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AUTHOR qwaddell, Freeman TTTIvr; 'Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching. ERIC Focus Reports on the Teaching of Foreign Languages, Number 21. INSTITUTION American Council on the Teaching of Foreian Languages, New York, N.Y.; Modern Language Association of America, New York, N.Y. ERIC Clearinghouse on the Teaching of roreign Languages. SPONS AGENCY Modern language Association of America, New York, N.Y.; Office of Education (DHFW, Washington, P.C. PUP DATE Dec 70 NOTE Pp. AVAILABLE FRCM MLA/ACTFL Materials Center, 62 rifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10011 ($.25)

ERRS PRICE EDRS ?rice M7-50.25 FC-S0.r0 DESCRIPTORS Computational linguistics, Descriptive Linguistics, Dialect Studies, Instructional Program Divisions, *Language Instruction, *Language Research, *Linguistics, *linguistic Theory, *Modern Languages, Psycholinguistics, Second language Learning, Sociolinguistics

ABSTRACT A brief analysis and definition of general linguistics focuses on distinct areas of study within the science, including descriptive, historical, comparative, and computational linguistics. Other branches of the science discussed are msycholinquistics, sociolinguistics, and dialectology. Technical concepts encountered in the literature are also examined. The contributions of linguistics to foreign language teaching are variously noted. (RL) 0

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from MI A/ACTFL Materials Center 62 Fifth Avenue New York, N. Y. 10011 A Focus Report: Linguistics and Foreign-Language Teaching

Freeman Twaddell

LINGUISTICS is the systematic study ofof linguistics are descriptive, historical, and language and of languages. Linguists arecomparative linguistics. There are produc- concerned with the nature of that part oftive relationships between linguistics and human communication whichisverbal,other major fields of study: psycholinguis- whether oral or written. What are the func-tics, sociolinguistics, linguistics in connec- tions of language? How does it function?tion with inform'ation theory and symbolic What isits internal organization? Whatlogic. features do all languages have in common? Descriptive linguistics typically investi- What features does each individual lan-gates the structure of a language at a particu- guage have as its special characteristics?lar time, as nearly as it can be "frozen" for How does a given language differ from itsstudy. It is something like taking one frame earlier or its later form? of a movie film and studying it. For obvi- The phenomenon of human communica-ously no language is ever static, and no lan- tion by language is basic and complex. It isguage is ever uniform throughout a com- basic because it is the medium by which themunity. But for purposes of study, a kind of experience of the past is made accessible tocross-section view of the linguistic behavior the young members of a community, andof a community during a relatively short the experience of one individual member ofperiod of time can be made. The structures a community is made accessible to another,of various aspects of that languagepronun- and because it is the medium by which plan-ciation, grammar, vocabularycan be de- ning for future activity is made possible, andscribed with approximate (though of course by which information and suggestion can benot perfect) accuracy and reliability. Such exchanged in the process of a cooperativestudy is called "synchronic," as indicating activity. that the structures it is concerned with are Language is inevitably complex, since itregarded as being contemporaneous. has to be capable of performing its com- Historical linguistics is concerned with municative functions in almost all the situ-the changes that a language undergoes in ations in which human beings are involved. time, and accordingly is called "diachronic" Even the solitary human being "thinks" inAny native speaker of English who encoun- his language and "remembers" in his lan-ters Beowulf, or Chaucer, or Shakespeare, or guage. even so recent a writer as Tennyson, is aware Because of the complexity of linguisticthat their language(s) are not his. If we function, there are many branches of lin-could hear those poets read their works guistic study. The field of linguistics has be-aloud, we would be even more aware of the come so extensive in the last one and a halfchanges. Many of the features of a present centuries that today no linguist is expectedform of a language are made understandable to be truly expert in more than a part of thethrough a knowledge of historical changes total field. Some of the major subdivisionsfrom earlier forms. For example, the oddity FREEMAN TWADDELL of the verb forms "he can, he may, he will,with free word order belong to a different he shall, he must" (without the ending "-s")type from those with a fixed word order. In is due to linguistic changes that took place more detailed matters, the consonant systems at least two thousand ',Tars ago in a lan-of Icelandic and Korean; or the tense systems guage. of Finnish and Swahili, can be compared Comparative linguistics is a combination typologically. of descriptive and historical linguistics. It Psycho linguistics is concerned with the studies the relationship between two lan- processes whereby an infant becomes a post- guages or two dialects. In the nineteenthinfant by learning to speak and understand; century, comparative linguistics was almostand with the psychological relations be- exclusively concerned with tracing the his-tween linguistic stimulus and a hearer's re- tories of two or more languages that wereaction (connotation, association of ideas: a "descended from a parent" language. Lan-hearer's unconscious transfer of impressions guage "families" were discovered, and thefrom language to a judgment as to the per- relationships among the related languagessonality or status of the speaker). A branch and the processes whereby they developedof applied psycholinguistics is the study of into their later forms were traced. The struc-speech pathology: retarded language acqui- ture of the parent language was deduced bysition, impairment of production or percep- setting up a model which could account fortion of language by brain damage or as a the development of the daughter languages. consequence of disease. Another branch of This reconstruction of a language which hadapplied psycholinguistics is the development left no written records has been justly re-of pre-tests of antitude to learn a second lan- garded as one of the major intellectual tri- guage. umphs of the nineteenth century. And the Sociolinguistics deals with the correlation task is by no means finished yet; the field isbetween linguistic behavior and social func- still a fascinating and important one. tions and social status. There are, in any Closely related to comparative linguisticcomplex society, varieties of occupations and research in related languages is dialectology.stratifications. Some kinds of linguistic be- The earliest work in dialectology was on ahavior are favorable to upward mobility; geographical basis, resulting in dialect dic-others are not. Information about the vari- tionaries and dialect atlases of several majoreties of behavior is needed for all socially language communities. (The term "dialect"sensitive members of the community. It is is a vague one, which linguists use cautious-all too easy to draw inferences about tem- ly; they prefer to speak of differences at aperament, personal y, and character from geographical boundary. Sometimes these dif-dimly perceived linguistic traits without re- ferences cluster geographically, and thenalizing what is influencing judgments. With there is some assurance in speaking about aknowledge of the features of a socially-deter- geographical dialect boundary.) mined dialect, applied linguists can plan for Another form of comparative linguisticsa program of making its speakers bi-dia- does not restrict itself to languages whichlectal, just as a foreign-language teacher can have a common "parent." This is typologicalhelp a learner become to some extent bi- comparative linguistics. Languages that havelingual. a grammar which operates chiefly with suf- Information theory is an abstract study fixes and prefixes are typologically differentof the transmission of information, as de- from languages with a grammar that pre-scribable in mathematical measures. It deals dominantly uses prepositional phrases andwith concepts like "entr( py, bit or binit auxiliary verbs. Languages with a word or-(binary unit), channel width, noise, redun- der "Subjectverbobject" differ typologi-dancy." It is a highly theoretical approach cally from those with a word order "Subjectto language an alysis, and so far has not been objectverb." More generally, languagesdirectly applicable to FL teaching.

2 Linguistics and Foreign-Language Teaching

Computational linguistics covers the en- Hence it is usual to start a language de- tire scope of those aspects of language whichscription with statements about its phoncil- can be landleddirectly or indirectlybyogy, where nearly all the behavior is con- modern computers. The output of a compu-trolled by unconscious habits, and where ter program with linguistic orientation canan intrusion of choice amounts to affecta- be a frequency count of words, sounds, gram-tion. Phonetics is a well-established science, matical structures; a word index, a concor-and for many decades we have had proce- dance; a statistical tabulation of vocabularydures for organizing phonetic observations or sound distributions. Some writers of FLusefully. The dominance of unconscious textbooks are making use of computer pro-habit can be readily determined by asking grams to check the introduction of vocabu-a speaker of English how he says "No." It lary and grammatical items at appropriatewill be a very rare speaker who will reply parts of lesson units, and also to check thethat he closes his glottis, lowers his velum, recurrence of such items throughout theplaces the tip and blade of his tongue on course. the upper gums, expels air from the lung For purposes of describing language, lin-cavity, then raises his velum, moves his guists try to tidy up their very complex ob-tongue to a neutral or low back position, ject of study by establishing convenient sub- then raises his tongue and rounds his lips. sections or "levels" of language structure.This behavior has to be habitual; how could One generally accepted organization is inwe talk if we had to decide which muscles terms of the relationships between habit andto move to say "No"? choice. For many decades it has been cus- Morphology is the level of word-forma- tomary to begin with the level that involvestion. It is the study of grammatical suffixes the greatest component of habit and theand prefixesthe familiar verb endings and smallest of choice: pronunciation, or pho-noun endings, the suffixes that provide for nology, as it is technically known. Preciselyderivation of "gently" and "gentleness" and because the pronunciation behavior of an"gentlemanly" etc. from "gentle." A loose individual (and of a community of indi-but helpful definition of morphology is that viduals) is the most habitual level of lan-it describes the processes of forming words guage behavior, it is the most consistent,from smaller meaningful elements of the most predictable, most available for reliable language. classification and description. Some linguists Syntax investigates the combination of and most philosophers prefer to start at thewords into phrases, clauses, and sentences. opposite level, where choice is dominant:The phenomena of "modification" (adjec- the domain of word-choice, sentence form,tives agreeing with the nouns they modify, stylistic variation. subject-verb agreement), verb-phrases with For purposes of foreign-language learning,auxiliaryverbs, prepositions and 'noun- there is general agreement that the balance phrases;conjunctionsandsubordinate between carefully guided habit-formation clauses are part of syntax. The phenomena and a cognitive understanding of structures of negation, imperative, interrogation, cer- for choice-making has to be adapted to thetain kinds of emphasis are syntactic. Clear- age of the learner, and that the balance hasly, at this level there is a considerable com- to be shifted from habit-formation to cog-ponent of choice. The speaker can choose nitive understanding during the course ofbetween "Cats chase mice" and "Mice are the learning program. There is also generalchased by cats." The speaker can choose be- agreement, specifically, that the younger the tween "You know Dr. Mills on Third learner, the longer the habit-forming prac-Street? Did you know that his dog bit the tice. Also, it is generally agreed that regard-mailman again?" and "Did you know that less of age or educational level, habit-form-Dr. Mills, who lives on Third Street, has a ing comes first. dog who bit the mailman again?"

3 FREEMAN TWADDELL

The domain of freest choice is that of lexi-no means the same in all language commu- con or vocabulary. The speaker can choosenities; most. Europeans would find them vac- "pretty,beautiful, gorgeous, pulchritudi-uous and would tend to lose interest in fur- nous, ..." depending on his control of ather acquaintance with anyone who seemed large English vocabulary, his judgment asto take them seriously. to the hearer's capacity to get the implica- Thus the field of linguistics is a large and tions, and his estimate of the importance ofcomplex one. It ranges from laboratory mea- being precise. Naturally, there is an elementsurement of speech sound waves to philo- of the habitual even at the lexical level: thesophical speculation, from careful formula- choice is by no means total; we cannot con-tion of grammatical usages to various kinds vey a message of negation by saying "Sure,of frequency counts, from deductions about Of course, Yes, By all means." But we doextinct languages to the principles for de- have those alternatives to convey a messagevising efficient writing systems for hitherto of agreement and affirmation. unwritten languages. "Pure linguistic?' is Pervading all the levels of linguistic analy-the study of one or another aspect of lan- sis is the factor of style. Linguists and dic-guage or a language as a matter of scientific tionary makers use this term somewhat dif-curiosity, in the interest of extending the ferently from literary critics. For linguists,scope of human knowledge. Hundreds of style refers to differences that are correlatedtrained investigators, all over the world, are with the social situation, and with the re-engaged in such study; and the reports of lation between speaker and hearer(s). Wetheir findings appear in dozens of technical do not use the same pronunciation, syntax,journals. lexicon (and perhaps even morphology) in The other side of the coin is "applied lin- speaking to a sibling or a spouse on the oneguistics." Many professions are concerned hand, and in addressing a large meeting onwith some aspects of language for practical the other. Similarly, our written styles on apurposes. Naturally, members of such pro- postcard to a close friend and in a scholarlyfessions are eager to draw on the insights of article (or a sonnet!) are different. Eitherpure linguistics, so far as they are applicable, style used in the wrong place would be dis-in order to increase the effectiveness of their astrous. The European who has learned En-practical activities. glish from a book where a model sentence One such practical activity is the teaching was "Zounds! Our postillion has been smit-of foreign languages, and there has been a ten by a thunderbolt!" can anticipate trou-history of fruitful communication between ble in his first conversation with an Ameri-pure linguistics and applied linguistics in can taxi driver. On the other hand, a visitingthis activity. (Many mire linguists were for- head of state who addresses the U. S. Con-eign-language teacher. before they were lin- gress with "Howdy!" is out of tune. guists. Also, the national needs of World Linguists, with help from anthropologistsWar II directed the concentrated efforts of and sociologists, are also concerned with themany promising young linguists into devis- neutral oral behavior at the beginning of aning learning materials in "exotic," rarely acquaintance: what is it safe to talk abouttaught languages.) while you "feel out" the other person? Tra- Probably the most important first effect ditionally, in American usage, the weatheroflinguisticsupon aforeign-language has been a safe neutral topic, although ob-teacher is subtle and hard to pin down. It viously neither speaker really cares muchis a sharpened awareness of the extreme com- about the other's views. More recently,plexity of language behavior, and the re- means of transportation has become a safesultant difficulty of acquiring the control of topic: What kind of plane was it? How longa new set of patterns of language behavior. were you delayed at X airport? Were theParticularly the teacher who is a native thruways cluttered? Etc. Such topics are by speaker of the foreign language being taught

4 Linguistics and Foreign-Language Teaching is almost certainly unaware of maI.y of theand exact analysis is being reflected in better peculiar complexities of that language. Butsequencing and better distribution of prac- even the other teacher, whose native lan-tice materials in textbooks; the teacher who guage is that of the learners, has gainedunderstands the basis of the textbook con- enough skill in the foreign language to per-struction can use it more effectively. form remarkably complex acts of behavior The usefulness of a conflict point is not without being aware of the complexity. Thea matter of age or recency. Some of the most teacher with a systematic, objective, cOn-important conflict points for practical pur- ciou r. understanding of the complexities isposes rest on phonological, morphological, a iaore realistic, more patient teacher, andsyntactic, and vocabulary comparisons that one who can more intelligently distributehave been familiar for generations. They are repeated practice at the points of stubborntested, and probably more usable than the difficulty for the learner. Such consciouslatesttheoreticaldiscussions.(Teachers awareness applies to the extraordinary com-need particularly to be on guard against the plexity of pronunciation features as well asuse of fashionable technical terms:itis to the grammatical usages of case and tensepointless to list examples, since they change and word-order. How many teachers couldalmost year by year.) The criterion is not know, without specific instruction, about the up-to-date-ness, but usability in the prepara- pronunciations of such an apparently simpletion of lesson plans and the preparation of sound as English "p," or the major differenceteaching material in an effective sequence between the "k" sounds of "quiet" and "kit-and relative intensity. ten"? How many would suspect the extent Somewhat related to the general topic of of the grammatical uses of "do," or the ex-conflict points is that of an awareness of istence of three quite different words allthe relations of habit and choice in the two spelled "some"? languages. What is compulsory in one of the A refinement of this general awareness oflanguages may lie optional in the other: for complexity is the pinpointing of specificexample, subject pronouns with verb forms sources of learning difficulty. A branch ofwhich do not have a noun subject. Other, applied linguistics known as "contrastiveless obvious, examples reveal themselves analysis" is concerned with the discovery andwith closer study of contrastive analyses of description of "conflict points." These arethe two languages involved. features where the behavior patterns of the Probably the most radical of insights from learner's language can be expected to inter- linguistics for purposes of foreign-language fere with the acquisition of control of ateaching has to do with vocabulary. The given pattern in the foreign language. For technical names for the aspects of linguistics example, if the leazner's language has fivehaving to do with vocabulary learning are vowels and the foreign language has seven,polysemy and vocabulary distribution. Both it can be expected that at least several ofdemonstrate the futility(if not worse) of the foreign-language vowels will present spe-trying to "learn vocabulary" by matching a cial difficulty and require special intensiveFL word with an English wordand all the practice. If the learner's language uses prep-more, the zero or negative pedagogical ef- ositional phrases where the foreign lan-fects of testing such word-matching memo- guage uses case endings to express similarrizing. grammatical functions, trouble can be ex- Polysemy is familiar to anyone who has pected. used a moderate-to-large dictionary: Even In the teaching of several of the commonly the simplest conversations or reports may taught foreign languages, there is a traditionuse a word in a wide range of meanings, de- covering several generations which embodiespending on the context in which it is used. more or less accurate use of some of the mostTo teach one of those meanings as the mean- obvious of the conflict points. More detaileding by matching it with a FL word (which

5 FREEMAN TWADDELL probably has its own polysemic structure)priate noun or noun-modifying adjective. is to invite frustration in the learner's at-This is not an acceptable place for a pause tempt to interpret that FL word at theirin a language with grammatical gender, next meeting. where the very form of the article implies Vocabulary distribution is concerned witha prior choice of noun.What are the toler- the frequency with which a given word oc-ated limits of stammering? In the English- curs in a body of printed or spoken materialspeaking world we know that British males put in reverse, the probability that a givenare permitted a greater latitude in stammer- word will occur in a text or a portion of aing than American males. text. The figures are astonishing, to one who Textbook writers and teachers of FLs has not studied them. In English, for ex-need much more precise descriptions of the ample, the twenty most frequently usedmeanings and functions of grammatical cat- ords account for more than half of theegories. There is much about the modal words in a page of text or a minute of con-auxiliaries in English that remains fuzzy, versation! At the other end of the scale, adespite rather intensive study for the past vocabulary of two thousand words amountsdecade. Is anyone really satisfied with the to only one twenty-fifth of the total vocabu-descriptions of the significant differences be- lary of a large body of text or several hourstween "a lamb" and "some lamb"? Or with of conversation. In 'other words, twenty-fourthe formulations of the functions of the vari- twenty-fifths of the total vocabulary is be-ous tenses dealing with "past time" in the yond the scope of a two-thousand word vo-Romance languages? cabulary. Obviously, it is pointless to drill a In short, research in the pure and in the learner on word number 2,001: that wordapplied fields is continuing. Breakthroughs may not occur again for hundreds of pagesof major or minor importance can be ex- of print or hours of conversation. pected from time to time. The scientific zeal Naturally, work continues in both pureof the pure linguists, and the professional linguistics and its applications to practicalalertness of members of the FL teaching pro- problems of FL learning. There are severalfession, can be trusted to keep the channels topics, of real importance to FL learning,of communication open. where research is scanty and ill-digested. To mention only two: Those who are interested in a much fuller What are the usages of hesitation formulastreatment of these topics can be referred to in the languages? Nothing is a surer sign ofWilliam G. Moulton, A Linguistic Guide to incomplete control of a spoken FL than aLanguage Learning (2nd. ed., 1970), availa- non-native-like usage of hesitation formulas.ble from the Materials Center, Modern Lan- There are major differences; that we know.guage Association, 62 Fifth Avenue, New One favorite place for hesitation in EnglishYork 10011. Professor Moulton's book (140 is a pause after a prolongation of the definitepages) also contains an up-to-date bibli- article, while the speaker seeks for the appro-ography.

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