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Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State: The Politics of Nationalism and Decolonisation in Somalia (1940-60) Annalisa Urbano Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2012 Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State Abstract The thesis offers a first-hand historically informed research on the trajectory of the making of the post-colonial state in Somalia (1940-60). It does so by investigating the interplay between the emergence and diffusion of national movements following the defeat of the Italians in 1941 and the establishment of a British Military Administration, and the process of decolonisation through a 10-year UN trusteeship to Italy in 1950. It examines the extent to which the features of Somali nationalism were affected/shaped by the institutional framework established by the UN mandate. The central argument of the thesis is that the imposition of the UN trusteeship, rather than enabling democratization, led to a ‘verticalisation’ of Somali nationalism and created a highly restrictive political space. Based on a combination of archival and oral sources, the thesis explores the socioeconomic context and possibilities of the wartime. It argues that Somali nationalism developed an efficient and inclusive message that successfully engaged in dialogue with the masses in the 1940s. However, the protraction of the UN debate and the extension of the military administration caused the radicalisation of conflicts among different groups. The imposition of self-government and democratization through the trusteeship system led to the establishment of a highly centralised and fixed institutional framework. Within this context, not only nationalism came to lose its original horizontal and inclusive political line, but national politics were reduced to zero-sum competition to access power and power structures. Ultimately, this exclusive, autocratic and distorted version of the nation-state negatively affected the process of unification of Somalia and Somaliland. By exploring the political trajectory leading to independence and unification, the thesis enhances a broader understanding of the development of post-colonial politics in Somalia. It contributes to specific discussions that centred on the features of the colonial legacy, on the effects of state and nation building, and on the consolidation of a clan-based discourse in post-colonial politics. i Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State Declaration The thesis has been composed by myself from the results of my own work, except where otherwise acknowledged. It has not been submitted in any previous application for a degree. Signed (ANNALISA URBANO) Date ii Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State Canto per chi non ha fortuna, canto per me. Canto per rabbia a questa luna, contro di te. Canto a quel sole che verrà, tramonterà, rinascerà, alle illusioni, alle rabbia che mi fa.1 1 ‘I sing for the unlucky ones,/ I sing for me./ I sing in anger at this moon,/against you./ I sing to that sun that will rise,/will set and be revived/ to the illusions/ to the anger I feel.’ Nino Rota, Lina Wertmüller, ‘Canzone Arrabbiata’, 1973. iii Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State Acknowledgements I am indebted to the Apulian Region for funding my master study, to the University of Bologna for funding my doctoral project, and to the ESRC for funding my fees and research expenses. I am also indebted to Susan Curran of the Curran Publishing Services who kindly provided me with a first salary as a graduate student in Edinburgh. I would like to thank my supervisors Francesca Locatelli, Sara Rich Dorman, Lawrence Dritsas for providing insightful support and advice. I am also extremely thankful to my examiners David Anderson and Gerhard Anders for their very constructive comments on this thesis and precious suggestions for future research. There have been numerous people who helped and facilitated my research in the United Kingdom, Italy, Somaliland and Djibouti. I am deeply thankful to my dearest friend Hussein Samater for the time we spent in London, and for providing providential support during fieldwork in Somaliland. My special thanks go to Jama Musse Jama and his family; to Mohamed Trunji for his friendship and assistance; to Miresi Busana and, more generally, to the friends and people I have met during my stay at the Swiss Caritas in Hargeysa; to Mohamed Bashir and his family, to Dr. Adan Abokor, to Boobeh Duale, in Somaliland; to Bishop Giorgio Bertin in Dijbouti. I am also deeply indebted to Abdul Mohamed and his family in London for all the help and assistance. Sincere thanks also to Virginia Luling and Martin Orwin. I am indebted to Tony Kirk-Greene who, through Sara Rich Dorman, suggested to advertise my research on the ‘Overseas Service Pensioners’ Association’ journal which proved to be a very fortunate move. I would like to thank all those who replied to my ad, offered special help and let me browse their special collections: David A. Ashley Hall, Andrew Seager, the late Tony Scawin, and Nigel Walsh. I am also thankful to some members of the Anglo-Somali Society, in particular to David Brooks and Kitty Hotchkiss, and to Susan and Richards Mills for letting me view the personal papers of the late Richard R. Darlington. In Italy, I am indebted to Annarita Puglielli for letting me browse her special collection of a Somali newspaper. I would like to thank Irma Taddia, Nicola Labanca, and Angelo Del Boca. I would also like to express my greatest gratitude to the people who agreed on being interviewed for iv Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State this research and on sharing their invaluable memories (written and/or oral) with me and with the readers of this work. There is an array of people to whom I am deeply indebted here in Edinburgh. Thanks go to the members of the ‘reading group’ for providing insightful feedback on some of my chapters. Thanks to Barbara Bompani, Joost Fontain, Paul Nugent for offering titbits of advice. In particular, I am truly indebted to James Smith as without his priceless mentorship and encouragement I would have not made it this far. Special thanks go my friends and (mostly former) doctoral fellows Nur Abdelkhaliq, Caryn Abrahams, Katya Braginsky, Alexander Beresford, Marc Fletcher, Charlotte Hastings, Joseph Mujere, Laura Mann, Amy Nyang, Shishusri Pradhan, Gajendra Singh and Paul Swanepoel. I am extremely grateful for the help and friendship they offered me. Last but not least, I would like to show my gratitude to the Urbano/Diliso clan-family to which I am deeply indebted for being my greatest supporters and for providentially facilitating my stay during my travelling over the past years. In particular, I am thankful to my cousin Angela in Milan and my aunt Diana in Turin. In many ways, aunts Angela and Filo played a key role for the successful fulfilment of my research and fieldwork. I am especially thankful to my cousin Chiara for letting me stay with her in Rome and for providing constant emotional support and fun when needed. I would also like to thank my mother and my sister for their unconditional love and boundless encouragement throughout these years. Finally, the actual writing of this thesis would have not been possible had it not been for my father’s invaluable insights and crucial suggestions and Enrico’s constant support, patience and incredibly vast music collection. To them both, I am deeply thankful. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my grandparents who taught me a lot and whom I miss much. v Imagining the Nation, Crafting the State Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................ 1 1.1 Prelude ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The research problematic .......................................................................... 4 1.3 Historiographies on Somali studies ........................................................... 6 1.4 The decolonisation process and the making of the post-colonial state in Somalia ...............................................................................................................13 1.5 Defining nationalism ...............................................................................28 1.6 Methodological choice.............................................................................34 1.6.1 Archival sources ..................................................................................34 1.6.2 On the use of oral memories ................................................................36 1.6.3 Somali contested past: further issues on the use of oral memories ........38 1.7 Practical