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On the Core Elements of the Experience of Playing Video Games

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On the Core Elements of the Experience of Playing Video Games On the Core Elements of the Experience of Playing Video Games Eduardo Hector´ Calvillo Gamez´ A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy UCL UCL Interaction Centre Department of Computer Science August 2009 Declaration I, Eduardo H´ector Calvillo G´amez, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Although some of this research has been published with my supervisors as co- authors, Paul Cairns, Anna L. Cox and Ann Blandford, the work reported is my own. Abstract This dissertation presents a multi-method approach to study the user experience of playing video games. The motivation is to devise an objective assessment of the concept of user experience. It is proposed that user experience is better understood when it is studied as a two fold phenomenon formed by a process and an outcome. This definition allows the combination of the subjective nature of experience together with the objectivity needed to propose an objective assessment of experience. An experience is personal in the achieved outcome, during the process of forming it there are elements specific to the type of experience common to all individuals. The thesis presents a series of studies to explore and understand the gaming expe- rience as well as to identify the procedural elements of the experience. The outcome of the studies was the formulation of the theoretical framework that we called Core Elements of the Gaming Experience (CEGE), which focuses on the process of the ex- perience. The metaphor of ”puppetry” is used to provide a link to the outcome of the experience. Based on the theorical framework, a questionnaire and model were devel- oped. The model was validated using Structural Equation Modelling, which provided an adequate fit suggesting that the CEGE model is an accurate abstraction of the process of the gaming experience. Lastly, the framework was used to study different gaming experiences under different conditions. The results suggest that the CEGE theoretical framework can be used to assess this type of experience. The contributions of this dissertation are: the methodological approach used to study the user experience of playing video games, a novel approach to understand user experience as a falsifiable concept, a theoretical framework and metaphor to describe the gaming experience, a model that describes the gaming experience, and an instrument that can be used to assess and explore different gaming experiences. Contents Abstract 2 1 Introduction 13 1.1 VoiceoftheThesis................................ 13 1.2 Motivation..................................... 14 1.3 CriticalRationalism . 15 1.4 AimoftheThesis................................. 16 1.5 ResearchQuestion................................ 17 1.6 MajorResults................................... 17 1.7 OverviewoftheThesis. 18 2 Understanding and Defining User Experience 21 2.1 HCI&UserExperience ............................. 21 2.2 TheConceptofExperience . 28 2.3 Defining User Experience within a HCI Context . ..... 30 2.4 Summary ..................................... 34 3 About Video games 35 3.1 UnderstandingGames ............................. 36 3.2 ExperiencingVideoGames . 39 3.3 Understanding the User Experience of Video Games . ...... 45 3.4 Summary ..................................... 46 4 Exploring the Experience of Playing Video games 48 4.1 SettingfortheStudies ...... ............. ......... 49 4.2 Study 1: Playing Tetris withTwo Input Devices . ...... 50 4.3 Study 2: GuitarHero with Different Input Devices . ....... 54 4.4 Study 3: NarrativeintheGaming Experience . ..... 58 4.5 GeneralDiscussion ............................... 61 Contents 4.6 Summary ..................................... 63 5 The Core Elements of the Gaming Experience 64 5.1 CoreElementsandGamingExperience . 65 5.2 Method: SearchingfortheElements . 66 5.3 A Theoretical Framework for the Core Elements of the Gaming Experience 69 5.4 The Formulation of the Grounded Theory . 74 5.5 AnExampleoftheCoreElements . 84 5.6 PuppetryandVideogames . 86 5.7 Summary ..................................... 88 6 Designing and Evaluating a Questionnaire 90 6.1 ObjectivesoftheQuestionnaire . 91 6.2 IdentifyingtheConstructs . 92 6.3 DevelopingtheItems .............................. 92 6.4 DraftingtheQuestionnaire . 94 6.5 DeployingtheQuestionnaire . 96 6.6 GeneralItemsResults. 97 6.7 ItemAnalysis................................... 97 6.8 Internal Reliability of the Questionnaire . ........ 101 6.9 DiscussionoftheObtainedResults . 102 6.10TheScoresasNorms .............................. 107 6.11Summary ..................................... 108 7 A Model for the Gaming Experience: The CEGE Model 109 7.1 From the CEGE Theoretical Framework to the CEGE Model . 110 7.2 The CEGE Model Using Structural Equations . 113 7.3 Validation: Method&Procedure . 122 7.4 Validation:Results. 123 7.5 Discussion .................................... 125 7.6 Summary ..................................... 126 8 Differentiating Experiences Using the CEGE Theoretical Framework 127 8.1 OntheTypesofExperiments. 128 8.2 Experiment1:PlayingTetris . 129 8.3 Experiment2: PlayingGuitarHero. 137 8.4 UsingCEGE toDifferentiateExperiences. 143 8.5 Summary ..................................... 145 5 Contents 9 Assessing the Gaming Experience 146 9.1 OnRevisitingtheAim .............................. 146 9.2 OnAddressingtheQuestion . 149 9.3 OnValidatingtheAnswertotheQuestion . 150 9.4 OnAddressingtheAim ............................. 151 9.5 SummaryofContributions&Limitations . 153 9.6 Discussion .................................... 157 9.7 FutureWork ................................... 159 9.8 Conclusion .................................... 160 Bibliography 162 A The Stories of the Old Man 174 B Forms Used in the Experiments for Chapter 4 177 B.1 ConsentFormforAllExperiments . 177 B.2 SurveyforTetrisExperiment. 178 B.3 SurveyforGuitarHeroExperiment . 179 C Pool of Questions 180 D First Draft of the Questionnaire 183 E The Core Elements of the Gaming Experience Questionnaire (CEGEQ) 185 F Scores Obtained from CEGEQ 187 G Forms for Chapter 8 196 G.1ConsentForm .................................. 196 G.2 FormsforTetrisExperiment . 197 G.3 FormsforGuitarHeroExperiment . 199 H Screenshots from the Questionnaire 201 6 List of Tables 4.1 Exp. 4.1 Mapping of Tetris functions in two different input styles . 51 4.2 Exp. 4.1. Scores obtained from playing Tetris. ....... 52 4.3 Exp. 4.2 Mappings of both input devices in order to play GuitarHero. 55 4.4 Exp. 4.3 Rating given by the participants per experience.......... 59 5.1 Sources of Data for the Qualitative Study. The abbreviation within brackets is how that source is referred within the document. Maga- zines are quoted providing the page number from where the quotation was taken; Websites are quoted providing the name of the game from where the quotation was taken, as it is more manageable than providing thecompleteURL. ................................ 70 5.2 TheCoreElementsof theGamingExperience . 84 6.1 Constructs and Elements of the CEGE framework. ..... 93 6.2 Responsestothegeneralitems . 99 6.3 Resultsperitemforthequestionnaire . 100 6.4 Reliability of the different scales obtained in the questionnaire. 102 6.5 Additional number of items that need to be included per scale to increase itsreliability ................................... 103 6.6 Correlationsofthedifferentscales . 106 6.7 Mean, standard deviation and standard mean error of the scores ob- tainedperscale. ................................. 108 7.1 Latent and observable variables. The upper two rows are the latent vari- ables. For each of the latent variables that belong to puppetry and video game, the column underneath shows their respectively observable vari- ables. ....................................... 110 7.2 Summary of the Measurement Model. Adapted from (Long, 1983a, p.25) and(Long,1983b,p.21)...... ............. .......... 114 List of Tables 7.3 Observable variables and their corresponding items in the questionnaire. 116 7.4 Summary of the Structural Component of the Covariance Structure Model. Adapted from (Long, 1983b, p.27) . 119 7.5 FitIndexesfortheModel.. 123 7.6 Factor loadings for the endogenous variables (λy).............. 123 7.7 Factor loadings for the exogenous variables (λx)............... 124 7.8 Loadings among endogenous constructs (β) ................. 124 7.9 Loadings of the exogenous constructs on the endogenous constructs (γ) 125 8.1 Exp 8.1. Mappings of the devices used for the experiment. ........ 131 8.2 Correlations obtained using the keyboard. ....... 133 8.3 Correlationsobtainedusingtheknob. 134 8.4 RegressionAnalysis ........ ............. ......... 135 8.5 Exp. 8.2 Gender of Participants Divided per Group . ....... 138 8.6 Exp. 8.2 Age of Participants Divided per Group . 138 8.7 Exp. 8.2 Mappings of both input devices in order to play GuitarHero. 139 8.8 Exp. 8.2: Means and Standard Deviation of the CEGE Scores . 141 F.1 ScoresbyGenderandtotalscores. 188 F.2 ScoresbyAge................................... 189 F.2 ScoresbyAge................................... 190 F.2 ScoresbyAge................................... 191 F.3 ScoresbyTypeofConsole . 191 F.3 ScoresbyTypeofConsole . 192 F.4 ScoresbyTime.................................. 194 8 List of Figures 1.1 Outlineofthechaptersofthethesis . 20 2.1 The Apple (2008) design decision making for user experience. 23
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