am politically regulated attempts to write the perspectives that reality presents. in a public place, I say what I please and am real history of post-war Poland. The debates The position I have chosen demands aware that others are doing the same. Civic of the time were closed and auto-thematic. that I look to the future without any antici- engagement has also had a further effect. Theories of dubious value were initially pation of remarkable happenings, miracles, I no longer feel obliged to be permanently presented, but the books that were written or other supernatural interventions. It is alert to high-level political developments. did not quite ring true. The authors, or their uncomfortable because it forces me into an We have come to realize that there is such younger contemporaries, subsequently error. Yet, for me, it is the only feasible posi- a thing as localized politicization, that it is subjected these views to renewed criticism, tion, at least as far as I want to make any possible to form pressure groups, and that it causing them to eventually become targets real contribution to public life. The thinking can be worthwhile campaigning for specific of criticism for the generation that followed. behind this is simple. If the process of civic issues. Increasingly frequent references to engagement is to broaden and likewise ac- I am uncertain about what has really the 19th century and the inter-war period quire greater depth, then Poland’s new civil happened and whether civic engagement – appeared to broaden the horizons of the society will provide me with readers, inter- the social process of developing a civic intellectual imagination. But they did so locutors, and fellow citizens in the – hith- sense – will not be halted or reversed by the only superficially. The Polish mind was erto closed – community of the free (or at exterior forces of politics and economics. locked in a vicious circle imposed by post- least those enjoying a sense of intellectual I do know, however, that in writing about war conditions, and by the generation that freedom). If the opposite proves to be true, these things we can have an effect on social came into its own soon after the war ended. then not only shall I be lonely in the usual consciousness and – very indirectly – on Subsequently, the intellectual and moral way, even though I’m surrounded by oth- political and economic issues. So it is worth meanderings of this group also came to ers, but I shall be alienated, because outside focusing on what lies within our sphere of fascinate later generations. And yet, is it civil society we are all essentially indifferent influence: that is to say on ourselves and the not time to acknowledge that the war and to one another. I do not refer here to reli- newly formed community of citizens. I do the post-war era are over? Aren’t things dif- gious communality, which, after all, cannot not underestimate the external threats to ferent now? Are we not living in another serve as a substitute for all forms of social which this community is vulnerable, but it country? co-operation. Civic engagement is not just seems to me that internal threats also exist, Obviously, anyone is free to argue an analytical concept which offers a prac- which are equally as important and hard to otherwise. Some people may want to go on tical opportunity. It constitutes a risk and repel. exploring the ways in which our minds are a gamble. But I, for one, am prepared to put held “captive.” By all means, let them do so – my money on it. *** but please don’t try to persuade us that these The Second World War and the ensuing are relevant issues which continue to affect *** systemic changes in Poland had undeniable our lives. This is history: neither more nor In recent years, a rudimentary form of revolutionary consequences, no matter how less than that. Some may want to remem- communication – the language of poli- we choose to assess them now. For the next ber the remarkable moral fiber of those tics – has given me a sense of linkage with thirty five years, the events of the war and who never surrendered. That too is history. virtually everyone living in Poland. We have the radical social, economic, and – in par- There was a time when intellectuals could acquired the right to use this language. To ticular – ideological changes that followed, spend their time meditating on their mis- a large extent we have been responsible for served to nourish intellectual and political sion. That time is over. The rich, terrible, and winning it. It is a subjective right, but it is discourse in Poland. Intellectual life and, by bittersweet story of Polish national commu- also objective when enforced in the public extension, Polish consciousness as a whole, nality, which was once so engrossing for us sphere. It is only recently that I have learned, became dominated by a combination of all, has ended. The important questions no when meeting someone new, not to think apologia and criticism: on the one hand, the longer relate to our sense of community as primarily about their social origins. More unequivocal rejection of the post-war status a nation but to the effects of a new and truly often than not, I am now unable to classify quo, and attempts to justify what had hap- significant “revolution.”

109 Essay Democratizing THE art of remembrance

Uprising, for example, or the worker com- der what kind of communal identity it is that *** mitted to the positivist notion of concerted links us, as Poles. In the past, we formed Just as the conservative lobby had hoped, social effort; the faithful follower of Józef a symbolic community tried and tested by Polish democratization was shrouded in Pilsudski; the supporter of the nationalist history. This community must and shall an aura of veneration for tradition, and Roman Dmowski; the fighter of the Polish live on. Democratization has broadened it a yearning for a lost past that was associ- Home Army (AK); or the free thinking re- quantitatively to a degree that ensures there ated with the culture of the petty nobil- visionist. These images, these various forms is no need to be concerned about its power ity (szlachta) and the intelligentsia. Stock of attire, were once the property of specific or its future. However, there could be cause phrases from 19th century writing, and factions or historical groups and applied to for concern about the fate of democratiza- those wonderful lines from the national a particular context. To wear them now, in tion, particularly if the symbolic community poets Juliusz Slowacki (on the transfigura- a democratized society, would be to play were to continue existing in isolation, and tion of consumers of bread) or Zygmunt an infantile game of reaching into a box for if there were no sign of the development of Krasinski (on goodwill), were suddenly adornments that are both ill-fitting and long a civic community that shared relatively lit- translated into empirical reality. Equally, as out of fashion. tle with the other, symbolic and historical, socialists had anticipated, democratization The issue is this: How are we to en- national community. took place in a mood of egalitarianism and courage early stages of civic engagement, An individual participating in the civic social solidarity. Either way, judging by the even while we consciously let go of long- community does not part with his distinc- political and cultural models that have been established fictions, myths, fashions, and tive identity. On the contrary, he belongs to applied, the new civic sense can be traced turns of phrase? How should we support civil society because he knows that this is in directly to a patriotic tradition cultivated the emerging form of a different coun- his best interest. A civic community exists and preserved by the Polish intelligentsia try, in spite of the limitations imposed by in a permanent state of conflict balanced and nobility. politics and our overdeveloped historical by constant negotiation. And the civic By the same token, civic engagement imaginations? community develops within the context of puts an end to ideas about the special mis- We know now that the greatest danger what civilization has produced. This gives sion of this group. All those Polish “accursed comes from ourselves, that is to say, from it a measurable value, an easily verifiable questions,” engendered and nurtured by the intellectuals who have lost their sense of so- quality, within the sphere of law, industry or traditional beliefs and practices of nobles cial mission and are losing any sense of the finance. Social justice is obviously a serious and intellectuals, trapped the Polish mind purpose of their efforts. The temptation to issue for a society such as this, but the pro- in a cycle of auto-thematic reflection. Today abandon thought in favor of ideology can be duction of goods and services for the com- this has been relegated to the past. Thanks overwhelming. We also know that an erst- munity is even more important. to social democratization, these issues are while elite’s resistance to democratization Conflict between the symbolic, his- now important only as a topic of historical must mean pointless engagement in a los- torical community and the civic community study. They are no longer features of con- ing battle. It has to be avoided. is by no means inevitable. On the contrary: temporary, living history. Or rather – they So the problem is that civil society, the fact that we belong to two communities should not be. to which many threads of Polish political at once averts the likelihood of conflict. We We are addressing a very specific thought have aspired, closes a long period in have participated in both communities only phenomenon. A battle is being fought over Polish history and places us fair and square very briefly. One is still in its infancy. The whether the development of civic engage- before a new set of problems. But the issues other has two hundred years of historical ment should continue to be affected by we now face find us unprepared. We have experience, as well as the full force of the imaginative constructs once essential to never had an opportunity to take stock. The Polish patriotic reflex behind it. If we were ensuring that democratization could take introduction of democracy, even at a po- to remain exclusively bound to the national place at all. Will Polish society become tential and elementary level, does not need community, it would be evidence that we a prisoner of its own history? Or will it turn literary prophets and seers. It needs trained live in a highly anachronistic culture. It away from the past, renounce its old men- specialists. We are seeing a growth in the would equally imply the loss of the great- tors, and begin to extrapolate the future demand for professionals – even profes- est social opportunity to have appeared in from its own, new experiences. Will the sionals with expertise in the “history of the Poland’s recent history. discovery of civic engagement be an end or spirit” – which is why I’m overjoyed when The scenario I have outlined partly a beginning? This will depend on many fac- I see that professionalism is increasingly the reflects the existing situation, and is un- tors and, among other things, on whether criterion by which intellectual and artistic doubtedly very desirable. However, I am not the groups that formulate the language and endeavor is judged. It is time to step outside certain whether or to what degree it is prac- imagination of the new society – that is to the dispute about “clerkism” (the notion ticable. The less freedom there is in public say artists and intellectuals – will be able of art for art’s sake) and social engage- life, the stronger the symbolic, historical to depart from a world that is familiar and ment. The debate is wholly anachronistic, community will become, and the easier it comfortable but unfit to provide the neces- brings few benefits, and leads to consider- will be to forget that the country is different, sary means for understanding the effects of able misunderstandings. Like other dis- that it could be different. But a lack of free- change. putes I have mentioned, it is also ultimately dom is bound to have sinister implications. At a spiritual level, the history of auto-thematic. If you have taken a breath of fresh air and Poland goes on. But in order to perceive this, learned to live as a citizen, you may yet be one must discard the outer layers in which *** willing to attend another commemorative that history has been clothed. The image When I consider this different country, the event, and give the ritual display of Polish of the insurgent fighting in the Warsaw transformation that has taken place, I won- symbolism and history another try. But the

110 VIsegrad insight 1 (3)|2013 Democratizing THE art of remembrance Essay

time you spend at an occasion that is half- disowning consumerism and eliminating it People obviously need far more than ecclesiastical and half-theatrical is likely to from popular culture. Consumerism inevi- this. Clearly, we must not squander what the seem empty and wasted. tably accompanies democracy. We should symbolic, historical community has given instead enhance and strengthen the driving us. It is self-evident that without adequate *** force behind mass culture by reviving values public information, intellectual life will al- The internal history of Polish nobility and of a higher order. In fact, the cravings that ways be struggling to find its way between intelligentsia, as a class, was immensely motivate us as consumers, and our fantasies the conflicting demands of social obligation rich. That group no longer exists, and po- as a culture, significantly support our weak and objective judgment. Yet in the face of litical and art historians have only recently bonds with European civilization. They a world that threatens to offer neither tradi- begun to do its story full justice – thanks to continue to encourage Polish society to tion nor a future, civic engagement creates a wider range of available research methods, look toward Europe. But we can only main- an opportunity which has to be grasped, and perspectives. We know that the tradi- tain vital intellectual and artistic links with even though the risks may be high and the tion and power of this group was under- Europe at the level of high culture. chances of success slim. pinned by discourse on Poland’s “accursed Rather than gathering under flags and It may be inappropriate to add that questions.” The new civil society – oriented banners, it might be worth thinking about differently formulated strategies may also as it is toward social solidarity – possesses having a conversation in the marketplace, at prove helpful in finding a way forward. neither an equivalent traditional identity the forum, and seeking opportunities to dis- The tendency to depict reality according to nor the strength that emerges from this cuss fundamental values. Doubtless, history a prescribed model, and to draw fixed con- counterpart. It may be powerful emotion- cannot be rewound. But social conscious- clusions, emerges from a temperament con- ally and symbolically, but, partly as a re- ness can be appropriated by a history that is stantly in search of “normative” conditions sult of democratic progress, the historical dead and buried. We are in an unusually dif- in which to think and function. All that is thread has been broken. The white walls of ficult situation. The temptation to seek so- happening – the transition we are witness- the traditional Polish manor house have col- cial unity for negative reasons is justifiable, ing or the direction in which we are mov- lapsed, and no “revaluation” can raise them. powerful, and easy. But consider how dan- ing – does not necessarily merit rapturous The generation that acted as custodian to gerous this could be for intellectual life and applause. But if these changes are indeed memories linking the past with the present the future of Polish society. A strategy that valid and socially beneficial then – remem- is already dying. recognizes and accepts a state of ‘abnormal bering Alexis de Tocqueville’s argument – This could lead to a potentially dis- normality’ presupposes the greatest possi- we must ensure that democratization does astrous scenario. The historical, symbolic ble internal freedom in the way we assess not break completely with the past, and that community is no longer founded on con- social phenomena and cultural projects. it is enriched by the integration of old val- crete memories: customs, objects, appear- As a strategy, it has the weakness of being ues, measures, and norms into what is new. ances, recollected details, etc. As a group, conflict-inducing and not entirely effective. Innovation need not provoke unmitigated the historical community may be power- Equally, it possesses the strength of being joy, but we must be aware that the new has ful but, when tested against tangible real- true to existing circumstances. arrived and that old ways, ancient narra- ity, its voice rings hollow. Meanwhile, the The possibilities may be very limited. tives, and symbols are no longer enough. civic community has barely germinated, it It seems to me, however, that there is very has little experience, it is poor, limited, and little choice. Intellectuals may not be direct- *** fragmented. Having lost our history, and ly responsible for the democratic transition Things are different. Things really are both properly separated ourselves from it, we that began in August 1980, nor do they have better and worse. I feel worse because could find it impossible to create effective the power to give the transformations that I have understood once and for all that I live bonds in the present. characterize liberal democracies the mo- in a world that is formless, a world whose As we already know, democratization mentum they need. But, as professionals, future I cannot know and which makes me carries social fragmentation in its wake. we are not entirely unserviceable. First, the vaguely fearful. I feel better because I know How can we counter this? Civil society can changes that have already taken place must that it is worth exploring history from the develop only in conditions where freedom is be recorded. We must also be mindful of perspective of individual, personal experi- allowed to flourish, even if this is confined the principle so often noted by sociologists ence, rather than from the ramparts of a na- to a local level. So it is worth ensuring that that any prophecy might be self-fulfilling, tional fortress. And I anticipate that a new the existing margin of freedom is properly and we should remember therefore that range of vantage points could reveal many exploited. Reflection on the principles of a good, reliable and sympathetic account of hitherto unfamiliar and important things. civil society and how it functions is also in- events may be a step toward further change. dispensable. After all, only those endowed Second, we must strengthen and deepen the with inner strength can afford to make civic engagement that has already been in- Res Publica, 1/1987 compromises. Here as well, I fear that the stituted. This is assisted neither by expres- strength of the historical and symbolic com- sions of veneration for the democratized Translated by Irena Maryniak munity may fall short of what is required. masses nor by moralizing about them. And in any case, it remains unclear where However, it can be supported by treating The author is a Polish philosopher, historian of ideas its power should be directed. people living in this new and different coun- and political commentator. He was a co-founder, In this new and different country, one try as adults, who need to be informed, and and long-standing editor-in-chief, of Res Publica. of our aims must be to promote the return deserve to have a sense of their own value, of a hierarchy of absolute values in intel- and access to sensible and unprejudiced lectual and cultural life. It is not a case of critical assessment.

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