Define the Following Keywords: Proletariat; Bourgeoisie; Peasant; Revolution; Capitalist; Communist;

Home , Geoffrey Elton, Princes in the Tower

History Summer Preparation Task:

Part 1: Revolution and Dictatorship: Russia, 1917-1953

LO: To build up knowledge of Marxist ideology

To explain the appeal of Marxist ideology and its weaknesses

To evaluate the appeal of Marxism in Russia before 1917

1) Knowledge

Learn and explain the six stages of Marxist Stage Theory Define the following keywords: Proletariat; Bourgeoisie; Peasant; Revolution; Capitalist; Communist;

2) Explanation

Answer the following questions fully

/'. LV/7y was Marxism appealing? Who would be attracted to Marxism? //'. What did Marx think about religion and why? iii. What did Marx think about Trade Unions and parliamentary democracy? Why? Is this surprising?

3) Evaluation/ Application (Read and make notes on the Introduction from your course textbook. ppxii-xvi. Practise the following two questions ready for a baseline test lesson 1) i) Why was Marxism increasingly appealing in Russia in the early C20th? (eg. Industrial changes, poor conditions, autocratic government) ii) What limited the appeal of Marxism in Russia in the early C20th? (eg. Extreme ideology - moderate ideology more appealing to some, Russia mainly agricultural still, the Tsar's power.)

Lesson 1: Be prepared for i) a knowledge test on Marxist stage theory, ii) To answer the two evaluation questions in full using examples from the Russian context.

4) You are also expected to read at least one 'wider reading' or novel book during the first term. You may wish to start this during the summer. See the list below for some recommended texts. Boris Paternik, Doctor Chivago Leo Tolstoy, Anna Karenina Maxim Gorky, Mother Victor Serge, The Case of Comrade Tulayev Alexander Solzhenitsvn, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich Mikhail Bulgakov, Master and Margarita Andrev Kurkov, Death and the Penguin

George Orwell, Animal Farm • George Orwell, 1984 History Summer Preparation Task:

Part 2: The Tudors 1485-1603

LO: To build up knowledge of the monarchy in 1485 and the War of the Roses

To explain problems which Henry VII faced in 1485 To evaluate how successfully Henry VII consolidated his power between 1485 and 1486

5) Knowledge

Learn and explain background of the Wars of the Roses and the actions of Henry VII Define the following keywords: consolidation; magnates; accession; nobility; attainders; patronage; retainers; bonds

6) Explanation

Answer the following questions fully

iv. Why did Henry VII need to consolidate his power? v. How did Henry's character help him ? vi. Which methods did Henry use to control the nobility?

7) Evaluation/Application (Read and make notes from your textbook and wider reading. Practise the following two questions ready for a baseline test lesson 1) i) How effective were Henry Vll's actions in controlling the nobility between 1485 and I486? ii) How successful was Henry VII in consolidating power between 1485 and I486?

7) You are also expected to read at least one 'wider reading' or novel book during the first term. You may wish to start this during the summer. See the list below for recommended texts.

Recommended Novels Tracey Borman, The Private Life ofTudors Susan Doran, The Tudor Chronicles Thomas Penn, The Winter King (Henry VII) Suzannah Lipscombe, 1536: The Year that Changed Henry VIII David Starkey, Henry Virtuous Prince David Starkey, Henry VIII Personality and Politics Tracey Barman, Cromwell: The Untold Story of henry Vllt's Faithful Servant Chris Skidmore, Edward VI: The Lost King of England Anna Whitelock, Mary I lan Mortimer, Time Travellers Guide to Elizabethan England Alison Weir, Elizabeth: The Queen Penguin Monarchs (accessible biographies of the Tudor Monarchs)

Lesson 1: Be prepared for i) a knowledge test on the Wars of the Roses. ii) To answer the two evaluation questions in full using examples from the Tudor context. .?

\ Kt^bj Chapter 1 Marxist ideology, Lenin and Stalin line. E Marxist stage theory Cross-reference }: The first key feature of a totalitarian state is an official ideology. The The importance of an official official ideology of the Soviet Union was Marxism, or Communism, the ideology in a totalitarian state is -ire naine that Karl Marx had giveii to his Utopia. Marx set out his ideas covered on page 5. j, / in two main works, The Commumst Manifesto [ 1848) and Das Kapit.al (1867). Although Marx was born in ir Germany, he lived most of his life in Britain. His political theory was based on his study of the histoiy of Britain and his obsei-vation of '/ life during the 19th centuiy. Marx i ^ t f believed that there were six stages, ^ ras -*» or epochs, in human histoiy and i I^JS ; A*. he had studied the first four in ^w-"' "r^ ». •• '»r Britain. He considered his theories "l'->? ''- • Key term :t f^ 1 to be scientific rather than political, in that what he had observed had Economic determinism: Marx's d. •f. happened inevitably because of belief that all history is shaped the conditions. He believed that by scientific laws that are fixed :er his theory was scientific because and therefore are obeyed. The J whenever there were certain economic position of a country Fig. 4 KarlMarx conditions, certain events would would determine the system occur. These events he believed of government and, when two were struggles between different classes to gain the food, goods and services different economic groups that were necessary to suivive. These struggles would lead to the advance inevitably clashed, the next stage T of human histoiy from one stage to the next. Marx believed in economic of human history would occur. determinism: in his view, the key to understanding human histoiywas to nnderstand that economics was the most powerful force. The class that had control of food, goods and services would also have real political power.

Primitive Communism In this epoch men worked together in communities to survive. There were no private ^. .)' '. ^ properties and no class differences. All men performed the same economic function, ^ e x f essentially hunter-gatherer. This stage would give way to one in which the most successful ^^ hunter-gatherer-warrior gained power and control over others. j; ^T^ 1.

Imperialism AE"^' In this epoch the emperor rules, his rule is initially based on his superiority at gaining resources. ^ The emperor would own all land. However, as this stage develops, the emperor would become ^ v1^ threatened by outsiders and therefore grant land to others, who in return would provide ^ soldiers to defend the country. A new land-owning aristocracy was therefore created. ^

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Feudalism .»;.» At the stage of feudalism, land was owned by the aristocracy. They would exploit the peasantry, who worked on the land but did not own it. The key resource was the food a- produced which the aristocracy could sell. The surplus of food led to the development of j'isîW^-^. trade and industry and a new class of merchants who would want access to political power. ]l-roipJBi.° c?@û^s^"?^î., B^% Fig. 5 Marxist ideas: the different stages of human history Section 1 The USSR and Marxism

Capitalism This was the stage Marx observed in Britain in the mid-19th century. There were two classes: the middle class of factory owners and merchants, or the bourgeoisie, and the working class or the proletariat. The bourgeoisie owned the means of production (the

factories) and became increasingly wealthy, selling goods for a profit. They exploited the t proletariat, paying them low wages which ensured that the proletariat lived in terrible conditions. Marx argued the proletariat accepted their position in society because of three great deceptions: • The Church taught that suffering was all part of God's plan and that it brought ^ ^^ a greater reward in the afterlife. It was for this reason that Marx famously called -M f^ religion 'the opium of the masses'. Marx was also a materialist, which meant that he looked for rational explanations of events based on what could be seen, heard and s 1 touched, rather than accepting any supernatural force could be responsible. This ?, ,"»! meant he rejected any role for religion in society. ^1 • Trades Unions served the bourgeois factory owners more than they served the working class. By seeking to improve workers' pay and conditions marginally they prevented the proletariat becoming revolutionary and overthrowing the bourgeois system of government. • Parliamentary democracy deceived the working class into believing that they had control over government decisions. Although the working class had been given the vote in Britain in 1867, their lives did not improve because MPs were still middle-class factory owners who would not pass laws that were against their own interests. For example, Public hlealth Acts to provide clean water for the working classes in cities were permissive (they allowed local councils to raise taxes to pay for sewers, rather than forcing them to do so). Therefore, for the proletariat to rise up and overthrow the bourgeoisie and end the stage of capitalism, it was crucial that the workers achieved a level of political awareness. This meant awareness that they were being exploited, and awareness that they made up the vast majority of the country and therefore they had the power. It was this need that led Marx to end the Communist Manifesto with the battle-cry: 'The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Proletarians of all countries, unite!' fa 'I.'.; t i: ti ^ffi ^ 's

Socialism i Marx believed that it was inevitable that the proletariat would become politically aware and that they would then rise up and overthrow the bourgeois government. During this stage, the dictatorship of the proletariat would develop in which workers' organisations would ensure that ^1 food, goods and services were distributed fairly according to people's needs. The State would achieve this through taxation of the middle class and the provision of benefits to the working «% class, as well as through State ownership of industry which would ensure profits were shared by all. Marx believed that the stage of socialism would be transitional. It would last long enough for li^ the middle class to be re-educated to understand that equality was superior to private ownership. If necessary, elements of the middle class who refused to accept socialism would be eliminated.

Communism ^-\^' This stage was Marx's Utopia. As everyone worked together for the common good and ^~ therefore had enough resources for their needs, there would no longer be any need for / money and government could whither away. Society would be class-less. Furthermore, as this was the ultimate stage in human history, this stage would be reached in all countries. This would mean that the world would also become State-less as there would no longer be competition between different States,

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The political context in 1485 ,'TuAof, England had experienced much political instability in the fifteenth century. The successful short reign of Henry V (1413-22) was followed by the hfcr disastrous rule of Henry VI. The shortcomings of his rule culminated in the outbreak of the so-called Wars of the Roses in 1455 between the royal houses of Lancaster and York. England was then subjected to intermittent civil war for over thirty years and five violent changes of monarch.

Table 1 Changes of monarch, 1422-85

Monarch*|KS|| Reign » The ending of the reign ?^^^^^^^^^^^^;^^^^<^ .^..,A..;fflaS,^&5

Overthrown by Warwick'the Kingmaker' and forced Edward IV [Y] 1461-70 into exile.

Murdered after the defeat of his forces in the Battle of Henry VI [L] 1470-?'! Tewkesbury. His son and heir, Edward Prince of Wales, was also killed. 'I t Died suddenly and unexpectedly, leaving as his heir Edward IV [Y] 1471-83 I the 13-year-old Edward V. Disappeared in the Tower of London and probably murdered, along with his brother Richard, on the orders of Edward V(Y] 1483 ;Ni his uncle and protector, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who SM succeeded him on the throne. i Defeated and killed at the Battle of Bosworth. j .M Richard III [Y] 1483-85 Succeeded on the throne by his successful adversary I Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. i *(L]= Lancaster (Y]= York 11

Sence Brook ,1 RICHARD III II Jlljfi^,">.y- King Dick's. .^^.^ Hole G-

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m Introduction to this book

fi Richard Ill's usurpation in 1483 destroyed the unity of the House of York, and prompted within a few months an unsuccessful rebellion by disaffected Yorkists led by the Duke of Buckingham. Richard Ill's unpopularity grew and his rule was increasingly seen as lacking legitimacy. These factors created the opportunity for Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, to make what proved to be a ith century. successful attempt to gain the throne at the Battle ofBosworth in August 1485. >y the Richmond was successful in gaining the throne, but there was no guarantee nated in the that he would keep it. As can be seen in Figure 2, with his descent through : royal houses the female line deriving from Edward Ill's third son, John of Gaunt, his claim ;nt civil war for to the throne was weak and' the early years of Henry VII's reign were beset by feelings of insecurity. He was always fearful of a possible Yorkist threat to the throne, and such fears did not die with him in 1509, for Henry VIII continued to fret about possible Yorkist conspiracies until the final years of his reign and remained obsessed with fear about the instability which would ensue should vsss^s'.^ I r sBS&Siss&i.S.i&sstSii he be unable to pass on the throne to a male heir. Edward, Earl of The Houses of York and Lancaster

Edward III •r'and forced Philippa of Hainault d. 1377

in the Battle of Edward, Prince Lionel, Duke of John of Gaunt, Duke Edmund of Langley, Thomas of Woodstock, Others Prince of Wales, of Wales, d. 1376 Clarence d. 1376 of Lancaster d.1399 Duke of York d. 1402 Dukeof Gloucester d. 1397 = (1) Blanche of Lancaster = (3) Katherine Swynford ing as his heir (1)r ,(2) T "I Richard Philippa = Edmund Henry IV John Beaufort, Richard, Earl of Anne = Edmund, probably d.1399 Mortimer, Earl of d.1413 Marquess of Cambridge ex. 1415 Earl of Stafford March d. 1381 Somerset d. 1410 = Anne Mortimer qv I, on the orders of Gloucester, who Roger, Earl of HenryVd. 1422 John Beaufort, Humphrey, Dukeof March k. 1399 Duke of Somerset Buckingham k. 1460 d.1444 iworth. r ssfuladversary Edmund, Earl of Anns = Richard, Henry VIk.1471 Margaret Beaufort Humphrey, Earl of :"^Ti:? March d. 1425 Earl of = Margaret of = (1) Edmund Tudor, Stafford d. 1458 .,Elizabeth of York qv Buckingham ex. 1483 r T I EdwardlVd. 1483 George, Dukeof Richard III k. 1483 i = Elizabeth Woodville Clarence k. 1478 = Anne Neville

~II Edward V Richard, Duke Elizabeth = Edward, Prince of of York Henry VII qv Wales d. 1484

Fig- 2 The rival royal houses of York and Lancaster lyton Continuity and change 1485-1603 All periods of history embrace both continuity and change. Tudor England, which lasted from 1485 to 1603, was no exception to this rule. Three changes all would have surprised any Englishman or Englishwoman alive in 1485: Catholic Church, which was a huge part of the lives of almost the entire

•%, nation in 1485, had all but disappeared by 1603, taking with it manyofthe r^ % social and charitable institutions which were such an important feature of i, suggesting •t land. *l t. Introduction to this book

^ • England, which in political terms had been a small player in Europe in 1485, was by 1603 acknowledged as a major European power and had begun the process which would lead it to become the worlds dominant power. • England was becoming a much more ordered society, as exemplified by the flight of the nobility from draughty and uncomfortable but secure medieval castles to country houses where the emphasis was on ease and comfort. Other developments, while less surprising, were, nevertheless, significant. Most importantly, the monarchy, which had changed hands by force on no fewer than five occasions during the fifteenth century, recovered under the Tudors the power and prestige which it had once enjoyed during the reigns of Edward I and Edward III. •!'. II On the other hand, some aspects of the England of 1603 would have seemed familiar to anyone who had been alive in 1485: • Differences between rich and poor remained immense, whichwas particularly noticeable as a result of the increase in income from landed property which benefited many members of the nobility and the greater , r gentry. , • England's economy continued to be dominated by internal trade, even j .!•• though the pattern of external trade was beginning to change. I .'I • There was little change to the country's political structures. This book is concerned both with understanding and explaining the changes which took place across this 118-year period of English history and with I identifying and accounting for those issues that remained broadly the same. ;"1 The following chapters will explore the developments and narrative of English history and, more importantly, will consider the many varied influences which. shaped the country's development. You will be taken on a journey through j English history, considering both the rulers and the ruled and in so doing you i •ey: will come to understand for yourself how individuals, groups and ideas all : played their part in the development of the English nation during one of its | ^ most important formative periods. ^1 As you study this period of English history, you are invited to consider the following Key Questions: j • How effectively did the Tudors restore and develop the powers of the monarchy? •^ . • In what ways and how effectively was England governed during this Wiim period? .^•-;;^^i • How did relations with foreign powers change and how was the succession | •^ secured? ! • How did English society and economy change and with what effects? • How far did intellectual and religious ideas change and develop and with j what effects? ' • How important was the role of key individuals and groups and how were 'i .1 they aflfected by developments? | Try to keep these questions in mind as you work your way through this book; j '^11 you will find them highlighted in the text too. These are the 'big' questions ] 1^;^i which have occupied historians studying the 1485 to 1603 period and by j m reflecting on them you will come to appreciate the development of the English Bill State over this period more fully. Remember too that political, economic, | social and cultural developments go hand in hand, and to build up a full picture you will need to explore the links between them. i There is plenty to learn and much to think about in the following pages. ; If you approach your studies in a spirit of enquiry, anxious to piece together s past events to enrich your understanding of the whole, you will not only find j !W much to enjoy in your study of Tudor England, you will also emerge the wiser| from it.

j Introduction to this book Ji I The political context in 1485 England had experienced much political instability in the fifteenth century. Tile successful short reign of Henry V (1413-22) was followed by the disastrous rule of Henry VI. The shortcomings of his rule culminated in the outbreak of the so-called Wars of the Roses in 1455 between the royal houses of Lancaster and York. England was then subjected to intermittent civil war for over thirty years and five violent changes of monarch.

Table I Changes of monarch, 1422-85 7?natng:offK8l 8SI ^1< Defeated in battle and overthrown by Edward, Earl of 1422-61 Henry VI(L) March who took the throne. I Overthrown by Warwick 'the Kingmaker' and forced 1461-70 •a Edward IV [Y] into exile. Murdered after the defeat of his forces in the Battle of Henry VI (L) 11470-71 Tewkesbury. His son and heir, Edward Prince of Wales, .^ was also killed. ••i Died suddenly and unexpectedly, leaving as his heir Edward IV [Y] | 1471-83 the 13-year-old Edward V. I Disappeared in the Tower of London and probably murdered, along with his brother Richard, on the orders of Edward V(Y] | 1483 his uncle and protector, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who succeeded him on the throne.

Defeated and killed at the Battle of Bosworth. Richard III (Y) 1483-85 Succeeded on the throne by his successful adversary Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. :-"(• *[L)= Lancaster IY]= York :/: V^^n^v^. ,//' Sence Brook RICHARD III ....80-

King Dick's Hole IBS 80->

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1'DO 2 •%. s> Miles s; Fig. 1 This map illustrates an interpretation of the Battle ofBosworth, suggesting where the fighting took p/oce

^ •^'••'•^SSSiSS-^ 'ISS ^ ••vs^^&Sf&^y. -:,^ K- s:

i Introduction to this book Richard Ill's usurpation in 1483 destroyed the unity of the House of York, and prompted within a few months an unsuccessful rebellion by disaffected Yorkists led by the Duke of Buckingham. Richard Ill's unpopularity grew and his rule was increasingly seen as lacking legitimacy. These factors created the opportunity for Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, to make what proved to be a successful attempt to gain the throne at the Battle ofBosworth in August 1485. Richmond was successful in gaining the throne, but there was no guarantee that he would keep it. As can be seen in Figure 2, with his descent through the female line deriving from Edward Ill's third son, John of Gaunt, his claim to the throne was weak and the early years of Henry VII's reign were beset by feelings of insecurity. He was always fearful of a possible Yorkist threat to the throne, and such fears did not die with him in 1509, for Henry VIII continued to fret about possible Yorkist conspiracies until the final years of his reign and remained obsessed with fear about the instability which would ensue should he be unable to pass on the throne to a male heir.

HOUSE OF YORK HOUSE OF LANCASTER

) Philippa Edward III < J ofHainault Plantagenet L ^ I314-G3 1312-77 ^J^^l Lionel Duke Isabella Edmund of Langley) Edward Joan Blanche_ John of Gaunt .Constance Duke of York I Prince" of Clarence of Castile ofKentplantagenet Duke of Lancaster Katherine ^Castile 1338-68 1341-1402 J of wales 1340-99 (wife 2) Swynford

Edward Edward V Richard Elizabeth Prince of Wales (3) of York HenryVII Ferdinand 1473-84 1470-C1483 Duke of York (2) of York Tudor of Castile 1473-C1483 1466-.1503 1457-1500 Key DIRECT LINE Henry VIII OF SUCCESSION Catherine Tudor ofAragon INDIRECT LINE OF SUCCESSION

Fig. 2 The rival royal houses of York and Lancaster

It Continuity and change 1485-1603 All periods of history embrace both continuity and change. Tudor England, which lasted from 1485 to 1603, was no exception to this rule. Three changes above all would have surprised any Englishman or Englishwoman alive in 1485: • The Catholic Church, which was a huge part of the lives of almost the entire nation in 1485, had all but disappeared by 1603, taking with it many of the social and charitable institutions which were such an important feature of late-medieval England.

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..t. Introduction to this book . England, which in political terms had been a small player in Europe in 1485, was by 1603 ackiiowledged as a major European power and had begun th.e process which would lead it to become the worlds dominant • Englandpower. was becoming a much more ordered society, as exemplified by the flight of the nobility from draughty and uncomfortable but secure medieval castles to country houses where the emphasis was on ease and comfort. Other developments, while less surprising, were, nevertheless, significant. Most importantly, the monarchy, which had changed hands by force on no fewer than five occasions during the fifteenth century, recovered under the Tudors the power and prestige which it had once enjoyed during the reigns of Edward I and Edward III. s On the other hand, some aspects of the England of 1603 would have seemed familiar to anyone who had been alive in 1485: • Differences between rich and poor remained immense, which was particularly noticeable as a result of the increase in income from landed property which benefited many members of the nobility and the greater • England'sgentry. economy continued to be dominated by internal trade, even though the pattern of external trade was beginning to change. • There was little change to the country's political structures. This book is concerned both with understanding and explaining the changes which took place across this 118-year period of English history and with identifying and accounting for those issues that remained broadly the same. The following chapters will explore the developments and narrative of English history and, more importantly, will consider the many varied influences which shaped the country's development. You will be taken on a journey through English history, considering both the rulers and the ruled and in so doing you will come to understand for yourself how individuals, groups and ideas all played their part in the development of the English nation during one of its mostAs iniportantyou study formativethis period periods. of English history, you are invited to consider the K9 following Key Questions: 'w. « How effectively did the Tudors restore and develop the powers of the monarchy? w;: . In what ways and how effectively was England governed during this period? saa • How did relations with foreign powers change and how was the succession . Howsecured? did English society and economy change and with what effects? . How far did intellectual aiid religious ideas change and develop and with • Howwhat important effects? was the role of key individuals and groups and how were Trythey to keep affected these by questions developments? in mind as you work your way through this book; you will find them highlighted in the text too. These are the 'big questions which have occupied historians studying the 1485 to 1603 period and by reflecting on them you will come to appreciate the development of the English State over this period more fully. Remember too that political, economic, social and cultural developments go hand in hand, and to build up a full picture you will need to explore the links between them. There is plenty to learn and much to think about in the following pages. If you approach your studies in a spirit of enquiry, anxious to piece together past events to enrich your understanding of the whole, you will not only find much to enjoy in your study of Tudor England, you will also emerge the wiser from it.

SESSSK:

I. Atii%l I1 Part One Consolidatjon of the Tudor dynasty: England, 1485-1547

• '91flffR&g?! ^^^y^^^'^'^l^s:S^ 1 Henry VII, 1485-1509

s The consolidation of power

^rif^f^ LEARNING OBJECTIVES Henry Vll's attitude to ruling was, for the most part, similar to that of his predecessors. He believed in the imposition of strong and unquestioned royal leadership. This was particularly needed in England after an interval Henry Vll's seizure of the throne of instability in which the authority of the Crown had been badly damaged. and consolidation of power I However, Henry's own background also made demands on him. Henry Tudor Henry's character and aims in was a stranger in England when he ascended the throne, having won that government I throne by conquest. Thrust in this position by the events of a single afternoon, the establishment of the Tudor I Henry had to master the realm he now ruled. Henry had no immediate relations dynasty whose services he could employ nor a reliable body of nobles he could turn to. Henry's treatment of claimants What he did, he had to do on his own. and pretenders to the throne.

Adapted from Wallace MacCaflFrey, KEY QUESTION I The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor and Stuart Britain, 2000 I As you read this chapter, consider the r<3v following Key Questions: I & • How effectively did the Tudors restore and develop the powers of the monarchy? • How important were the roles of key individuals and groups c3 ^ and how were they affected by s developments? -.„»

s ACTIVin What are the key points made in Extract I? As you read this chapter, make notes that either confirm, or conflict with, Wallace MacCaffrey's interpretation. At the end of the Fig. 1 Henry VII chapter you will be asked to give your opinion on MacCaffrey's view. Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, became King Henry VII of England following his victory over Richard Ill's forces at the Batde ofBosworth on 22 August 1485. This victory terminated Plantagenet rule in England, and saw I the establishment of a new dynasty, the Tudors. However, Henry VII's grasp CROSS-REFERENCE of power was insecure; he had virtually no discernible claim to the throne To understand potential rival claims and he had many enemies who were only too keen to see him experience the to the throne, study the family tree of r- same fate as his immediate predecessor. It was therefore essential for him to the descendants of Edward III in the consolidate his power by establishing his dynasty and ensuring that any rivals Introduction, page xv. to the throne were dealt with firmly. Henry's claim to the throne was weak in two respects. Firstly he was descended through the female line represented by his mother. Lady Margaret

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.€ROSS.Rg|EERENgEi Beaufort (as illustrated by Figiu-e 2, in the Introduction). More importantly, Richard's treatment of the princes the line came from John of Gaunts third wife; their son John Beaufort had in the Tower is covered in the been bom before their marriage and was therefore seen as illegitimate. Henry became the Lancastrian claimant only because there was no one else who Introduction, page 14. could fulfil the role. In reality, however, it was victory on the battlefield alone Margaret Beaufort played a which had brought him to the throne. significant role in her son's reign. Her Henry, who had lived abroad since he was 14, was proclaimed King of profile features in Chapter 2, page 10. England on the battlefield by Lord Stanley. Following the battle, Henry made the short journey to Leicester, where the mortal remains of his enemy were interred, then to London where on 3 September 1485 Henry was met by KEY PROFILE the lord mayor of the city. The London public was wooed by pageantry and ceremony into cheering the new monarch. In truth, by this point Richard Thomas, Lord Stanley had become such an object of suspicion because of the disappearance of the (1435-1509) princes in the Tower, along with other presumed crimes, that it mattered little Stanley, Henry VII's stepfather, who Henry was and how slender was his claim to the throne. That he was not initially stood aside from. the battle. Richard was enough for the public to accept him. His intervention on behalf of Henry proved crucial, and he was rewarded with the tide Earl of Derby. Derby Henry Vll's character and aims was key to the exercise of royal power Henry VII had not been brought up to rule. In 1471, when Henry was 14, in the northwest of England and Edward IV regained power for the House of York in the Battle ofTewkesbury, north Wales during Henry's reign. in which many of Henry's relations, the Lancastrians, died or were executed. Henry fled to Fraiice, where he lived for most of the time as a fugitive in the Duchy of Brittany. To the historian Thomas Penn, Henry's ability to think like a fugitive proved to be useful political training for his future as a ruler.

:GRQ$S

CROSS-REFERENCE l From 1485, Henry's main purpose was to ensure that he kept his throne, Chapters 2 and 3 will discuss mindful as he was that four monarchs from the previous hundred years had how Henry carried out his aim to met untimely ends themselves. Therefore, his primary aim at the start of his consolidate power. reign was to consolidate his power, which he did by a number of political actions combined with military success.

ACTIVITY

Research Find out more about Henry VII as a character and family man. Good places to start your research would be the short biography of Henry VII by Steven Gunn in www.oxforddnb.com and IVmter King: the Dawn of Tudor England by Thomas Penn. I! For a contemporary view you might use Polydare Vergil [see Chapter 4, page 39, II for a Key Profile on Polydore Vergil].

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m' 8»^"w 'y^'-iui CHAPTER 1 The consolidation of power

KEY PROFILE Edward, Earl of Warwick (1475-99] parliamentary sanction: an official confirmation or ratification of a The son of Edward I Vs brother, the Duke of Clarence, he was placed in the law given by Parliament as the Tower of London in 1485. There he remained except for occasional public acclaimed body of the State; by appearances. He was alleged to have plotted with Perkin Warbeck against the laws of the time, King Henry Henry VII in 1499 and was beheaded for doing so. Vll's tenuous claims to the throne would normally have had to be fortified by a parliamentary Henry immediately consolidated his power in a number of ways: sanction • He dated his reign from 21 August 1485, the day before the Battle of Bosworth, thereby ensuring that anyone who had fought on the Yorkist side Act of Attainder: this declared a could be designated a traitor. landowner guilty of rebelling • He publicly rewarded many of his key supporters, for example by against a monarch; the attainted conferring 11 knighthoods. noble lost his title, lands and • He arranged for supporters to detain the Earl of Warwick, Edward IV's sometimes his head; his heirs nephew, who could be seen as having a much greater claim to the throne were disinherited than Henry himself. tonnage and poundage: the right to • He made key appointonients to his Council and household, for example raise revenue for the whole reign making Sir Reginald Bray Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Sir from imports and exports William Stanley Chamberlain of the Household.

KEYpiairee.' CROSS-REFERENCE Sir William Stanley (cl435-95] Henry's Council, including the roles of the Chancellor of the Duchy of Stanley, the brother of Thomas Stanley, the Earl of Derby, and Henry VII's Lancaster and the Lord Chamberlain, step-uncle, was rewarded with the post of Lord Chamberlain following will be discussed in Chapter 2, Bosworth. This not only gave him considerable political influence, it also pages 9-11. enabled him to develop his landed estate in Cheshire and North Wales. It was therefore a shock when he was accused of treason. To read more about the king's household, turn to Chapter 2, pages 11-13. :il He arranged his coronation to take place on 30 October before the meeting For the role of Parliament in Henry of his first Parliament on 7 November, thereby demonstrating that his Vll's reign, see Chapter 2, right to the throne was based on hereditary right and not only because pages 13-14. Parliament had sanctioned it. Parliamentary Acts of Attainder against Yorkists who had fought at Bosworth ensured that their property was forfeit to the Crown, thereby increasing royal income. This was further enhanced when Parliament

I granted Henry the customs revenues of tonnage and poundage for life. I In January 1486 Henry married Elizabeth of York, the daughter of King Edward TV. By waitmg until the other steps towards consolidation of power had been completed. Henry was able to ensure that his assumption of the Crown was not

brought about by his wife's own claim to the throne. However, he was able to ^1 I s exploit in royal propaganda the union of the two houses of Lancaster and York. IS2 :1 «^« 1 For example, the emblem of the Tudor rose combined the red rose of Lancaster iM ». 's with the white rose of York. *'. m A vital step in the securing of the dynasty took place in September 1486 v with the birth of an heir to the throne. Prince Arthur. •^ ACTIVITY t Pair discussion In pairs, consider the main problems which Henry might have faced on coming Fig. 2 The Tudor Rose, combining both to the throne and how he might have sought to deal with them. Compare your the red rose of Lancaster and the answers with the information in the next section of this chapter. white rose of York

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KEY CHRONOLOGY Establishing the Tudor dynasty Henry Vll's consolidation of Henry's position was extremely insecure. Many Yorkists, not satisfied by his marriage to Elizabeth, still regarded him as a usurper. There were several power potential Yorkist claimants to the throne, such as the earls of Warwick and I 1485 Henry seizes power at Lincoln, Edward IV's nephews. Moreover, the situation was complicated I Battle ofBosworth (Aug); by the appearance of pretenders to the throne who were allegedly either crowned king (Oct] Edward V or his younger brother Richard, the two murdered princes in the 1488 Lovell rebellion fails Tower'. However, what Henry had to fear most was the influence of Margaret of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV and Richard III. Margaret was never 1486 Prince Arthur born reconciled to the Tudor takeover and, as the dowager duchess of Burgundy, 1487 Lambert Simnel she had access to funds which enabled her to encourage the ambitions of Yorkist claimants. conspiracy; defeated at Battle of Stoke Field Viscount Lovell and the Staffords, 1486 1495 Warbeck lands in Kent but The first (rather minor) rising against Henry occurred at Easter, 1486. It is quickly defeated; arrives was led by Francis, Viscount Lovell - who had prospered as a key supporter at the court of James IV of of Richard III - and Humphrey Stafford. Lovell tried to raise a rebellion Scotland in Richard Ill's heartland of support in the North Riding of Yorkshire. 1496 A small Scottish force Simultaneously, Stafford tried to raise forces against Henry, drawing upon crosses the border in another area of Yorkist support in the Midlands. Lovell managed to escape from the king's forces, but Humphrey Stafford was captured and executed, support ofWarbeck but though his younger brother and accomplice, Thomas, was pardoned. What soon returns seems significant about this rising is how little enthusiasm there was at 1497 Warbeck fails to exploit a this stage for a Yorkist rising in their traditional heartlands. It was easily Cornish rebellion and is suppressed, but later rebellions, promoted by Margaret of Burgundy, would eventually captured prove rather more problematic. 1499 Warbeck executed Lambert Simnel and the rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln Following the Lovell rebellion, leading Yorkists realised that a change in strategy was needed if they were to be successful in their attempts to get •;CRJB^*RE.RBRENfll^ rid of Henry VII. There were two key aspects to this. Firstly, they needed To familiarise yourself with all the a figurehead who could claim to be a Yorkist prince and, secondly, they potential claimants to the throne, needed the financial support to generate a significant military threat to refer to the York family tree on Henry. Their figurehead was Lambert Simnel. Simnel was being passed page xv. off as the Earl of Warwick, who had been imprisoned by Henry, and was even crowned as King Edward in Ireland in May 1487. The conspiracy was The murder of the two princes is put together by John de la Pole, the Earl of Lincoln, himself a potential outlined in the Introduction, page xiv. Yorkist claimant. In response to this hoax. Henry now had the real Earl of

Warwick exhibited in London for all to see. Lincoln subsequently fled from , IItiil] Henry VII's court and had joined the failed plotter Lord Lovell at the court -I'aNN' KEY PROFILE of Margaret of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Tliey persuaded Margaret to support Simnel's bogus claim and to pay for a force of mercenaries to Lambert Simnel I! ifflB invade England. Simnel was a boy from Oxford who Henry had plenty of notice that a rebellious conspiracy was being planned, ms was tutored in courtly manners by and thus he had ample opportunity to plan his response. Given that Richard a priest, Richard Symonds, with the Ill's main power base was in the north of England, Henry took the gamble of intention initiaUy of impersonating reinstating the rather untrustworthy Earl of Northumberland, who led a major Richard, Duke of York, the younger of portion of Richard Ill's army at the Battle ofBosworth, to power in the north. the two prmces in the Tower, though This helped to neutralise Richard's old power base and also ensured that the he soon switched to impersonating traditionally Yorkist Howard family had no intention of joining the conspiracy, the Earl of Warwick. Captured at the as Northumberland was one of their descendants. He also reinforced coastal Battle of Stoke, Simnel was spared by defences in East Anglia. However, the rebels landed on. the northwest coast Henry VII, who gave him a job in the of England in Cumberland, and crossed the Pennines in order to drum up royal kitchens. support in Richard Ill's old heardand in the North Riding of Yorkshire. In actual fact the Yorkist gentry of the North Riding were reluctant to commit

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CHAPTER I ! The consolidation of power

themselves wholeheartedly to the cause, presumably waiting to see who was KEY PROFILE likely to win. John de la Pole, Earl of Battle of Stoke Field, 1487 Lincoln (cl460-87] Henry gathered a group of advisors, which included the close relatives of former Yorkists who had been victims of Richard III, in the south and Lincoln, a nephew of Edward IV Midlands. Tlie two armies met at East Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire. and Richard III, was the latter's Henry himself was not confident. He could remember only too vividly how designated successor. As such, he was Richard had been double-crossed at Bosworth and feared that he himself regarded as the Yorkist leader in the might suffer the same fate. However, his army, led effectively by the Earl of immediate aftermath ofBosworth. Oxford, held firm and the Earl of Lincoln was killed in the battle, having crucially been unable to add sufficient followers to the army of mercenaries jJSEIE.iBIM.- with which he had landed in England. mercenaries: hired soldiers who Hfi Cumbria work simply for pay and have no ^~w Newcastle N specific commitment to the cause B1 in Carlisle for which they are fighting iSli + 1'BS- Yorkshirel 0 500km B' sedt r9h Middl^harrr" L J Mil] ^ Wensleydafe »M?sham •^Boroughbridg^, Bebete>te ^ y Lancaster Yyk (—/ Lancashire \•Tadcaster ^ouse .HC PontefrSl Doncaster^ / ^^ fl. Trent •u -^ • Uncoln II Newark Nottinghar Key Loughborbugh Henry Vll's route Lelcegter Norwich • Rebels' route A - Great North Road oventry A CLOSER LOOK 7T King nilworth Fig. 3 The Battle of Stoke Field Bonds of good behaviour Henry's victory at the Battle of Stoke Field was very significant. It was this When giving bonds to the batde rather than Bosworth which really brought an end to the Wars of the landowners, Henry recognised Roses, and Henrys position became safer though by no means completely himself as owing the lump sum secure. Henry had been faced with a crisis which he had overcome by a stated. The sum did not have to be combination, of his own shrewdness and hard work, the organisational paid back provided the condition skills and military leadership of his key supporters and the willingness (usually good behaviour) was of landowners in many parts ofAe country to support his cause. He was observed. If the condition was relatively mild in his treatment of many of those who had rebelled, winning broken, the sum had to be paid in over some Yorkists who had previously opposed him. He also began to penalty. You can read more about develop the policy of using bonds of good behaviour to ensure well-behaved bonds in Chapter 2, page 15. landowners who might otherwise face financial ruin. ACTIVITY ERQSS-REFERENCE Using the information from the Introduction and this chapter, produce a report in the style of a newspaper article to explain why Henry Vll's rebellion against Return to the Introduction to Richard III succeeded while the Earl of Lincoln's similar rebellion against familiarise yourself with the War of Henry VII failed. the Roses.

-m Slii^^^^S^^,.;'^-^^ ^ S^^^^S -^^:'1W^^^^^^ V. !-ffi^' m vi: ^^^^•.-^''ft1'^:'''''^' ^'•". '^- WM^'^^SS.:'^: .. :' ••' . '•• ^ •::"'i"'' •:-':: "^y i- •'. SECTION 1 | Henry VII, 1485-1509 CROSS-REFERENCE The Perkin Warbeck imposture Henry's weakness in international Perkin Warbeck, a doth trader from Tournai in Flanders, was a persistent I matters will be discussed in irritant to Henry VII over a period of eight years, during which he claimed Chapter 3, pages 21-28. to be Richard, Duke of York. Had his activities been confined to England he might have been dismissed as a deluded pest. However, it was his ability to attract patronage from foreign rulers which transformed him from an irritant to a potentially serious threat. It also demonstrated how fragile Henry's II s position was considered to be by other rulers. m In 1491 Warbeck began to impersonate Richard, Duke of York in Ireland. ;SB II After a brief appearance at the court of Charles VIII of France, the following •s year, he was forced to flee from France, to the court of Margaret of Burgundy, •a* where he was ta-ained as a potential Yorkist prince and began to draw English lift courtiers into his conspiracies. Several years after the Battle of Stoke in 1487, Warbecks first attempt to s land in England in 1495 proved to be a fiasco. Henry had been informed of n Warbeck's intentions by one of his royal agents. Sir Robert Clifford, who had * ft,5 infiltrated Warbeek's retinue. Warbeck was quickly defeated, and fled to the court of James IV of Scotland. as Howrever, it would be a mistake to write off this event simply as a farce which had no chance of success. In actual fact, it could have proved very costly for Henry because the conspirators had an accomplice in the heart of Henry's government, Sir William Stanley. Stanley, Henrys step- uncle and potential traitor, was Lord Chamberlain and headed the royal household at a time when household government was still the normal Fig. 4 There ore no surviving model of political operatiQn. The modern historian Christine Carpenter contemporary images of believes it was therefore striking that this conspiracy actually revealed Perkin Warbeck admitting to Henry at his most vulnerable in the very place where he should have been his imposture. This is a later most secure. interpretation of the dramatic In 1496, a small Scottish force crossed the border on Warbeck's behalf but climax quickly retreated. Warbeck's interests were soon sacrificed when James gave in to Henrys offer of marriage to his daughter, Margaret. Having failed to CROSS-RBBERENCE successfully invade England from Scotland in 1496, Warbeck made a final attempt to seek the English throne by trying to exploit the uncertainties The role of Margaret of Burgundy is created by the Cornish Rebellion in 1497, but his forces were crushed and discussed in Chapter 3, pages 24-25. Warbeck eventually surrendered to the king. Henry, remarkably lenient at For details of Henry's marriage first, allowed Warbeck to stay at court, but confined him to the Tower after he negotiations with James IV of tried to abscond. This time there was to be no mercy. Having allegedly tried Scotland, took ahead to page 30. to escape with the Earl of Warwick, he was accused of treason, and they were both tried and executed. For the implications of Henry's methods of government, see The Earl of Warwick Chapter 2. It was highly convenient for Henry that Warbeck's final attenipts at conspiracy The Cornish Rebellion of 149? is enabled him to get rid of the Earl of Warwick, potentially the most obvious described on pages 2? and 40-41. Yorkist claimant to the throne. Warwick was in many respects an innocent victim of the political manoeuvrings of the period. Aged only ten at the time •i! of the Battle ofBosworth, he spent most of his life in confinement before he met his fate in 1499; having been accused of plotting with Perkin Warbeck XEXIERM against Henry VII, he was beheaded. household government: medieval system of governance where the ACTIVITY head of a household, invariably an adult male, had authority over the Thinking point property, labour, and mobility of How successful was Henry VII in dealing with the challenges he faced from Perkin everyone living on his land Warbeckandwhy? I I CHAPTER 1 [ The consolidation of power Edmund de la Pole, Earl ofSufFolkand Richard de la Pole, 'The White Rose' Tlie final piece of dynastic security concerned Edmund de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, and Richard de la Pole, younger brothers of the Earl of Lincoln. Suffolk CROSS-REreREIBE had fled to Flanders in 1498. He was persuaded to return after a short exile, but For detail on the Treaty of Windsor in once again fled in 1501, this time seeking refuge at the court of the Emperor 1506, see page 26. Ma.ximilian. For as long as Margaret of Burgundy was politically opposed to Henry VII, Suffolk was safe. However, with the Treaty of Windsor in 1506, more friendly relations were restored. One feature of this improvement in relations was that Maximilian agreed to give up Suffolk, who was duly imprisoned in ACTIVITY the Tower of London. Henry VII took no further action against him. However, As a class, create your own picture Henry VIII had him executed for treason in 1513. This still left Richard de la I gallery of all the rebellions and Pole, niclaiamed the 'White Rose, at large during his time in exile, but he was impostors from Henry Vll's reign. killed fighting for the French forces at the Battle ofPavia in 1525. i |ESFB|p Henry's attempts to override local powers by means of his own servants, his CROSS.ftERERENii use of spies, his institution of a personal bodyguard as soon as he became More about Henry's use of spies is king, all point to a misguided policy, which was what he knew best. It would be mentioned in Chapter 2, page 14. surprising if local instability and Henry's deep mistrust of the nobles that bred mistrust towards the king had not raised some questions about his suitability to rule, and it is a fact that Henry was troubled by plots and rebellions for much longer than he should have been after the Battle of Stoke.

Adapted from Christine Carpenter, The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, cl437-1509,1997

Summary Having consolidated his power in the short term, Heary was also concerned with ensuring long-term dynastic stability: he wanted English men and women to believe that the Tudors had a legitimate claim to the throne. He aimed to ensure the succession of his line to the throne, ensure law and order by keeping control over the nobility who had engaged in bitter power struggles, improve the Crown's financial position and stabilise the dynasty by securing the recognition of foreign powers. It is clear that Henry enjoyed some success in consolidating his power and establishing his dyiiasty. How much of this was due to his own actions and qualities and how much was the consequence of the way in which the Yorkists had become demoralised even before the death of Richard III is open to debate. It shoiild not be assumed that his victory at the Battle of Stoke left Henry in an unchallengeable position; Henry himself certainly did not think so. The immediate threat from the House of York might have been vanquished and many Yorkists had made tlieir peace, albeit reluctantly in some cases, with the regime. The immediate threat from his own relative Sir William Stanley had not, however, been vanquished, as the crisis with Warbeck of 1497 made only too dear. There You should consider the ways in had certainly been royal leadership, though whether it was as 'unquestioned' as which each extract is both convincing Wallace MacCaffi-ey and John Guy have suggested, is open to some doubt. and unconvincing by applying your own knowledge to support or ^-'S^.iS^^.-^^^yB-B^S.S?.': challenge the points made by each author. Try to provide an overall Using your understanding of the historical context, assess how convincing the conclusion in which you justify your arguments in Extracts 1, 2 and 3 are in relation to Henry Vll's consolidation of decision as to which is the most power. convincing.

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Using the information from this chapter, give your assessment on the different threats to Henry's throne during this period. Copy and complete the table below, giving evidence for your answers.

Why was Henry able How great was the threat to Henry VII? to overcome the Xi, a threat? Foreign support Support within Quality of leadership England Lord Lovell and the Staffords

Lambert Simnel and the Earl of Lincoln

PerkinWarbeck

Sir William Stanley

ACTIVIH Evaluating historical extracts Look back at Wallace MacCafFrey's interpretation given at The beginning of the chapter (page 1]. In small groups, consider whether you find his interpretation convincing. You will need to find specific evidence to support or refute his views.

:;--:"-!—:T''yin.'{ In answering this question it is Henry Vll's consolidation of power in the years 1485 to 1499 was the result of his important that you consider Henry Vll's personal strengths. You should own personal strengths.' Explain why you agree or disagree with this view. weigh these against other reasons for the consolidation of power. I

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