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Key Biotic Components of the Indigenous Tortricidae and Heteroptera Complexes Occurring on Macadamia in South Africa

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Key Biotic Components of the Indigenous Tortricidae and Heteroptera Complexes Occurring on Macadamia in South Africa Key biotic components of the indigenous Tortricidae and Heteroptera complexes occurring on macadamia in South Africa. By P. S. Schoeman (M.SC) Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Philosophiae Doctor in Zoology In the School of Environmental Sciences and Development North West University Potchefstroom Campus Promoter: Prof H. van Hamburg Potchefstroom 2007 November 2009 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Background on macadamia production in South Africa---------------------- 1 1.1.1 History of macadamia production----------------------------------------------------- 1 1.1.2 Scope of the macadamia industry--------------------------------------------------- 2 1.1.3 Origin and botanical aspects------------------------------------------------------------ 3 1.1.4 Phenological stages of macadamias--------------------------------------------------' 5 1.1.5 Damage profiles and insect co ntro 1--------------------------------------------------- 5 1 .2 Types of damage---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 1.2.1 Heteroptera com plex ------------------------------------------------------------------ 7 1.2.2 Tortrici d co m p Iex--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 1.2.3 Thri p co mpIex---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 1.3 Monitoring and economic injury levels----------------------------------------------- 9 1 .3. 1 H ete ro pte ra co m p Iex ------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 1 .3.2 To rtri ci d co m p Iex ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 1.4 Control strategies---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 1.4.1 Cultural control------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 1.4.1.1 Trap crops-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 1.4.1.2 Host plant resistance------------------------------------------------------------------ 11 1.4.1.3 Tree size manipulation-------------------------------------------------------------- 11 1 .4.2 B i 0 log i ca I co ntro 1--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11 1.4.3 Mechanical and physical control methods-------------------------------------------- 13 1 .4.4 Ch e mica I co ntro 1-------------------------------------------------------------------------1 4 1.5 Problem statement and suggested solutions--------------------------------------- 16 Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Factors contributing towards tortricid and heteropteran res istan celtoIerance of macadamia cu Itivars---------------------------------------------18 2.1.1 Description of trial sites-------------------------------------------------____________________ 18 2.1.1.1 Burgershall trial site-------------------------------------------------------------------- 18 2.1.1.2 Nelspruit trial site----------------------------------------------------------------------- 18 2.1.2 Data co II ecti0 n-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 2. 1 .2. 1 Burg e rs h a 11--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21 2. 1 .2.2 Nels p ru it --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22 2.1.3 Assessment methods-------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 2. 1 .3. 1 H ete ro ptera-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 2. 1 .3.2 Tortricid a e---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23 11 2.1.4 The effect of kernel distance on resistance/tolerance------------------------ 24 2.1 .5. Statisti ca I a n alyses--------------------------------------------------------------- 24 2.2 An analysis of integrated pest management versus fixed interval spraying of macadamia for the Heteroptera complex---------------------------------------------- 24 2.3 Distribution of the tortricid and heteropteran complexes affecting Ma ca da m ias---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25 2.3.1 The effect of tree density on the incidence of the tortricid and He te ro pte ra co mpi exes------------------------------------------------------------------- 25 2.3.2 Distribution patterns of 8athycoelia natafico/a, Pseudotheraptus wayi and th e to rtri ci d com pI ex---------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 2.4 Damage estimates and population trends of the tortricid nut borer complex occu rri ng on macadamia----------------------------------------------------- 28 2.4.1 Description of trial sites --------------------------------------------------------- 28 2.4.2 Procedures regarding population monitoring----------------------------------- 29 2.4.3 Possible effect of tortricid larvae on aborted nuts-------------------------- 29 2.4.4 The effect of husk feeding tortricid larvae on immaturity of kernels--------- 30 2.5 Damage estimates and population trends of the Heteroptera complex occu rri n g 0 n macadam ia ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 2.5.1 Description of trial 30 2.5.2 Procedures regarding population monitoring-------------------------------- 30 2.5.3 The effect of Heteroptera feeding activity on nut drop ---------------------------- 31 2.5.4 Quantification of seasonal heteropteran damage----------------------------- 31 2.5.4.1 The effect of selective exposure of macadamia nuts throughout the production season to natural populations of heteropterans in an unsprayed orchard ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 31 2.5.4.2 The effect of selective protection of macadamia nuts throughout the production season from natural populations of heteropterans in an unsprayed ra-------·---,·-------·----------·---·-------·-------------·------,----·----------··----------·--,---32 2.5.5 Risk profile of heteropterans with specific reference to B. nataficola--------- 33 2.6 Compensatory ability of macadamias to flower removal and early crop damage: Implications for managing the Heteroptera and tortricid insect co m p lexes------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34 2.6.1 Natural abortion rate of two major macadamia cultivars in South Africa------ 34 2.6.2 Effect of heteropteran feeding on nut abortion -------------------------------- 34 2.6.2.1 Exposure to heteropterans during October (4 weeks post anthesis) ------- 34 2.6.2.2 Exposure to heteropterans during November (8 weeks post anthesis) ---- 35 2.6.2.3 The effect of infestation time after anthesis on nut abortion --------------- 35 2.6.3 Artificially simulating early seasondamage------------------------------------ 35 2.6.4 Commercial field trials quantifying the effect of withholding early s easo n s p rays-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37 2.6.6 An n exu res-----------------------------------------------------------------------------39 Chapter 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Factors contributing towards tortricid and heteropteran res ista n celtol era n ce of rna ca dam ia cu Itivars -------------------------------------------- 44 3.1.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------- 44 3.1 .2 Res u Its------------------------------------------------------------------------ 44 3. 1.2.1 T ortri ci d com p lex---------------------------------------------------------------------44 3.1.2.1.1 Natural thinning period (premature drop of immature nuts) --------------- 44 3.1.2.1.2 Natural drop (mature nuts) -------------------------------------------------- 47 3. 1 .2.2 H eteropte ra com p Iex ------------------------------------------------------------------52 3.1.2.2.1 Natural thinning period (Immature nuts) --------------------------------- 52 3.1.2.2.2 Natural drop (mature nuts) ----------------------------------------------------- 53 3.1.2.3 The effect of the combined husk and shell thickness on cultivar res ista n celtoIeran ce------------------------------------------:-------------------------- 55 3.1 .3 Dis cussi 0 n------------------------------------------------------------------------ 59 3.1.3.1 Alternative postulates regarding resistance---------------------------------- 59 3.1.3.2 Explanations for contradictory results observed during this study---------- 60 3.1.3.3 Resistance susceptibility: Status of the tortricid complex------------------ 61 3.1.3.3.1 Natural thinning period------------------------------------------------------------- 61 3.1.3.3.2 Natural nut drop (mature nuts) ------------------------------------------- 62 3.1.3.4 Resistance susceptibility: Status of the Heteroptera complex-------------- 63 3.1.3.4.1 Natural thinning period------------------------------------------------------- 63 3.1.3.4.2 Natural drop (mature nuts) ----------------------------------------------------- 64 3.2 A comparison between integrated pest management versus fixed interval s p ra yi ng of rna ca d amia -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 3.2. 1 Introd u cti 0 n------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 3.2.2 Res u Its---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65 3.2.3 Discuss i on-----------------------------------------------------------------------
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